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TESOL Centre

Assignment Cover Sheet


Course: MA TESOL (TES 14)
Date: March 200
Tit!e o" #e$ort%Assignment:
Secon& Language Ac'uisition in
Ear!( Chi!&hoo& Settings
A)ST#ACT
The expansion in the field of teaching English to young learners (age 7 12) over the last
decade has been well-docuented! "hat teachers are now witnessing however is a global
surge in the teaching of English to very young learners# aged $ 7 years# in preschools and
%indergartens throughout the world! &hildren are exposed to English# at ties
controversially# in the context of various bilingual# iersion and E'()E*( progras in
both private and public sector settings!
+t is becoing increasingly apparent that a greater understanding of research findings fro a
range of disciplines outside the language classroo# such as fro the fields of bilingualis#
bilingual and iersion education and child developent ay assist teachers in ensuring
the successful outcoe of such progras!
This report will begin by briefly considering socio-cultural contexts which deterine the
presence of very young learners in second language classroos# particularly in ,sia! +t will
then proceed to discuss the process of *(, in very young children# a%ing a distinction
between siultaneous and se-uential bilingualis! The stages of children learning a second
language in the early year.s classroo will be exained with a focus on how behaviourist#
cognitive and interactionist theories of language ac-uisition influence the ac-uisition of lexis
and the eergence of graar and discourse!
+n conclusion approaches# activities and strategies which support the ac-uisition of a second
language will be considered in the context of developentally appropriate early childhood
classroos and in light of current second language learning theories!
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings i
,bstract (i)
&ontents (ii)
1! +ntroduction 1
2! /eview of the (iterature
2!1 *ocio-&ultural &ircustances 1
2!2 *iultaneous and *e-uential 0ilingualis 1
2!$ *econd (anguage ,c-uisition in the Early &hildhood &lassroo 2
2!$!1 3oe (anguage 4se and the 5on-6erbal 7eriod 2
2!$!2 *peech Eergence 8
2!1 *ocial-&onstructivist ,pproaches to (anguage (earning 7
2!2 +ndividual (earner &haracteristics 9
2!8 'acilitating *(, in the &lassroo :
$! ,pplication of Theory to 7ractice 11
1! &onclusion 11
2! ;irections for /esearch 12
0ibliography
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings ii
1* +ntro&uction
The current assively increasing trend in <a%arta for pre-school children to be enrolled in
soe for of bilingual or English-ediu education is reflected not only in urban
counities throughout ,sia but also in *outh ,erica and any parts of Europe and
,frica! +t is a trend not without controversy as the early introduction of a second language
is often fraught with coplex social# cultural and political issues! "hereas in soe
countries# such as *ingapore# national bilingual language policies re-uire that children are
educated in English# in other parts of the world English holds no official status in society
and it is parental deand which is driving the global trend for a bilingual or English-
ediu education in the private sector! There are challenges to the teacher in eeting not
only the child.s developental needs but also in eeting parental aspirations which#
according to =raddol (2>>8)# are fre-uently those of bilingualis for their children! +n such
circustances it is iperative that policy-a%ers and teachers consider the best interests of
the child in ters of supporting both language ac-uisition and long-ter educational
outcoes!
?uch of the research on second language ac-uisition in children derives fro studies
carried out in naturalistic settings# such as in the case of children who have settled in
English spea%ing countries! ,ccording to de ?e@ia (2>>2) very little research has been
carried out on young children learning a second language in an AelectiveB or AeliteB context
of bilingualis and /ixon (2>>$) concurs that uch of the optiis surrounding the
ability of young children to learn a second or foreign language stesC
Anot fro studies of how they fare in an instructional school syste but fro
studies of children placed at an early age in a new society with a new language
around# and ac-uiring the language by eeting daily needs and challengesB (2>>$#
p!2)!
&urrent theories in language ac-uisition reflecting socio-cultural perspectives have been
greatly influenced by the findings of 6ygots%y and 0runer! That their research has also
influenced the field of early childhood education in general suggests that any coon
threads ay be found to facilitate both effective second language learning and holistic
developent of the child!
2*1* Socio,Cu!tura! Circumstances
&hildren are raised bilingually in any different contexts throughout the world and the
rapid expansion in teaching English to very young learners has arisen in a variety of
circustances and due to a nuber of factors!
/ecent reports fro various sources (e!g! =raddol# 2>>8D 3uang# 2>>2D ;ixon# 2>>2) point
to an ever-increasing nuber of children in countries such as *ingapore# Taiwan# &hina and
+ndonesia enrolled in private bilingual or English iersion preschools and %indergartens!
+n +ndonesia for exaple# *etiadara and (aing (2>>$) include contact inforation for
over 8> centres in their Guide to English Speaking Preschools and Kindergartens in the
Greater Jakarta Area.
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 1
*oe experts (e!g! Erashen# 2>>$D &uins# 1::1) -uestion the presence of young
children in iersion or second language classroos! The controversy generated over the
ipleentation of iersion progras in the 4*,# for exaple# has fre-uently been
applied# often erroneously# to widely differing contexts! (ightbown and *pada (1::$)
effectively suarise arguents against the early introduction of a second language by
suggesting that English language progras are not suitable for Fchildren fro inority
language bac%grounds or hoes where language# literacy# and education are not well-
developed. (1::$# p!11$)! +ndeed# in the case of iigrant children settling in English-
spea%ing countries# such as England# ,ustralia or the 4*,# potential loss of the inority or
Fheritage. language can be itigated by the ipleentation of bilingual progras which
support learning in both English and the hoe language!
+n contrast# in any ,sian countries# bilingual developent has rarely been viewed as
probleatic! =upta (2>>>) argues that for children growing up in bilingual or ultilingual
societies in ,sia the ac-uisition and occasional loss of languages is a noral phenoenon
and there is a relaxed attitude to the ac-uisition of a language at any age! +n any ,sian
counities certain languages are associated with specialised fields# such as education#
and it is expected that ebers of the counity have a broad linguistic repertoire! +n
*ingapore# for exaple# a bilingual education policy has long been considered a
fundaental feature of the education syste and proficiency in English is considered
essential as it is the language of coerce# technology and adinistration (*ingapore
?inistry of Education# 1::1)! =upta explains that in both *ingapore and ?alaysia
individual failies have traditionally engaged in Fpragatic language shift.# fro
unprivileged to privileged languages# in order to advantage and epower their children
educationally (*iew G =upta# 1::2D cited in =upta# 1::7)! ;e ?e@ia confirs =upta.s
observations by suggesting the existence of a dichotoy in ,sian countries between
Flanguages of the head and languages of the heart. (2>>2# p!19$)# where it appears to be an
accepted phenoenon that the language of the school ay differ fro that of the hoe!
"hereas in *ingapore soe for of bilingual education is copulsory due to national
language policies# the English language holds no official status in +ndonesia# or indeed
other ,sian countries such as &hina# <apan# Taiwan or Thailand! +n effect this eans that
parents are a%ing a decision on a personal level to ensure a bilingual upbringing for their
children# resulting in so-called AeliteB or AelectiveB bilingualis!
7iller (2>>1) suggests that any parents a%e a conscious decision to raise their children
bilingually! =ros@ean (1:92D cited in 7iller 2>>1# p! 82) refers to this as Fplanned
bilingualis in the faily.! 7iller (2>>1) clais that planned bilingualis occurs in
societies where bilingualis is increasingly valued and that parents regard it as an
investent in their child.s future! ,ccording to de ?e@ia# (2>>2# p! x) this elite# or elective#
bilingualis is seen to Fcater ainly for upwardly obile# highly educated# higher socio-
econoic status learners of two or ore internationally useful languages.! ;e ?e@ia
clarifies that the ter Felite. in this context refers not only to a select inority of
privileged# rich people# but includes all those# such as teachers# governent officials#
businessen and other professionals who recognise the iportance of learning a second
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 2
language! 7iller (2>>1) expands the definition of elite bilinguals to include expatriates#
those in ixed arriages and acadeics!
7iller (2>>1) concludes that in cases of planned bilingualis parental expectations are
generally high# with ost parents reporting that they regard a bilingual upbringing for their
children an investent# with bilingualis as an asset! 7iller explainsC F*oeties the
financial etaphor is further explicated in that childhood bilingualis is seen as a sall
investent (because language ac-uisition in childhood is easy) which is expected to yield a
high return (because the child is expected to ac-uire native proficiency). (2>>1# p!71)!
*etiadara and (aing (2>>$) suggest three reasons why +ndonesian parents are eager to
enrol their children in an English-spea%ing preschool or %indergartenD
i) parents ay have struggled to learn English theselves and therefore want to a%e
ac-uisition easier for their children by sending the to a school where they will be
iersed in English as opposed to enrolling the in an English course which eets for
@ust a few hours a wee%!
ii) parents who have studied# wor%ed and lived in English-spea%ing countries ay have
decided to adopt English as their faily.s ain language# in which case sending their
children to an English ediu preschool or %indergarten is a logical conse-uence!
iii) parents who theselves attended 5ational (local) schools which were lac%ing in
creativity and stiulation are %een to give their children the opportunity to experience a
ore international style education in an environent which is Foften uch better run and
uch ore technologically advanced than any of their local +ndonesian-spea%ing
counterparts. (*etiadara G (aing# 2>>$C p! 9)!
0oth de ?e@ia (2>>2) and &aeron (2>>1) agree that any children now have a uch
greater exposure to English# even in traditional E'( contexts# copared to previous
generations! ;e ?e@ia describes a situation very siilar to that in <a%arta# claiing that in
&olobiaC
Fany of the children H had a uch higher degree of contact with the language#
due to their socio-econoic bac%ground# parental aspirations and lifestyle# than the
a@ority of the population!. (2>>1# p!98)
+n practice# due to the widely differing patterns of language use adopted by individual
failies it is becoing increasingly coon for iersion preschool and %indergarten
classroos to contain children of varying abilities# ranging fro coplete beginners to
children who are already bilingual in both English and the a@ority language of the
counity!
"hatever the circustances# few would disagree that the goal of introducing a second
language in early childhood is that of Fadditive. bilingualis! Enowledge of a second
language is not seen to replace the native language or other tongue# as in subtractive
bilingualis# but instead to copleent it (*wain G (ap%in# 2>>2)!
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings $
2*2 Simu!taneous an& Se'uentia! )i!ingua!ism in -atura!istic Settings
,ccording to researchers such as ?c(aughlin (1::2) the process of ac-uiring two or ore
languages in childhood occurs along one of two broad developental paths! "hen a child
is exposed to two languages fro birth simultaneous ilingualism occurs# whereas in
contrast# if a child begins life as a onolingual spea%er and then at soe stage during early
childhood begins ac-uiring a second language# then the process is %nown as sequential
ilingualism.
+n the case of siultaneous bilingualis the child spea%s the second language within the
faily or at counity level within the society! "ithin the faily# the child ay spea% the
second language with either one or both parents# with grandparents# siblings or a caregiver!
,t the counity or societal level# the child ay grow up spea%ing the second language
with playates fro a very young age or be exposed to the language on a daily basis fro
caregivers outside the hoe! "hatever the case# the child is seen to ac-uire proficiency in
two languages during infancy or the early preschool years!
+n contrast# in the case of se-uential bilingualis the child is generally exposed to the
second language on oving overseas and having to ac-uire the language of the new
counity or on entering a school where a language other than that used at hoe is
eployed! +n the first case# children will generally ac-uire the second language through a
process of iersion)subersion as they need the new language to counicate in the
new environent# whereas in the latter context the child.s only exposure to the language
will be through soe for of iersion or bilingual educational progra!
,lthough alost all children becoe fluent in their first language there is uch ore
variation in how well and how -uic%ly individual children ac-uire a second language! Even
aongst children who begin to learn a second language in childhood there will always be
soe who experience peranent difficulty with pronunciation# rules of graar and
vocabulary (&lar%# 2>>>D ?c(aughlin# 1::2D (ightbown G *pada# 1::$)!
&urrent research indicates that when children ac-uire two languages siultaneously
although the route is consistent with that of children ac-uiring a first language in a
onolingual context# the rate of developent tends to be slower! Evidence of this is seen
for exaple in lexical developent whereby# although bilingual children ay have a
cobined conceptual vocabulary which surpasses the vocabulary of a onolingual child of
the sae age# their active vocabulary in each language is saller!
"eitIan and =reenberg (2>>2) suariIe their interpretation of the research by stating
that when children are exposed to two languages siultaneously in infancy they pass
through three stages of language learning!
*tage 1C &hildren ix the two languages into one syste with vocabulary fro both
languages being eployed in the child.s short sentences!
*tage 2C ,t the age of approxiately two and a half years# children begin separating the
vocabulary belonging to each language and recognise with who to spea% each of their two
languages
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 1
*tage $C &hildren continue to separate use of each language and eventually one language
tends to doinate! 0y the age of seven# the child uses each of the two language systes
separately and balanced bilinguals will usually have age-appropriate astery of both
graar and vocabulary!
=enerally spea%ing# the bilingual child.s proficiency in each language reflects the aount
of exposure to each language with successful bilingual ac-uisition facilitated by regular and
rich exposure to both languages! Jet despite seeingly systeatic exposure children rarely
a%e e-ual progress in both languages ('avreau G *egalowitI (1:9$)# 'illore (1::1)D
cited in ?c(aughlin# 1::2)! The language-learning environent ay change over tie
with the addition of siblings# changes in childcare arrangeents# or schooling! (anguage
ibalance often appears as the aount and %ind of exposure to each language changes# and
for any children one language becoes their doinant language!
2*. Secon& Language Ac'uisition in the Ear!( Chi!&hoo& C!assroom
The process of ac-uiring a second language se-uentially differs fro that of ac-uiring a
first language or of ac-uiring two languages siultaneously! &opared with children who
are in the early stages of learning their other tongue# children learning a second language
already have access to one language syste through which they can express theselves#
and they already have soe understanding of pragatics! +n addition they also have greater
cognitive capacity and have ac-uired a great deal of understanding of the world around
the (?oon# 2>>>D &aeron# 2>>1)!
*econd language ac-uisition is further influenced by the type of language learning
environent! +n naturalistic settings the child is exposed to the language at hoe or in the
wider counity# including school settings where the a@ority of the child.s peers are
native spea%ers of the target language! +n contrast# instructional settings are those where the
a@ority of pupils are second language learners!
,ccording to Tabors and *now# research carried out in a preschool setting deonstrates that
children learning a second language are seen to pass through a distinct series of
developental stages (Tabors G *now# 1::1D Tabors# 1::7)! These stages closely reseble
those identified by Erashen and Terrell (1:9$)!
i! The child uses only the hoe language in the second language setting# unaware that there
is another language around!
ii! The silent (or non-verbal) period# when the child does not spea% at all! ;uring this stage
the child typically deonstrates data gathering# spending tie spectating# closely observing
other children spea%# and rehearsing!
iii! Early production with the child beginning to Fgo public. using telegraphic and forulaic
speech!
iv! *peech eergence with the child deonstrating productive language use by building
original sentences# although there are still any errors in graatical structure!
2*.*1 /ome Language 0se an& the -on,1er2a! 3erio&
The phase of hoe language use can last anything fro a few wee%s to up to one year# and
is usually longer the younger the child! Tabors cites a study by *aville-Troi%e (1:97) which
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 2
indicates that it is coon for children during the hoe language stage to engage in
Fdilingual discourse.# whereby the child will continue to use the hoe language with the
teacher replying in the target or second language! ;ilingual discourse is seen to be ore
effective when visual clues were also available to support eaning# for exaple during
Fhands on. activities when there are concrete ob@ects to anipulate rather than in de-
contextualised situations! +n the case of a native spea%er teacher of English who cannot
spea% the child.s other tongue# contextual clues are also iportant in a%ing eaning
accessible not only for the child# but also for the teacher!
The non-verbal period can last fro a period of a few wee%s to up to a year often
depending on the age of the child# with younger children spending longer in this phase!
Tabors prefers to refer to this period as non-verbal rather than use Erashen.s Fsilent period.
terinology! *he argues that although children ay not be spea%ing they are still trying to
counicate by non-verbal gestures# or body language# to convey re-uests# disagreeent#
to @o%e or attract attention to theselves or a situation! F,ttention-getting. ight# for
exaple# ta%e the for of holding up an ob@ect to another person# pointing or ta%ing the
teacher.s hand!
,lthough children ay not be using language to counicate during the non-verbal period
they are building up a passive %nowledge of the new classroo language! ,ccording to
Tabors this period of Fdata gathering. is ar%ed by tactics of Fspectating. and rehearsing!
"hen children spectate they focus closely on the language the teacher and other children
ay use around the# listening to and watching what is ta%ing place! This strategy
anifests itself by intense concentration# which distinguishes it fro siply uninvolved
listening or watching! /ehearsing and sound experientation are additional features of this
stage and &aeron (2>>1) agrees that any use of the target language in Fprivate speech. will
provide useful practice for later interactions!
2*.*2 S$eech Emergence
Evidence now suggests that behaviourist# innatist and interactionist theories of language
ac-uisition can be applied to different eleents of the child.s language learning! Kwens
suggests that there is increasing evidence to deonstrate that the relative influence of each
theory depends on the age or developental stage of the child (1::8D cited in 0er%# 2>>>)!
+t is argued that whereas behaviouris can explain the ac-uisition of routine or forulaic
chun%s of language# ore coplex areas of graatical ac-uisition appear to be explained
by cognitive or innatist theories! +nteractionist theories appear to wor% in con@unction with
these and are seen to explain the ac-uisition of additional pragatic %nowledge# as well as
social and cognitive awareness!
Tabors and Snows developmental stages are an indication of how the
diferent theories can be seen to interact. Behaviourist theories which
propose that language is acquired as result of imitation, practice,
feedback and habit formation with children imitating sounds and speech
patterns in their environment may eplain acquisition of vocabulary
items and unanaly!ed formulaic chunks typical of the early production
stage. "ositive reinforcement in the form of encouragement, praise or
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 8
successful communication with those around them and quality and
quantity of input are seen to in#uence successful language acquisition,
at any stage $%ightbown & Spada, '(()*.
&aeron (2>>1) also cites research by ?itchell and ?artin which further suggests that
forulaic chun%s contribute substantially to children.s early speech efforts as part of an
Fevolution fro chun%s to creativity. (?itchell and ?artin# 1::7D p!2$)!
+lthough it is now accepted that behaviourism may go some way to
account for the acquisition of early language, behaviourist theories alone
cannot eplain how children master more comple structures during the
phase of emergent speech production.
This stage develops once children have ac-uired a nuber of vocabulary ites and learnt
several useful phrases! Knce they begin to analyse the language they hear around the they
begin to construct their own sentences# Fhypothesis testing. or a%ing guesses about how
the language is put together (&aeron# 2>>1)! &ognitive or connectionist theories of
language ac-uisition suggest that language# especially syntax# eerges organically through
an innate ability of brain to for patterns or neural connections fro a language rich
environent# with productive language eerging fro the lexical to the syntactical!
"hereas during the early production stage words and forulaic chun%s are assiilated and
stored randoly in the brain# during the stage of eergent language production neural
pathways develop! +t is argued that children have an innate ability to distinguish
graatical features in the input they are exposed to# discover any regularities and
copress these into Fschea. or sets of rules (=ell-?ann# 1::2D cited in Thornbury# 2>>1)!
Thornbury refers to this process as Fgraaring.! ,lthough the schea ay be iperfect#
the child is able to counicate his ideas in an effective and age-appropriate anner!
The neural syste is adaptive and constantly restructures itself along predictable routes#
although these routes often produce incorrect language especially in the early stages as
rules are over-generalised! =radually however there is a re-ordering of the child.s early#
ista%en or over-generalised rules in favour of later ones! 0oth Ellis (1:92) and Thornbury
(2>>1) refer to this eerging set of rules as a dynaic Fprocess graar.!
&aeron ephasises the iportance of children possessing a strong lexical base fro
which graar can eerge! *he clais that as children are already able to distinguish
words as recognisable linguistic units in the first language they will be able to do so in the
second and that for this reason individual words have particular significance for young
children! &hildren gradually attach eaning to the individual words in forulaic chun%s
they have ac-uired and telegraphic speech is little ore than a series of lin%ed words
(&aeron# 2>>1)! Even in telegraphic speech however there are signs that a graar is
already beginning to eerge# often referred to as a Fpivot graar.! &hildren see to
understand which %ind of words can go together and develop categories of Fopen. words
(nouns# verbs# ad@ectives) which revolve around Fpivot. words such as naes and pronouns!
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 7
2*4 Socia!,Constructivist A$$roaches to Language Learning
/ecent research findings support the view that successful language ac-uisition re-uires an
appropriately supportive linguistic# social and cultural environent! +ccording to
,ygotskian socio-cultural theory cognitive and language development
can be accounted for by social interaction, with adults mediating the
environment for the child, using language as a cognitive tool to develop
thoughts and ideas. %anguage develops as a result of a comple
interplay between the childs innate ability and interaction with the
environment $%ightbown & Spada, '(()*. Thornbury also recogniIes interaction
as a vital eleent in the process of Frule-foring# rule-testing and rule-refining. (2>>1D
p!2>)!

Socio-cultural theory is seen to provide a theoretical framework for
language teaching because of the emphasis on mediation during the
teaching.learning process. This theory was etended by Bruner who
referred to the mediating language as /scafolding $"ood# 0runer and /oss#
1:78D cited in 0ameron 122', p.9*! *uch child-directed speech, tuned into
the needs of the child and ad3usted according to the childs competence,
is seen as making an important contribution to the childs language
development. Scaffolding allows children to wor% in their FIone of proxial
developent. $,ygotsky# 1:79D cited in &aeron# 2>>1) and enables the to achieve or
understand soething which is @ust beyond their own level of developent and which they
couldn.t achieve unaided! +n the case of language# the input is odified to suit the child.s
level of coprehension so that it can be processed and internalised during negotiation of
eaning# eventually resulting in upta%e when the child is able to use it in his own original
speech and discourse!
There are obvious siilarities between scaffolding# the L7;# 0runer.s Aspace for growthB
and Erashen.s notion of coprehensible input or F(M1.! 3owever whereas with
coprehensible input Erashen iplies that ere exposure to language is sufficient for
language ac-uisition to ta%e place# the support and guidance inherent in scaffolding
ephasises the iportance of interaction as a feature of successful language learning
environents!
The influence of theories of ediation and scaffolding as tools for language teaching and
learning re-uires a realignent of the teaching)learning paradig with the concept of
teaching# especially during early childhood# ta%ing on a ore facilitative nature! /ather
than focus on curriculu guidelines and s%ill-ac-uisition# teachers in a ediational role
participate @ointly with the learner in the co-construction of discourse and %nowledge#
providing support and guidance and facilitating learning rather than siply transitting
%nowledge!
2*4 +n&ivi&ua! Learner Characteristics
,lthough children of the sae age follow a siilar route of language developent# there is
uch individual variation in the rate of ac-uisition! ,part fro the degree and richness of
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 9
exposure to the second language# bilingual developent is also influenced by other factors#
such as otivation# cognitive developent# aptitude# socio-cultural bac%ground and the
child.s personality and learning style (Tabors G *now# 1::1D Tabors# 1::7D &lar%# 2>>>)!
,ccording to Tabors (1::7) when preschool children find theselves in a classroo
situation where they can continue to spea% in the hoe language# they ay lac% otivation
and choose not to learn the second language! +n bilingual classroos in particular she states
that children can function by using the hoe language both in play situations and with
adults who also spea% the sae language! ,lthough the children ay develop a receptive
understanding of the second language they ay lac% sufficient otivation to use that
language as a eans of counication theselves!
&hildren who are outgoing and sociable ay learn the language -uic%ly because they have
the intrinsic otivation to be li%e their English-spea%ing peers! ,ccording to &lar% (2>>>)
such personality types ay actively see% out opportunities to interact with spea%ers of the
target language# thus prooting their own language developent! Tabors (1::7) cites 5ora
("ong 'illore# 1:7:) as a child who ade aaIing progress in the ac-uisition of English
solely on the basis of strong otivation to be a eber of the social group which spo%e
English! *he describes children li%e 5ora as being Fris%-ta%ing children NwhoO often
plunged alost fearlessly into counication in the new language# a%ing any ista%es#
but getting by nonetheless while receiving a lot of exposure at the sae tie!. (p!98)
,ccording to ?c(aughlin (1::2) others ay be -uiet and shy# saying little for fear of
a%ing a ista%e and learning by listening and attending to what is being said around
the! Tabors (1::7) cites *aville-Troi%e.s (1:99) study in which children who are
characterised as being ore reflective and inner-directed are seen to engage ore in
private speech as a eans of practising the target language before using it out loud!
/esearch deonstrates that despite their differences both types of learner can be successful
at learning a second languageD group wor% situations tend to favour the socially active
child# whereas children who are active listeners tend to find ore success in a traditional#
teacher-oriented classroo setting!
Kther factors such as socio-econoic status# parental support# ethnicity# place of birth and
hoe language or counity language doinance are also seen to be influential on the
language developent of individual children!
2* 5aci!itating SLA in the C!assroom Environment
0oth Ellis (1:92) and *now G 'illore (2>>>) cite research carried out by 'illore (1:92)
which deonstrates how four different %indergarten classroo environents lead to
different outcoes in second language ac-uisition! 'illore.s research revealed that
children learnt ore successfully in either teacher-centred %indergarten classroos where
there were large proportions of English language learners (E((.s) or in learner-centred
classroos where there was a cobination of (1 and (2 spea%ers! +n contrast little second
language ac-uisition too% place in both learner-centred classroos with a high nuber of
E((.s and teacher-centred classroos containing a ix of native spea%er children and
E((.s!
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings :
+n the learner-centred class with a ix of native spea%ers and E((.s# language ac-uisition
was facilitated as the learners obtained negotiated input both fro the teacher and the
native spea%ing children who ade up an e-ual proportion of the class! (1 spea%ers were
able to provide exposure to the language at an appropriate level and also able to provide
any clues as to how to counicate effectively in ters of conveying ideas# inforation
and intentions! ,s learners were involved in negotiating and clarifying eaning they
received aple corrective feedbac% and were able to refine their eerging graars!
3owever the learner-centred class with a high proportion of E((.s was less effective in
facilitating second language ac-uisition as pupils did not receive so uch teacher input and
tended to use (1 when tal%ing aongst theselves! +nteraction with native spea%ers was
liited or non-existent and children were found to either a%e little progress in learning
English# or to learn it fro one another! This was seen to result in fossilisation# effectively a
shutdown of adaptation or restructuring of the process graar! +n such a case pupils are
seen to becoe cofortable counicating in an interlanguage which deviates
substantially fro a standard for of English and conse-uently stop trying to decode the
input they receive any ore ('illore# 1::2D Thornbury# 2>>1)!
The teacher-centred class with a high nuber of E((.s was deeed effective as the teacher
served as the ain source of input for the children# thus ensuring that the input was
coprehensible to the! +t would therefore appear that in a second language classroo
where ost# if not all# children are learning English as a second language soe type of
teacher directed Ffocus on for. is vital if language ac-uisition is to be successful!
Thornbury (2>>1) argues that the teacher ust axiise exposure to the target language#
effectively iersing children in it! 3e clais that children need opportunities for repeated
listening in addition to opportunities to spea%# both of which can be achieved when the (2
is used additionally for classroo anageent and content language integrated learning!
&uins (1::1) clais however that even for children learning English in an iersion
context it can ta%e between one to three years for children to achieve @ust basic
conversational fluency in the second language! 3e goes on to suggest that to learn the ore
acadeic language needed to achieve well at school can ta%e fro five to eight years!
,ccording to &aeron (2>>1) language developent is influenced by both the type of
language experience offered and the teaching ethod eployed and children will not learn
extended discourse s%ills such as describing# narrating or negotiating or any type of
acadeic discourse if they never have the opportunity to participate in it!
The decision to adopt a bilingual or iersion approach in the early childhood classroo
is one which arouses uch debate and is often based on political and social as well as
linguistic factors! The fact that the terinology is applied differently in various contexts
adds to the confusion surrounding the debate (*now# 2>>>D *wain G (ap%in# 2>>2)!
, truly bilingual education progra involves the use of two languages in delivering the
curriculu whereby both the first language and the second language are eployed# often
concurrently# as vehicles for the construction of %nowledge as well as being used as
languages of counication within the classroo! The other tongue is seen to support
learning of the second language in the classroo!
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 1>
+n contrast to this type of bilingual progra# full iersion progras involve delivery of
the whole curriculu in the second language# with little ephasis on the child.s first
language# which it is generally assued will be supported at hoe! ;ual iersion# or
two-way iersion progras# eploy both the first and second language in delivery of the
curriculu and ephasiIe developing a second language through content-based teaching#
at no expense to the hoe language of the students! ;ual iersion classes typically
contain native spea%ers of both the first and second language and according to *wain and
(ap%in (2>>2) one of the reasons they are seen to be successful is that the two languages
are %ept strictly separate# in contrast to traditional bilingual progras where language
ixing is peritted or even encouraged! ,lthough any of these approaches ay be ore or
less suited to local contexts# *wain and (ap%in point out thatC
Fwhere failies choose to aintain the hoe language and culture and value
ultilingualis# their children thrive in iersionD they transfer reading s%ills
across languages# tolerate abiguity well# and succeed acadeically!. (2>>2# p! 191)
"hichever approach is ta%en it is widely accepted that contrary to popular belief children
do not necessarily learn a second language -uic%ly and easily! Tabors (1::7) refers to two
variables related to second language ac-uisition and age - cognitive deand and cognitive
capacity! The younger a child when learning a second language the lesser the cognitive
capacity to deal with the challenge and the fewer deands ade on hi! +n agreeent with
any researchers Tabors clais that the ipression that children learn language easily and
-uic%ly is largely based on the fact that the language they need to function either socially in
the counity or at school is far less than that of an older child or adult! ,lthough use of
the other tongue and Fcode-switching. are noral occurrences during the early stages of
learning the second language# it would appear that in order to axiise language learning
opportunities children can be encouraged to use the target language for classroo
interaction once they reach the stage of eergent speech production! 3uang (2>>2) reports
that in a supportive environent# even with young children# code switching lessens as
children.s %nowledge of the target language increases!
.* A$$!ication o" Theor( to 3ractice
+n y experience early childhood settings can be ideal second language learning
environents for young children as long as one carefully ta%es into account the
developental needs of each child and the socio-cultural circustances! +n <a%arta for
exaple# children found in iersion or bilingual settings are for the ost part a@ority
spea%ers of the counity language# +ndonesian# fro high *!E!*! failies where both
education and bilingualis# or in any cases ultilingualis# are highly valued! 7arents
are eager for their children to attend iersion preschools and %indergartens! +n soe
failies exposure to three or ore languages in early childhood is considered the nor and
a inority of children ay not have a well-established other tongue! +n others English is
the language adopted by the faily as the hoe language and +ndonesian is ac-uired in the
counity# perhaps at school! These patterns of language use are seen to reflect coon
trends in any ,sian countries and arise fro choice rather than official governent
policies!
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 11
+t is generally accepted that the focus of early second language learning should be on the
developent of oracy rather than literacy! Tabors. (1::7) stages of developent and
&uins (1::1) arguent that children re-uire one to three years to achieve
conversational fluency iply that teachers should not expect iediate results but instead
ta%e a gradual approach to language ac-uisition# respecting each stage of developent as it
occurs! + have seen children who begin attending an inforal preschool two or three ties a
wee% fro the age of 2 $ years slowly ove through Tabors stages and by the age of five
years# attending %indergarten for five half-days a wee%# reach the stage of productive
speech eergence with no detrient to either their other tongue or cognitive
developent! Kn entry to the preschool children are exposed to English through songs#
finger-plays and action rhyes# T7/ activities and siple Fcircle tie. gaes to encourage
vocabulary ac-uisition# with a balance between teacher-led and child-initiated play and
activities! +nitially there is uch dilingual discourse as children continue to use +ndonesian#
their other tongue# and bilingual teachers reply in English! There is no pressure on
children to spea% in English# although during large and sall group activities they are
encouraged to repeat targeted vocabulary in the context of gaes and Fshow and tell. type
activities! =radually lexis is ac-uired# telegraphic speech begins to eerge and then after 2
$ years children begin to use English spontaneously and# provided there is continuity# are
at the ta%e-off point for ore rapid language ac-uisition! The fact that children gradually
reach productive speech stage while still in 7iaget.s concrete-operational stage of early
childhood# and benefit fro a Fhands on.# experiential approach to learning ay be a a@or
benefit of starting early! Teachers can ta%e advantage of a relatively unhurried schedule
with perhaps three hours exposure to the target language daily copared to possibly $
hours per wee% in a typical foreign language context!
+n the early stages of language learning children need a great deal of contextual support in
the for of concrete teaching aids such as pictures# odels# realia# puppets# hands on
learning (experiential)# gesture and T7/# finger plays# songs# stories# role play and other
non-verbal aids or accopanients! 6ocabulary should be encountered and recycled
fre-uently in a variety of contexts with repeated exposure enabling children to %eep
vocabulary active and facilitate recall! 5ation suggests that words need to be et at least 2-
8 ties before there is any li%elihood of the being learnt (1::>D cited in &aeron# 2>>1)!
Thees which run for several wee%s allow for this and the preschool should be well-
resourced to provide teachers with a wealth of aterials with which to enrich the learning
environent!
"hereas content words are lin%ed cognitively in schea or networ%s of eaning# this is not
the case for function words# which are also uch ore fre-uent! 0oth re-uire different
teaching approaches whereas content word teaching can be planned and eaning ade
explicit# this cannot be done so easily with function words! +n effect this eans that the
teacher ust be sensitive to graar teaching opportunities as they arise and develop a
repertoire of techni-ues to encourage children to Ffocus on for.! ,s children do not have
the etalinguistic or cognitive awareness necessary for understanding of explicit graar
teaching they need s%illed assistance in helping the Fnotice. graar# with soe planning
and anipulation on the teacher.s part to ensure that children are exposed to the targeted
for (&aeron# 2>>1)! Thornbury (2>>1) adits however that children are not good at
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 12
noticing and he recognises the difficult tas% of attepting to balance focus on eaning and
focus on for! ,lthough it is possible to plan to bring graatical features of stories#
songs and dialogues to the attention of children# teachers ust also be ready to ta%e
advantage of the ore unpredictable language learning opportunities afforded by
spontaneous situations which arise in the classroo daily!
The repetitive and predictable nature of routine and transition ties also provide children
with any opportunities to discover word eanings! "eitIan G =reen (2>>$) ephasise
the iportance of routine and scaffolding as language learning strategies! They clai that
the teacher can help very young children understand by adopting the following scaffolding
strategiesD using graatically siple sentences# using siple every day vocabulary to
describe what.s happening in the here and now# exaggerating iportant words# repeating
what is said# using gestures and actions to atch speech# drawing attention to new words#
using the specific naes of ob@ects rather than pronouns! 0y adopting scaffolding strategies
typical of Fotherese.# Fcareta%er speech. or Fteacher tal%. the odified input will assist
children in wor%ing out the rules of graar iplicitly or deductively! 0y slowing down
and drawing attention to certain words# phrases or graatical constructions# often during
discussions# circle tie activities# content-language integrated learning activities or gaes#
the teacher is effectively incorporating Fnoticing. or Fconsciousness raising. activities
(Thornbury# 2>>1)! Kther scaffolding techni-ues the teacher can use include recast
(repeating the child.s sentence in the correct for)# expansion (repeat the child.s sentence
but expanding it with the teacher.s own words to deonstrate a ore advanced way of
expressing the sae eaning) and extension (providing ore inforation related to the
child.s utterance and therefore increasing both linguistic and cognitive %nowledge
siultaneously)! ,lthough scaffolding techni-ues as these are widely believed to aid
learning# there is however soe evidence which indicates that children especially are not
always able to discriinate between feedbac% on eaning or feedbac% on for!
"eitIan G =reen (2>>$) suggest that once a child has a large passive vocabulary# the gap
widens between what the child can understand and what he can say! They argue that
language should be odelled on two levels a sipler one for children to iitate and a
ore coplex one to further increase the child.s understanding of the language! Kne of the
benefits of using language scaffolding as a teaching strategy is that it is individualised
according to the needs of each child! +n y experience scaffolding lends itself well to
contexts where children are engaged in sall group or individual activities and can provide
targeted coprehensible input# especially in play-based approaches to early childhood
education# by enabling the teacher to follow the child in his or her interests and interact
accordingly!
,lthough the value of traditional presentation# production and practice (777) techni-ues
has been widely debated# + would argue that there ay still be a place for soe rote or
choral repetition in the early years classroo# once children have been socialised into group
activities! This can often be disguised in the for of gaes# with this for of repetition
allowing children to ta%e advantage of an innate ability to iitate and repeat which is lost
as they children get older and gain in cognitive aturity! F&ircle tie. can also be adapted
to accoodate language learning activities! 'arrell (2>>1) suggests that this type of
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 1$
activity helps fulfil two purposes in an ,sian context# where there is often scepticis
regarding a ore child-centred or play-based curriculu! 'irstly it allows teachers the
opportunity to feel that they are actually Fteaching. in the traditional sense# preparing and
planning a siple lesson and transitting soe %nowledge and vocabulary to the children!
*econdly# it reassures parents that their children are being Ftaught. and when children bring
hoe a newsletter giving the vocabulary or words to a song enables the to help their
children with the Fhoewor%. they feel is necessary! "e also find this a successful approach
in the centre where + wor%!
4* Conc!usion
There is a growing body of research which assists the second language teacher in
understanding not only how children learn a second language but also why they are
learning it! ;ifferent circustances guide policy a%ers and teachers in developing an
appropriate progra for the context in which they are wor%ing# which varies widely
throughout the world! ,lthough this report focuses priarily on children learning English
through (parental) choice and with ade-uate hoe support for the other tongue# it
ac%nowledges that this is often not the case and that for a variety of reasons exposure to a
second language at such a young age is not always in the best interests of the child# his
faily or the long-ter survival of his ethnic or linguistic heritage! "ith the expansion of
English in any ,sian countries it is becoing clear however that policya%ers are
attepting to ta%e a pragatic approach to its inclusion in educational refor byD
F Flegitiating. the hegeony of English by Happropriating English in ways which
do least daage to their national language and identity!. (=raddol# 2>>8# p!117)
+n +ndonesia an early start to learning English ay no longer be valued solely as a long-
ter educational investent but also as a tool which allows iediate access to a ore
prestigious lifestyle locally or a privileged counity globally!
E*( teachers wor%ing in early childhood settings can ta%e advantage of the inherent
copatibility between accepted developentally appropriate practice and effective second
language learning strategies for exaple the focus on experiential learning# the reliance
on routine and structure in classroo organisation and the suitability of activity and tas%-
based approaches to learning! 'ailiarity with techni-ues such as scaffolding and
consciousness-raising allow for axial language learning opportunities and %nowledge of
*(, theories and stages of developent allow teachers and policy a%ers to develop
appropriate rationales for language use rather than relying on an Fad hoc. bilingual
approach where languages are ixed indiscriinately! +n addition# research indicates that
eleents of both child-centred and teacher-centred approaches to learning should be
cobined for optial second language ac-uisition! This suggests that a collaborative
wor%ing relationship between native and non-native spea%er teachers# especially in ,sian
countries# could be very beneficial!
4ltiately# with a greater understanding of how young children ac-uire a second language
and why and in what context they are learning it# the teacher is in a better position to
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 11
develop a progra which eets the needs of all children in the setting! +n the words of
0ialystoc% and 3a%uta#
F"hen we learn a new language# we.re not @ust learning new vocabulary and
graarC we.re also learning new ways of organising concepts# new ways of thin%ing and
new ways of learning language! Enowing two languages is uch ore than siply
%nowing two ways of spea%ing!. (1::1# p!122D cited in &lar%# 2>>># p!192)!
4* Directions "or #esearch
There are any directions for further research in this field! They include studies to
deterine to what extent approaches which support the use of both first and second
languages in the classroo benefit the learner and in what contexts either language-ixing
or language separation strategies ay be ore appropriate! +n addition it would be helpful
to have ore understanding on the role of repetition# noticing activities# scaffolding and
corrective feedbac% in prooting second language ac-uisition in very young children#
especially to deterine whether children.s response to these strategies is influenced by age
or developental stage! "eitIan G =reenberg (2>>2) suggest that the ability to scaffold
coes ore naturally to soe teachers than others research to deterine whether
teachers of a second language to young children can be taught effective scaffolding
techni-ues would be useful in light of the current ephasis on socio-cultural learning
theory! 'inally# in an attept to deterine what type of curricular approaches are ost
effective# studies to exaine how teachers plan and deliver thees or topics in early years
classroos would be inforative! =iven that content language integrated learning is
becoing ore widespread# it would also be helpful to explore the relationship between#
for exaple# aths and English and to what extent aths is an appropriate vehicle for
teaching a second language in early childhood!

A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 12
A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings 18
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A. Kho: Second Language Acquisition in Early Childhood Settings

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