GENE EXPRESSION

AND CONTROL
7.2 The Nature of Genetic Information

DNA carries all the genetic information needed to build a
new individual
Genetic information consists of base sequences
Genes are subunits of that sequence

Gene
Part of a DNA base sequence
Specifies structure of an RNA or protein product
From Gene to RNA to Protein


Gene expression involves transcription (DNA to RNA),
and translation (mRNA, or messenger RNA, to protein)

Gene expression
Process by which the information in a gene becomes converted to
an RNA or protein product

Transcription

A genes nucleotide base sequence encodes instructions
for building an RNA or protein product

A cell transcribes the base sequence of a gene into mRNA

mRNA carries a protein-building message

Transcription


Transcription
Process by which an RNA is assembled from nucleotides using the
base sequence of a gene as a template

Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Type of RNA that has a protein-building message
Translation


Translation requires the participation of tRNA (transfer
RNA) and rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

Translation
Process by which a polypeptide chain is assembled from amino
acids in the order specified by an mRNA


RNA and DNA Nucleotides
Fig. 7-2a, p. 117
Fig. 7-2b, p. 117
7.3 Transcription: DNA to RNA
Base-pairing rules in DNA replication also apply to RNA
synthesis in transcription, but RNA uses uracil in place of
thymine



The Process of Transcription

In transcription, RNA polymerase binds to a promoter in
the DNA near a gene

RNA polymerase
Enzyme that carries out transcription

Promoter
In DNA, a sequence to which RNA polymerase binds
The Process of Transcription

Polymerase moves along the DNA, unwinding the DNA so
it can read the base sequence

RNA polymerase assembles a strand of RNA by linking
RNA nucleotides in the order determined by the base
sequence of the gene

The new mRNA is a copy of the gene from which it was
transcribed

mRNA and the Genetic Code


The information in mRNA consists of sets of three
nucleotides (codons) that form words spelled with the
four bases A, C, G, and U

Codon
In mRNA, a nucleotide base triplet that codes for an amino acid or
stop signal during translation
mRNA and the Genetic Code

Sixty-four codons, most of which specify amino acids,
constitute the genetic code
20 amino acids in proteins; most have more than one codon

Genetic code
Sixty-four mRNA codons; each specifies an amino acid or a signal
to start or stop translation

The Genetic Code
Translating mRNA to Amino Acids
7.5 Translating the Code: RNA to Protein


Translation, the second part of protein synthesis, occurs
in the cytoplasm of all cells

Translation is an energy-requiring process that converts
the protein-building information carried by an mRNA into a
polypeptide


Three Stages of Translation
Initiation
mRNA joins with an initiator tRNA and two ribosomal subunits

Elongation
Ribosome joins amino acids delivered by tRNAs in the order
specified by mRNA codons

Termination
Polymerase encounters a stop codon; mRNA and polypeptide are
released; ribosome disassembles
ARE YOU GRATEFUL YOU
ARE NORMAL?
7.6 Mutated Genes and Their Products

Mutations are permanent changes in the nucleotide
sequence of DNA, which may alter a gene product

A mutation that changes a genes product may have
harmful effects
Example: Mutations that affect the proteins in hemoglobin reduce
bloods ability to carry oxygen
Types of Mutations
Deletion
Mutation in which one or more base pairs are lost

Insertion
Mutation in which one or more base pairs become inserted into
DNA

Base-pair substitution
Type of mutation in which a single base-pair changes
What Causes Mutations?

Most mutations result from unrepaired DNA polymerase
errors during DNA replication

Some result from transposable element activity, or from
exposure to radiation or chemicals

Transposable element
Small segment of DNA that can spontaneously move to a new
location in a chromosome
Ionizing Radiation Damage
Ionizing radiation (x-rays) breaks chromosomes and
produces free radicals




Nonionizing Radiation Damage
Nonionizing radiation (UV light) results in thymine dimers,
which lead to skin cancer



Environmental Damage


Some natural and synthetic chemicals cause mutations in
DNA

Example: Cigarette smoke transfers small hydrocarbon
groups to bases in DNA, causing mispairing during
replication
7.7 Examples of
Eukaryotic Gene Controls

All cells in your body carry the same DNA

Some genes are transcribed by all cells, but most cells
are specialized (differentiated) to use only certain genes

Which genes are expressed at a given time depends on
the type of cell and conditions
Cell Differentiation

Cells differentiate when they start expressing a unique
subset of their genes controls over gene expression are
the basis of differentiation

Differentiation
The process by which cells become specialized
Occurs as different cell lineages begin to express different subsets
of their genes
Controlling Gene Expression

Controlling gene expression is critical for normal
development and function of a eukaryotic body

All steps between transcription and delivery of gene
product are regulated

Transcription factor
Protein that influences transcription by binding to DNA
Homeotic Genes

Homeotic gene
Type of master gene that controls formation of specific body parts
during development

Master gene
Gene encoding a product that affects the expression of many other
genes
Controls an intricate task such as eye formation
Homeodomains



All homeotic genes encode transcription factors with a
homeodomain a region of about 60 amino acids that
can bind to a promoter or some other DNA sequence


Sex Chromosome Genes


In mammals, males have only one X chromosome
females have two, but one is tightly condensed into a Barr
body and inactive

Dosage compensation
Theory that X chromosome inactivation equalizes gene expression
between males and females
X Chromosome Inactivation
Female cells have Barr bodies, male cells do not



The Y Chromosome

The SRY gene, found on the Y chromosome, is the
master gene for male sex determination
Triggers formation of testes
Testosterone produced by testes controls formation of male
secondary traits

Absence of SRY gene in females triggers development of
ovaries, female characteristics
Development of
Human Reproductive Organs
Cancer: Gene Expression Out of
Control


Many gene expression controls regulate cell growth and
division mutations that disrupt normal controls can
cause cancer

Cancer
Disease that occurs when a malignant neoplasm physically and
metabolically disrupts body tissues


Tumors


Tumor
Abnormally growing and dividing mass of cells

Metastasis
A process of cancer in which tumor cells lose membrane
recognition proteins, break free, and establish themselves in other
parts of the body
Cancer and Mutations

Cancer begins with a mutation in a gene whose product
controls cell growth and division

A mutation that causes cancer may be inherited or be
caused by environmental agents

Tumors are more likely to occur when mutations occur in
tumor suppressor genes, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2
Fig. 7-15b, p. 130