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Abstract
A satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human endeavor. Such
objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites
such as the Moon. Antennas are another part of satellite communication subsystem. In fact
the antennas on board the satellite serve as an interface between the Earth stations on the
ground and various satellite sub-systems during operations. Antennas receive the uplink
signal and transmit to downlink signals. In addition they provide single link for the satellite
telemetry, command and ranging systems which in conjunction with attitude control
subsystem provides beacon tracking signals for precise pointing of the antenna towards the
Earth coverage areas. The design of satellite antenna is conditioned by the required coverage.
It should be remembered that antennas are the one of the key elements in a satellite
communication system since their gain values directly determine the amount of received
power.
Horn Antenna
Helical antenna
Phased array
Applications
Broadcasting
Navel Usages
Introduction
A satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human endeavor. Such
objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites
such as the Moon.
A full size model of the Earth observation satellite ERS 2
Antenna System
Antennas are another part of satellite communication subsystem. In fact the antennas
on board the satellite serve as an interface between the Earth stations on the ground and
various satellite sub-systems during operations. Antennas receive the uplink signal and
transmit to downlink signals. In addition they provide single link for the satellite telemetry,
command and ranging systems which in conjunction with attitude control subsystem provides
beacon tracking signals for precise pointing of the antenna towards the Earth coverage areas.
The design of satellite antenna is conditioned by the required coverage. It should be
remembered that antennas are the one of the key elements in a satellite communication
system since their gain values directly determine the amount of received power.
Bandwidth
The term bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies the antenna will reflect
effectively; i.e., the antenna will perform satisfactorily throughout is size of frequencies.
When the antenna power drops to ½(3 dB), the upper and lower extremities of these
frequencies have been reached and the antenna no longer perform satisfactorily.
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Antennas In Satellite Communication
Antennas that operate over a wide frequency range and still maintain satisfactory
performance must have compensating circuits switched into the system to maintain
impedance matching, thus ensuring no deterioration of the transmitted signals.
Beamwidth
The beamwidth of an antenna is described as the angles created by comparing the
half-power points (3 dB) on the main radiation lobe to its maximum power point. In an
example, the beam angle is 300, which is the sum of the two angles created at the points
where the field
strength drops to 0. 0’ field strength is measured in u/V/m) of the maximum voltage at the
center of the lobe.(These points are known as the half-power points.)
Polarization
Polarization of an antenna refers to the direction in space of the E field (electric
vector) portion of the electromagnetic wave being radiated by the transmitting system.
Low-frequency antennas are usually vertically polarized because of ground effect (reflected
waves, etc.) and physical Construction methods. High-frequency antennas are generally
horizontally polarized.
A parabolic antenna for Erdfunkstelle Raisting, the biggest facility for satellite communication in the
world, based in Raisting, Bavaria, Germany.
A parabolic antenna is a high-gain reflector antenna used for radio, television and
data communications, and also for radiolocation (RADAR), on the UHF and SHF parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The relatively short wavelength of electromagnetic (radio) energy
at these frequencies allows reasonably sized reflectors to exhibit the very desirable highly
directional response for both receiving and transmitting.
With the advent of TVRO and DBS satellite television, the parabolic antenna became
a ubiquitous feature of urban, suburban, and even rural, landscapes. Extensive terrestrial
microwave links, such as those between cellphone base stations, and wireless WAN/LAN
applications have also proliferated this antenna type. Earlier applications included ground-
based and airborne radar and radio astronomy. The largest "dish" antenna in the world is the
Arecibo Observatory's radio telescope at Arecibo, Puerto Rico, but, for beam-steering
reasons, it is actually a spherical, rather than parabolic, reflector.
Design: Main types of parabolic antennas
The reflector dish can be solid, mesh or wire in construction and it can be either fully
circular or somewhat rectangular depending on the radiation pattern of the feeding element.
Solid antennas have more ideal characteristics but are troublesome because of weight and
high wind load. Mesh and wire types weigh less, are easier to construct and have nearly ideal
characteristics if the holes or gaps are kept under 1/10 of the wavelength.
More exotic types include the off-set parabolic antenna, Gregorian and Cassegrain
types. In the off-set, the feed element is still located at the focal point, which because of the
angles utilized, is usually located below the reflector so that the feed element and support do
not interfere with the main beam. This also allows for easier maintenance of the feed, but is
usually only found in smaller antennas.
Description
The Horn Antenna at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel, New Jersey, was
constructed in 1959 to support Project Echo—the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration's passive communications satellite project.
3.Helical antenna
Helical antenna for WLAN communication, working frequency app. 2.4 GHz
4. Phased array
PAVE PAWS
In wave theory, a phased array is a group of antennas in which the relative phases of
the respective signals feeding the antennas are varied in such a way that the effective
radiation pattern of the array is reinforced in a desired direction and suppressed in undesired
directions. This technology was originally developed by Nobel Laureate Luis Alvarez during
World War II as a rapidly-steerable radar system for "ground-controlled approach", a system
to aid in the landing of airplanes in England. GEMA in Germany built at the same time the
PESA Mammut 1. It was later adapted for radio astronomy, leading to Physics Nobel Prizes
for Antony Hewish and Martin Ryle after several large phased arrays were developed at the
University of Cambridge. The design is also used in radar, and is generalized in
interferometric radio antennas. Recently, DARPA researchers announced a 16 element phased
array integrated with all necessary circuits to send at 30-50 GHz on a single silicon chip for
military purposes.
An antenna array is a multiple of active antennas coupled to a common source or
load to produce a directive radiation pattern. Usually the spatial relationship also contributes
to the directivity of the antenna. Use of the term "active antennas" is intended to describe
elements whose energy output is modified due to the presence of a source of energy in the
element (other than the mere signal energy which passes through the circuit) or an element in
which the energy output from a source of energy is controlled by the signal input.
Applications
The relative amplitudes of — and constructive and destructive interference effects
among — the signals radiated by the individual antennas determine the effective radiation
pattern of the array. A phased array may be used to point a fixed radiation pattern, or to scan
rapidly in azimuth or elevation. Simultaneous electrical scanning in both azimuth and
elevation was first demonstrated in a phased array antenna at Hughes Aircraft Company,
Culver City, CA, in 1957 (see Joseph Spradley, “A Volumetric Electrically Scanned Two-
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Antennas In Satellite Communication
Dimensional Microwave Antenna Array,” IRE National Convention Record, Part I - Antennas
and Propagation; Microwaves, New York: The Institute of Radio Engineers, 1958, 204-212).
When phased arrays are used in sonar, it is called beamforming.
The phased array is used for instance in optical communication as a wavelength-selective
splitter.
For information about active as well as passive phased array radars, see also active
electronically scanned array.
1. Broadcasting
In broadcast engineering, phased arrays are required to be used by many AM
broadcast radio stations to enhance signal strength and therefore coverage in the city of
license, while minimizing interference to other areas. Due to the differences between daytime
and nighttime ionospheric propagation at mediumwave frequencies, it is common for AM
broadcast stations to change between day (groundwave) and night (skywave) radiation
patterns by switching the phase and power levels supplied to the individual antenna elements
(mast radiators) daily at sunrise and sunset. More modest phased array longwire antenna
systems may be employed by private radio enthusiasts to receive longwave, mediumwave
(AM) and shortwave radio broadcasts from great distances.
On VHF, phased arrays are used extensively for FM broadcasting. These greatly
increase the antenna gain, magnifying the emitted RF energy toward the horizon, which in
turn greatly increases a station's broadcast range. In these situations, the distance to each
element from the transmitter is identical, or is one (or other integer) wavelength apart.
Phasing the array such that the lower elements are slightly delayed (by making the distance to
them longer) causes a downward beam tilt, which is very useful if the antenna is quite high
on a radio tower.
Other phasing adjustments can increase the downward radiation in the far field
without tilting the main lobe, creating null fill to compensate for extremely high mountaintop
locations, or decrease it in the near field, to prevent excessive exposure to those workers or
even nearby homeowners on the ground. The latter effect is also achieved by half-wave
spacing – inserting additional elements halfway between existing elements with full-wave
spacing. This phasing achieves roughly the same horizontal gain as the full-wave spacing;
that is, a five-element full-wave-spaced array equals a nine- or ten-element half-wave-spaced
array.
2.Naval usage
Port and starboard octagonal panels are the phased array radar,
Phased array radar systems are also used by warships of several navies including the
Chinese, Japanese, Norwegian, Spanish, Korean and United States' navies in the Aegis
combat system. Phased array radars allow a warship to use one radar system for surface
detection and tracking (finding ships), air detection and tracking (finding aircraft and
missiles) and missile uplink capabilities. Prior to using these systems, each surface-to-air
missile in flight required a dedicated fire-control radar, which meant that ships could only
engage a small number of simultaneous targets. Phased array systems can be used to control
missiles during the mid-course phase of the missile's flight. During the terminal portion of the
flight, continuous-wave fire control directors provide the final guidance to the target. Because
the radar beam is electronically steered, phased array systems can direct radar beams fast
enough to maintain a fire control quality track on many targets simultaneously while also
controlling several in-flight missiles. The AN/SPY-1 phased array radar, part of the Aegis
combat system deployed on modern U.S. cruisers and destroyers, "is able to perform search,
track and missile guidance functions simultaneously with a capability of over 100 targets."
Likewise, the Thales Herakles phased array multi-function radar onboard the Formidable
class frigates of the Republic of Singapore Navy has a track capacity of 200 targets and is
able to achieve automatic target detection, confirmation and track initiation in a single scan,
while simultaneously providing mid-course guidance updates to the MBDA Aster missiles
launched from the ship. The German Navy and the Dutch Navy have developed the Active
Phased Array Radar System (APAR).
Active Phased Array Radar mounted on top of Sachsen class frigate F220 Hamburg's superstructure
of the German Navy.
The National Severe Storms Laboratory has been using a SPY-1A phased array antenna,
provided by the US Navy, for weather research at its Norman, Oklahoma facility since April
23, 2003. It is hoped that research will lead to a better understanding of thunderstorms and
tornadoes, eventually leading to increased warning times and enhanced prediction of
tornadoes. Project participants include the National Severe Storms Laboratory and National
Weather Service Radar Operations Center, Lockheed Martin, United States Navy, University
of Oklahoma School of Meteorology and School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Oklahoma State Regents for Higher Education, the Federal Aviation Administration, and
Basic Commerce and Industries. The project includes research and development, future
technology transfer and potential deployment of the system throughout the United States. It is
expected to take 10 to 15 years to complete and initial construction was approximately $25
million.
Conclusion
References
Govt. Poly. Amravati
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Antennas In Satellite Communication
Books: -
• Electronics Communication System
– Kenned and Davis
• Satellite Communication
– D.C. Agrawal
• Satellite Communication
– Pratt
Websites: -
• www.google.com
• www.wikipedia.com
• www.satelliteantennas.com