Construct a Fold Cross-Section Using the Arc

(Busk) Method
Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay
First-time Visitors !lease visit Site "ap and Disclaimer# Use $Bac%$ to return here#
How the Arc (Busk) Method Works
&his method appro'imates folds as a series of circular arcs# &his method (as pu)lished )y *#G# Bus% in
+,-,, so it is sometimes called the Busk Method#
+# Given the t(o dips sho(n, ho( do
(e appro'imate the fold as circular
arcs. We cannot assume the
measurements are on the same )ed -
they almost certainly are not#
-# &he pro)lem is to find concentric
circles tan/ent to the t(o dip
measurements#
0# 1adii of circles are al(ays
perpendicular to the tan/ent (here the
radius hits the circle#
2# &herefore, (e construct
perpendiculars to each dip, and the
intersection of the t(o perpendiculars
is the center of the desired arcs#
We find the centers of curvature )et(een ad3acent dip measurements and construct the arcs for each# &he
arcs are )ounded )y the perpendiculars for each pair of dip measurements#
A Common Prolem
+# 4t5s 6uite common in this method
for perpendiculars to dip
measurements to intersect far off the
dia/ram#
-# 7ocate the )isector of the an/le
)et(een the perpendiculars# 8ne (ay
is to construct lines parallel to each
side the same distance in, so that the
lines intersect# &hen )isect that an/le#
0# From each dip datum, dra( a line
perpendicular to the )isector and
e'tend it to the opposite side# &his
locates the other end of the arc#
2# 9onstruct the dips on opposite
sides of the sector# Dips alon/ any
one side of the sector are all e6ual and
parallel#
:# 4f you e'tend the dips in to the
)isector, the arcs must lie (ithin the
yello( trian/les#
;# S%etch the arcs# &hey (ill
appro'imately )isect the center line of
each trian/le# A /ood visual
appro'imation is sufficient#
<# &he completed arcs#
=# Data from ad3acent sectors can )e
carried across >tic% mar%s in red? )y
measurin/ distances relative to the
already plotted arcs #

&he earth (ill not fall out of or)it if the arcs in a sector li%e that sho(n a)ove are appro'imate# What matters
most is the end points of the arc, )ecause they determine relative strati/raphic position from one side to the
other# Within the sector, )et(een the dip datum points, there is no data, and the arc is only an appro'imation
to the true >and un%no(n? e'act shape of the fold#
4f the dips are e'actly e6ual, then the perpendiculars (ill )e parallel, and the center (ill )e at infinity# No
pro)lem - the $arcs$ )ecome strai/ht lines#
!"am#le
4n the e'ample at left, dip data are
sho(n# We (ant to construct a cross-
section that satisfies the data#
&he strati/raphic units are colored
here )ut (ill not )e colored for most
of the remainin/ dia/rams# 4t is often
)etter not to consider strati/raphy
until after the cross-section is dra(n#
We first find the center for concentric
circles tan/ent to dips + and -#
All the circles tan/ent to dip + have
their centers on a line perpendicular
to dip +# All the circles tan/ent to dip
- have their centers on a line
perpendicular to dip -
&herefore, the intersection 9+- is the
center of concentric circles tan/ent
)oth to dip + and to dip -#
Usin/ 9+- as a center, dra( arcs
tan/ent to dips + and - as sho(n#
Dra( the arcs only )et(een the t(o
perpendiculars#
No( locate center 9-0, the center of
concentric circles tan/ent to dips -
and 0# @ou already have a line
perpendicular to dip -, so you only
need to dra( a line perpendicular to
dip 0#
Note that, as often happens, the center
is off the dia/ram#
Dra( the arcs tan/ent to dips - and 0#
A/ain, dra( them only )et(een the
t(o perpendiculars#
We can no( e'chan/e information
(ith sector +--# A'tend the arc from
dip + into sector --0, usin/ 9-0 as a
center >lo(er red arc?#
A'tend the arc from dip 0 into sector
+--, usin/ 9+- as a center >upper red
arc?#
4n /eneral, as (e complete the cross-
section, (e (ill e'tend data from one
sector to the ne't li%e this#
We can no( construct center 902 )y
dra(in/ a perpendicular to dip 2# We
already have the perpendicular to dip
0#
We e'tend the arcs from sector --0
into sector 0-2 as sho(n#
Note that the arc that starts at dip -
passes very close to dip 2# We don5t
need an arc throu/h every dip, even
thou/h (e may use that dip to
construct a center of curvature# So (e
(on5t )other dra(in/ an arc for dip 2#
9onstruct center 92: )y dra(in/ a
perpendicular to dip :# We already
have the perpendicular to dip 2#
A'tend the arcs from sector 0-2 into
sector 2-: as sho(n#
Note that the arc that starts at dip +
passes very close to dip :# A/ain, (e
need not )other dra(in/ an arc for dip
2#

Note that center 92: lies very near dip measurement 2# &his is purely coincidental and has no si/nificance#
Sector 2-: presents a pro)lem# &he arc from dip - passes 3ust a)out throu/h 92:, and the arc from dip 0
passes on the opposite side of 92: than does the arc from dip +# When concentric folds have ti/ht curvature,
somethin/ has to /ive in the middle# 4f an arc passes on the (ron/ side of the center of curvature, do not
dra( it#
9onstruct center 9:; )y dra(in/ a
perpendicular to dip ;# We already
have the perpendicular to dip :#
Note that the intersection is no(
)eneath the surface# &his is no
pro)lem# 4t means the fold is no(
concave do(n(ard >an anticline?
9onstruct the arc tan/ent to dip ; as
sho(n# Since this point is
strati/raphically lo(er than all the
other datum points, (e continue the
arc )ac% throu/h all the other sectors
as (ell >sho(n in red?#
9onstruct arcs to connect (ith all the
previously-constructed arcs as sho(n
in red#
Sectors ;-<, <-=, ,-, and ,-+B are handled the same (ay, so the remainin/ illustrations simply sho( the
results for each sector#
Sector ;-< completed
Sector <-= completed#
Sector =-, completed# Since point ,
falls )et(een t(o already dra(n arcs,
there is no real need to construct
another arc for it, at least for no(#
Note that centers 9;<, 9<= and 9=,
are all close to/ether# &his simply
means the fold has fairly uniform
curvature over that interval#
Sector ,-+B completed# Since point +B
falls very close to an already dra(n
arc, there is no real need to construct
another arc for it#
$%ing the &iagram to 'ealit%
4t is virtually certain (hen you dra( a cross section usin/ strictly /eometric methods that the contacts (ill
not match e'actly (ith their predicted positions# &here are many reasons (hy not
&he units (ill not )e uniform in thic%ness
&here are small construction errors
Dips are not uniform from place to place
Dip measurements have small errors
Folds do not have ideal /eometrical shapes#
*ere (e have indicated the
strati/raphy# 4t is virtually certain
(hen you dra( a cross section usin/
strictly /eometric methods that the
contacts (ill not match e'actly (ith
their predicted positions#
What (e need to do no( is redra(
the folds so the cross-section matches
)oth the dips and the strati/raphy#
*ere all the construction has )een
removed and the arcs are su)dued#
"ost of the time you can modify the
fold shapes )y hand to match the
strati/raphy (ithout too much
trou)le# "odified contacts are in
)lac%#
Do not /et distracted )y your dip sym)ols or strati/raphic colors# &he only re6uirement is that the
strati/raphy and dips match on the surface# Be prepared to modify the colors and depart from the dips )elo(
the surface if it5s called for# 9ompare the t(o dia/rams a)ove to see that this (as actually done#
Construct a Fold Cross-Section Using the (ink
Method
Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay
First-time Visitors !lease visit Site "ap and Disclaimer# Use $Bac%$ to return here#
How the (ink Method Works
4t5s fairly common for folds to e'hi)it uniform dips for a (ide interval and then chan/e dip a)ruptly# 4n other
(ords the fold e'hi)its a series of %in%s rather than smooth curvature# We can appro'imate such folds usin/
the kink method# 4t is a )it more common these days for folds to )e represented this (ay than (ith the Bus%
or arc method#
&he )asic method is to allo( each dip measurement to define a Cone (here the dip is constant# &he
)oundaries of the dip Cones are the lines that )isect an/les )et(een ad3acent dips# &he e'ample )elo( )e/ins
(ith three different (ays to find the )isector#
&he actual point here the fold %in%s may not coincide e'actly (ith the )isector# Why should it. 4f you have
t(o dips at points + and -, the chan/e in dip could come any(here )et(een them, and is not necessarily
/oin/ to coincide (ith a line half(ay )et(een the t(o dips# &his method, li%e all fold construction
techni6ues, is an approximation#
!"am#le
4n the e'ample at left, dip data are
sho(n# We (ant to construct a cross-
section that satisfies the data#
&he strati/raphic units are colored
here )ut (ill not )e colored for most
of the remainin/ dia/rams# 4t is often
)etter not to consider strati/raphy
until after the cross-section is dra(n#
We first find the line 7+- that )isects
the an/le )et(een dips + and -#
8ne (ay is to construct lines
perpendicular to dips + and - >in red?#
&hey intersect at 9+-# Bisect the
an/le formed )y the t(o
perpendiculars >sho(n in /reen?#
A'tend the dips out to 7+-# When you
cross the line, continue (ith the dip
on the opposite side# &hat is, use dip
an/le + on the left side of line 7+-
and dip an/le - on the ri/ht#
*ere5s another (ay half(ay )et(een
datum points - and 0, dra( lines
parallel to dips - and 0 >sho(n in
red?# Bisect the an/le to find line 7-0
A'tend dips - and 0 to 7-0, then
continue on the opposite side of the
line (ith the appropriate dip# For
e'ample, e'tend dip -, then (here it
intersects 7-0, continue (ith dip 0#
We can also e'tend the line that
ori/inates at datum point +# Bet(een
7+- and 7-0 it has dip -, then on the
ri/ht of 7-0 it has dip 0#
@et another approach is to avera/e
t(o ad3acent dips# &he desired line
passes throu/h the mid(ay point
)et(een the t(o datum points# Dra(
a vertical line throu/h that point and
measure the avera/e an/le from the
vertical line# !ay careful attention to
dip direction so that the line has the
proper slope#
7ines left of 702 have dip 0, to the
ri/ht they have dip 2# 9ontinue the
lines that ori/inated at datum points +
and - )y e'tendin/ them throu/h 702
(ith the appropriate dips#
Dips :-+B are handled the same (ay, so the remainin/ illustrations simply sho( the results for each pair of
dips#
72: constructed# 7ines are e'tended
to 702 and the dip )eyond is
indicated# Dips 2 and : are very close
to already e'istin/ lines and are
unli%ely to /ive any ne( information,
so (e don5t need to construct lines
throu/h dips 2 and : for no(#
7:; constructed# &he roc%s at datum
point ; are strati/raphically lo(er
than any (e have so far seen, so (e
e'tend dip ; to line 7:;, then
continue to the left parallel to the
previously dra(n lines#
7;< constructed# &he roc%s at datum
point < are even lo(er than those at
datum point ;, so (e also e'tend dip
< to line 7;<, then continue to the left
parallel to the previously dra(n lines#
7<= constructed# &he roc%s at datum
point = are still lo(er , so (e also
e'tend dip = to line 7<=, then
continue to the left parallel to the
previously dra(n lines#
7=, constructed# Datum point , lies
)et(een t(o already constructed lines
and is not li%ely to tell us anythin/ (e
don5t already %no(# For no( (e omit
dra(in/ a line throu/h it#
7,+B completed# Since point +B falls
close to an already dra(n line, there
is no real need to construct another
line for it, either#
$%ing the &iagram to 'ealit%
4t is virtually certain (hen you dra( a cross section usin/ strictly /eometric methods that the contacts (ill
not match e'actly (ith their predicted positions# &here are many reasons (hy not
&he units (ill not )e uniform in thic%ness
&here are small construction errors
Dips are not uniform from place to place
Dip measurements have small errors
Folds do not have ideal /eometrical shapes#
*ere (e have indicated the
strati/raphy# 4t is virtually certain
(hen you dra( a cross section usin/
strictly /eometric methods that the
contacts (ill not match e'actly (ith
their predicted positions#
What (e need to do no( is redra(
the folds so the cross-section matches
)oth the dips and the strati/raphy#
*ere the cross section lines are
su)dued#
"ost of the time you can modify the
fold shapes )y hand to match the
strati/raphy (ithout too much
trou)le# "odified contacts are in
)lac%#
Do not /et distracted )y your dip sym)ols or strati/raphic colors# &he only re6uirement is that the
strati/raphy and dips match on the surface# Be prepared to modify the colors and depart from the dips )elo(
the surface if it5s called for# 9ompare the t(o dia/rams a)ove to see that this (as actually done#
Construct a Fold Cross-Section Using the Similar
Fold Method
Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay
First-time Visitors !lease visit Site "ap and Disclaimer# Use $Bac%$ to return here#
Similar folds are those (here successive )eds all have the same shape# &hey can )e /enerated )y dra(in/
the shape of one )ed and then shiftin/ it parallel to the a'ial plane of the fold# &he )asis of this method is
that, if you can someho( estimate the dip of the a'ial plane, you can use dip data to construct the fold )y
simply translatin/ data parallel to the a'ial plane#
4n practice this method is not often used# 4t5s rare to find truly similar folds on a lar/e enou/h scale to ma%e
the method practical# Usually, roc%s that are ductile enou/h to fold in similar style (ill deform
inhomo/eneously enou/h to defy any simple e'trapolation method# *o(ever, this is a very simple method
and can )e used in con3unction (ith the arc >Bus%? or %in% methods to define the ran/e of possi)le fold
shapes that satisfy a /iven data set#
!"am#le
4n the e'ample at left, dip data are
sho(n# We (ant to construct a cross-
section that satisfies the data#
&he strati/raphic units are colored
here )ut (ill not )e colored for most
of the remainin/ dia/rams# 4t is often
)etter not to consider strati/raphy
until after the cross-section is dra(n#
We have to estimate the dip of the
a'ial plane to dra( similar folds# We
can do this in several (ays
+# We may have foliation
measurements availa)le
-# We can o)serve that (esterly dips
are steeper than easterly, therefore the
a'ial plane is tilted to the east#
0# We can use the arc >Bus%? or %in%
method to estimate the shape of the
folds#
9onstruct lines mid(ay )et(een dip
measurements and parallel to the a'ial
plane#
Assume dip is constant in the Cone
)et(een each pair of lines
A'trapolate dips )et(een ad3acent
lines as sho(n#
*ere (e e'trapolate dip - into the dip
+ Cone and vice versa#
*ere (e e'tend data from Cone 0 into
Cones + and -, and data from Cone -
into Cone 0#
*ere (e e'tend data into Cone 2#
Since the )ed at dip datum point -
)arely misses point 2, (e can i/nore
constructin/ a line throu/h 2 for the
time )ein/#
Data e'trapolated into Cone :# Datum
point : is )rac%eted )y other
e'trapolations so (e can pass on
dra(in/ anythin/ throu/h point : for
no(#
4f the need arises (e can al(ays /o
)ac% and e'trapolate any )ypassed
points#
Data e'trapolated into Cone ;#
Datum point ; is strati/raphically
lo(er than anythin/ (e have seen so
far, so (e e'trapolate its dip )ac%
throu/h all the previous Cones#
Data e'trapolated into Cone <#
Datum point < is a/ain
strati/raphically lo(er than anythin/
(e have seen so far, so (e also
e'trapolate its dip )ac% throu/h all
the previous Cones#
Data e'trapolated into Cone =#
Datum point = is strati/raphically
lo(er than anythin/ (e have seen so
far, so (e e'trapolate its dip )ac%
throu/h all the previous Cones#

Data e'trapolated into Cone ,#
Datum point , is )rac%eted )y other
e'trapolations so it is unli%ely to tell
us anythin/ (e don5t already %no(#
We can pass on dra(in/ anythin/
throu/h point , for no(#
Data e'trapolated into Cone +B#
Datum point +B is also )rac%eted )y
other e'trapolations so it is unli%ely
to tell us anythin/ (e don5t already
%no(# We can pass on dra(in/
anythin/ throu/h point +B for no(#

$%ing the &iagram to 'ealit%
4t is virtually certain (hen you dra( a cross section usin/ strictly /eometric methods that the contacts (ill
not match e'actly (ith their predicted positions# &here are many reasons (hy not
&he units (ill not )e uniform in thic%ness
&here are small construction errors
Dips are not uniform from place to place
Dip measurements have small errors
Folds do not have ideal /eometrical shapes#
*ere (e have indicated the
strati/raphy# 4t is virtually certain
(hen you dra( a cross section usin/
strictly /eometric methods that the
contacts (ill not match e'actly (ith
their predicted positions#
8n the (hole this is not a )ad 3o)#
&he contact throu/h point + comes
out too lo( strati/raphically at points
: and +B, su//estin/ that (e mi/ht
/et a )etter fit )y a sli/htly steeper
dip on the a'ial plane#
Also, (e can see (e really do need to
e'trapolate the points (e )ypassed#
*ere all the construction has )een
removed and the lines are su)dued#
"ost of the time you can modify the
fold shapes )y hand to match the
strati/raphy (ithout too much
trou)le# "odified contacts are in
)lac%#
*ere, tracin/ the fold shape and
shiftin/ it sli/htly (as enou/h to
match )oth dip and location#
!))ect o) A"ial Plane &i#
An a'ial surface dippin/ steeply east
fits the data pretty (ell for a first
appro'imation# Beds are fairly
uniform in thic%ness
A vertical a'ial surface fits the
strati/raphy a )it )etter )et(een
points + and :, not 6uite as (ell
)et(een : and +B# Bed thic%ness
varies 6uite a )it more and the folds
e'tend deeper# @ou5ll have to compare
the fold prediction (ith other field
data to see if this is a )etter model or
not#
9omparin/ this and the previous
result, (e mi/ht try a model (ith a
very steep )ut definite easterly dip#
A tilt in the (ron/ direction /ives a
very poor fit to strati/raphy#