.

SPE 18855
Second Law Analysis of Petroleum Reservoirs for
Optimized Performance
by F, Civan and D. Tiab, U. of Oklahoma
SPE Members
Copyright19S9, Societyof PetroleumEngineers, Inc.
This paper was preparedfor presentationat the SPE ProductionOperations Symposiumheld in Oklahoma City, Oklshoma, March 1S-14, 1989.
This papar was selectedfor presentationby an SPE ProgramCommitteefollowingreviewof informationcontaina in an abatract submittedby the author(a).Contentsof the paper,
aa presented, have not been reviewedby the .Societyof PetroleumEngineerssnd are subject to correctionby the author(s).The maferial, aa presented, does not necessarilyreflect
any positionof the Societyof PetroleumEnglnaera,itsofficers,or members. Paparspresentedat SPE meetingsare subjecttopublicationreviawby EditorialCommittws of the Society
of PatrofaumEngineers.Permissiontocopyiara@rict@to an abstractofnotmorethan300 words.Illuatrationamayno!becopied.Tfw abstractshoufdcontainconspicuousacknowledgment
of where and by whomthe papar ia praaantad, Write PubficationaManager, SPE, P,O. Sox SSS636, RichardWn, TX 750s3.3SSS. Telex, 7S09S9 SPEDAL.
ABSTRACT configuration, (b) the properties of the reservoir
fIuids, and (c) the operating controls, including
Thesecond law of thermodynamics determines control of the available driving mechanisms, the
the practical limits of operating systems. rate and location of production of reservoir
However, within these limits, conditions leading to fluids, and the pressure behavior. However, only
optimum performance can be found. the production rate can be externally controlled
once the locations of the wells are fixed. Many
In reservoir analyses the conditions or authorsl-4 recognized very early the role of
variables which are controllable are somewhat
limited. These include well head pressure,
production rate on the ultimate oil recovery and
concluded that there exists a maximum rate of
production or injection rate, number of wells and
their locations and the recovery technique. The
production that will permit reasonable fulfillment
of the basic requirements for efficient recovery.
efficiency of reservoir exploitation decreases as Increase in the production rate beyond this maximum
the entropy generation increases. Since entropy value will usually lead to rapidly increasing loss
generation translates into irreversible loss of of ultimate recovery, and reduction in rate below
fluid energy,.the operating conditions of a this maximum will not substantially increase the
reservoir should be selected to minimize the
ultimate recovery of oil. Considerable controversy
entropy generation over the productive life of the exists concerning the degree of efficiency
reservoir. attributable to rates, however, everyone recognizes
the importance of using efficiently the in-situ
In this paper, it is shown how entropy reservoir energy.
generation function is calculated and used as a
guideline for selecting the conditions leading to
Versluysl
high ultimate recovery. This is accomplished by
and Schilthiusz investigated the
calculating the cumulative entropy generation over
reservoir energy changes that occur during the
the reservoir volume and the production period and
coiuse of production. Schilthius based his study
by determining the conditions minimizing the
on an imaginary thermodynamic engine in which net
entropy generation.
change in energy is equivalent to that in petroleum
reservoirs. His analysis provided an explanation
INTRODUCTION
of the energy supplied by various sources,
including the expansive energy of the oil and the
The amount of oil,and gas which may be
gas with which it is associated, both dissolved and
free, the energy supplied by water drive, and the
recovered from a reservoir is a widely varying
energy of gravity. However, his approach did not
quantity, dependent partly on the particular
include the loss of fluid energy due to
conditions imposed by nature on the underground
irreversible proceeses, and is only applicable to
structural trap and on the properties of the
macroscopic processes and volumetric reservoirs.
contained fluids, and subject further to the
Lacey and Sage3 applied thermodynamic concepts to
controls exercised by the operator in its
development and operation. The most important
analyze the energy relations in a flowing well and
demonstrated the usefulness of these concepts.
factors which influence the recovery of oil are (a)
Tiab et al.4 and Sarathi and Tiab5 used the concept
the characteristics of the productive formation,
of available energy and the transient state flow
such as the permeability, porosity, and structural
principles to investigate the effect of production
References and f~gures at end of paper.
2 SECOND LAW ANALYSIS OF PETROLEUM RESERVOIRS FOR OPTIMIZED PERFORMANCE SPE 18855
.-
rate upon the utilization of primary reservoir
energy of dry and condensate gas reservoirs. Both
studies used the maximum reversible work function
as a working tool. Tiab and Duruewuru6 used the
availability function to describe the behavior of
theoretical work during rnultiphaseflow.
The efficiency of real thermodynamic systems
decreases as the entropy generation increases.
Therefore, to maximize the utilization of energy,
systems should be designed and operated such that
the entropy generation is minimized. Applications
of this principle to a variety of engineering
systems are given by Arpaci7, Mukherjee et ala,
and Son et al.g. In this study, it is shown how
entropy generation is calculated for the reservoir
and the well, and how it is used as a guideline for
selecting the optimum production rate path leading
to high ultimate petroleum recovery.
ENTROPY GENERATION IN RESERVOIRS
Several expressions of entropy production for
various applications are available in the
literature.7*8*9 However, for the purpose of this
study a simplified case will be considered dealing
with the flow of a single fluid at isothermal
conditions. Thus, the rate of entropy production
per unit volume by irreversible conversion of
mechanical energy to internal energy is given by
1 ++++
.5=- (-Z:VV) ,................................(1)
T
+
where T is t~e absolute temperature, z shear stress
tensor, and v velocity of the fluid. For a porous
medium flow a local volume average of Eq. 1
according to Slatterylo yields
<~> = Evp/T ....- 0............................(2)
where E is the rate of dissipation of mechanical
energy % the porous medium, and is expressed as
follows:
1
E
vp=-
/
(-~?;)dV .......................(3)
P P
where Vp is the fluid volume in the por~ space.
Considering the geometric irregularities of pore
structure, the function ~p is derived in Appendix
A.
5P .
where
PscfpPuj
.............................(4)
@(l - Swc)B
fn denotes the friction factor as function of
the por%us media Reynolds number which is given by
Eq. A.12. Combining Eqs. 2 and 4 yields
P5cfp@J3
<s> =
....s..........,............(5)
$41 - SWC)TB
The total entropy generation is calculated from
H
tf
ST = <$>dVdt .....,......,..............(6)
ti V
where ti and tf denote the initial and final time,
respectively, and V is the reservoir volume.
For
radial flow, V=nr2h, Eq. 6 becomes
H
tf re
ST = 2nh <~>rdrdt ....................(7)
ti rw
or in differential form
a
()
~sT
. = 2vh<~>r ...............,,.,..........(8)
ar at
For steady state flow, Eq. 7 is simplY
!
re
ST = hw,t <$>rdr ........................(9)
rw
or
dST
= 2whkt<~>r ..............................
(lo)
r
where rw is the wellbore radius and re the external
boundary radius and bt=tf-ti. Expressions for u
and dp/dr for steady state and pseudosteady state
conditions for Darcy and Forchheimer equations are
presented in Appendix C. For non-Darcy flow, the
pressure gradient during fluid flow is given by
dp v
=- U + BPU2 .......,.......,..........0...
(11)
dr k
in which
u = q/(2mrh) ................................0
(12)
The volumetric flow rate equations for steady state
and pseudo steady state cases can be expressed,
respectively, as
q = %@
. . . . . 0 , , . , , . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(13)
and
q= [1 - (r/re)21q5cB ........................(14)
For Darcy flow simply set the turbulence factor
(3=0.
Note that the transient state case will not
be considered since the production period at the
transient state condition is negligible compared to
the pseudo steady state condition.
Letting ST=O and P=Pwf at r=rw, then Eq. 8
for pseudo steady state or Eq. 10 for steady state
and Eq. 11 are integrated simultaneously until the
external boundary, i.e. r=re, using a n~rical
method for the ordinary differential equations. In
this study the Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg four (five)
Methodll is used.
ENTROPY GENERATION IN WELLS
For wells operating isothermally at constant
terminal rates the rate of entropy production is
predicted by:
& P,cfv3
<$> = = ...........................(15)
T 2DTB
where the rate of energy dissipation due to
frictional leases is given by Eq. A.6. The
velocity term is expressed as
..%
q
v ......?...................
~D2/4
mD2/h
and B is the formation volume factor of the f
fluid. Hence, the total entropy generation o~
the well length is
ft~ fL
.(16)
owing
er
H
ST= <~>dldt .........................(17)
tj O
or in differential form
a
0
ST .
=<s> ........................5.......(16;
Tt at
For steady state flow Eq. 17 simplifies to
ST =At
or
L
<~>d k ........................,....(19)
o
dST
= At<~> ..................................(20)
d!t
Since B is dependent on pressure, Eq. 18 or 20 must
be solved simultaneously with the well pressure
equation given by (Eq. D.7)
~+&(-pB2) ..........(21)
:=m
where L and H denote the length of well and depth,
respectively. The wellhead pressure, pwh, and flow
rate, qsc, are specified with respect to the
sandface andS~O for !2=0.
Eqs. 18 or 20 and 21
are integrated simultaneously until the wellbore,
~~~~~~:~i~f the Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg four -
.
SKIN EFFECT
The akin effect can be incorporated into the
analysis by the apparent well bore radius concept:
rw
= rwe-s
........,....................,....
(22)
SPE 18855 FARUK CIVAN AND DJEBBAR TIAB 3
287
where s>O for damaged wells and s<O for improved
wells.
OPTIMUM RECOVERY
The ultimate recovery of reservoir fluids
depends on the pressure depletion characteristics
which in turn depends on the history of the
reservoir fluid flow patterns which determines the
magnitude of the irreversible processes. Blick and
Civan12 showed that permeability and non-Darcy
factor, which affect the pressure distribution in
porous media, depend not only on the porous media
geometry but also on the Reynolds number. This
fact is also apparent from the dimensional analysis
presented in Appendix B. Therefore, irreversible
loss of mechanical energy is influenced strongly by
the variationa of the permeability and non-Darcy
factor. Hence, it is possible to maximize the
ultimate recovery by selecting the wellhead
pressure andior flow as well as the spacing of the
wells in such a way that the total entropy
production over the production period is minimized.
The optimum operating conditions can be determined
by solving the following equations simultaneously
with respect to the variables, ~i, to be optimized:
i = 1,2,3,..., M variables .................(23)
APPLICATION TO A PSEUDO STEADY STATE CASE
Consider a dry gas reservoir pro~ucing
through a well at a constant terminal rate of qsc
at pseudo steady state condition. The pertinent
data are given in Table 1. The problem is to
determine the optimum terminal rate maximizing the
utilization of the reservoir fluid energy and the
ultimate recovery factor.
The non-Darcy flow coefficient is redicted
using the correlation by Tiss and Evansl?. The
friction factor for porous media is predicted usin
the generalized correlation by Tiab and Donaldson
1%
based on the data by Cornell and Katz15. The
friction factor correlations for tubular flow were
obtained from Ikoku16.
Production by pseudo ateady state condition
begins at some time ti with pe=pi at r=re and ends
at some tf when the abandonment pressure is reached
at the well head. The period governed by pseudo
steady state condition is determined by Eq. C.11 in
Append&x C. During this period the reservoir fluid
pressure profiles shift in a parallel manner to
each other from the initial time ti to the final
time tf. A typical sketch of the pressure
distribution for the well-reservoir system is
depicted in Fig. 1 for a constant terminal
production rate, qsc.
The step-by-step procedure for determining
the total entropy production is presented in the
following.
1. Start with the well-reservoir data given by
Table I.
4 SECOND LAW ANALYSIS OF PETROLEUM RESERVOIRS FOR OPTIMIZED PERFORMANCE SPE 18855
2. Choose a production rate qsc. 5* Second law analysis of a dry gas well-reservoir
system is presented. Although, for this particular
3.
Let Pwh=(pwh)f be the abandonment pressure at
8=0,
simple case a meaningful mathematical optimum
terminal rate cannot be found the analysis
presented in this paper can serve as means of
4. Integrate the well equations, Eqs. 18 and 21,
calculating the total entropy generation, and how
fromE=O to E=H and then, the reservoir equations,
it relates to reservoir performance.
Eqs. 8 and 11, from r=rw to r=re using the Runge-
Kutta-Fehlberg four (five) mathod.ll Calculate
6. Wellbore conditions affect the value of the
d(S~ell+STreseryoir
)/dt and the average reservoir
maximum entropy generated and, consequently, the
fluid pressure, p, by Eq. C.1O.
recovery factor. A positive skin causes the in-
situ reservoir energy to be consumed nuch faster
i .. Increase pwh by some amount Ap.
than for a negative skin, for the ssme production
rate. inefficient use of the reservoir in-situ
6. Repeat the steps 4 and 5 until the pressure at
energy will result in low ultimate recovery.
r=re becomes equal to Pe?i.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
7. Calculate the total entropy generation over the
pseudo steady state ~eriod by
The authors gratefully acknowledge the
National Science foundation - EPSCOR Grant RII-
mre2h
J
fii d(S~ell+STreservoir
) QXF)ct(F)
8610676 for financial support of this work and Dr.
ST=
d;
W.A. Sibley, the EPSCOR Project Director for the
State of Oklahoma. The support from the School of
% if
dt B(;)
Petroleum and Geological Engineering and the
...(24)
College of Engineering computing facilities at the
University of Oklahoma is appreciated.
in which the integral is evaluated according to
Civan and Sliepcevich21, and Eq. C.11 ia used to
NOMENCIMURE
express ti~ in terms of the average pressure.
a coefficient of accelation, m/s2
8. print qsc and sT.
B formation volume factor, standard m3/m3
9. Repeat eteps 1 through 8 until sufficient data
%
total effective compressibility, Pa-l
of ST VS. qsc are generated.
10. Correlate or plot the recovery factor versus
z mean pore diameter, m
the cumulative entropy production over the pseudo-
D diameter, m
steady etate production period, as shown in Fig. 2,
and determine the optimum recovery factor
corresponding to reasonable terminal rate value.
&
rate of dissipation of mechanical energy in
tubular flow, J/m3-a
It is evident from Fig. 2 that the wellbore
%p
rate of dissipation of mechanical energy in
conditions, i.e. skin factor, affect the rate of
porous media, JJm3-s.
entropy generation and consequently the optimum
recovery factor. For instance when a=5 the entropy fF
Fanning friction factor, dimensionless
generated reaches its maximum early, which causes
the recovery factor to drop drastically. However
f~
when s=-5, the entropy generated reaches its
Moody friction factor, dimensionless
maximum much later, therefore the reservoir is
fp Porous media friction factor, dimensionless
produced at a high recovery factor for a longer
period of time for the same production rate.
Flz
gravityforce, N
CONCLUSIONS Fi inertical force, N
1.. A more rigorous formulation of the porous media
P
pressure force, N
momentum equation is presented. New, accurate
correlations for the permeability and the non-Darcy Fv viscous force, N
flow coefficients are proposed based on the method
of dimensional analysis. h formation thickness, m
2. Nonlinear, steady state and pseudo steady state
H well depth, m
solutions arc presented for accurate analysis of
radial flow problama.
k permeability, m2
3. A generalized pressure equation for flowing
t
length, m
wells ie.derived.
L well length, m
4. Expression for the energy dissipation rate and
entropy calculation for flow through circular tubes
P
pressure, Pa
and porous usidiaare presented.
SPE 18855 FARUK CIVAN AND DJEBBAR TIAB
5
Pe
external boundary pressure, Pa
Pob
overburden pressure required for Tiss and
Evans13 correlation, Pa
Pwf
flowing well pressure, Pa
q
flow rate, m31s
qsc
production rate at standard conditions,
ztandard m3/s
r radius, m
e
external boundary radius, m
rw
wellborb radius, m
i entropy production rate, J/K-m3-s
ST
total entropy production, J/K
s
Wc
connate water saturation, fraction
tab abandonment time, s
tf final time, s
ti initial time, s
T temperature, K
u volumetric flux, m3/m2-s
v velocity, mjs
v volume, m3
P
pore volume, m3
w work, J
z gas.deviation factor, dimensionless
D non-Darcy coefficient, m-l
8
specific gravity of gas, dimensionless
c variable
e angle of inclination, degree
L1 viscosity, Pa-s
P density of fluid, kg/m3
T stear stress, Pa
Q porosity, fraction
1. Veraluys, J.: Energy Relationships in the
Oil Bearing Formation, The Oil Weekly, Oct.
15, 1934, pp. 38-46.
2. Schilthius, R.J.: Active oil and reservoir
Energy, Trans., AIME, Vol. 110 (1936) pp.
33-51.
3. Sage, B.H. and Lacey, W.N.: *EnergyRelations
in Flowing Wells, API Drilling and
4.
5,
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
120
13.
14.
150
16.
17.
Production Practices - 1935, American
Petroleum Institute, New York, NY, 1936, pp.
107-115.
Tiab, D., Sarathie, S.P., and Chichlow, H.B.:
Thermodynamic Analysis of Gas Reservoirs,
ASHE Proceedings, Energy Tech. Conf. and
Exhibition, New Orleans, LA, Feb. 3-7, 1980.
Sarathi, S.P., and Tiab, D.: Effect of
Production Rate on the In-Situ Energy
Utilization of Dry and Condensate Gas
Reservoirs, SPE Proceedings, Middle East
Tech. Conf., Bahrain, March 9-12, 1981.
Tiab, D., and Duruewuru, A.U.: Thermodynamic
Analysis of Tranaient Two-Phase Flow i.n
Petroleum Reservoirs, SPE Production Engr.
J. (Nov. 1988) pp. 495-507.
Arpaci, V.S.: Radiative Entropy Production -
Lost Heat Into Entropy, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer, Vol. 30, No. 10 (1987), pp. 2215-
2223.
Mukherjee, P., Biswaa, G., and Nag, P.K.:
Second-Law Analysis of Heat Transfer in
Swirling F1OW Through a Cylindrical Duct,
Trans. ASME, J. heat Transfer, Vol. 109 (May,
1987), pp. 308-313.
San, J.Y., Worek, W.M. and Lavan, Z.:
Entropy Generation in Convective Heat
Transfer and Isothermal Convective Mass
Transfer, Trans. ASME, J. Heat Tranafer,
Vol. 109 (Aug. 1987), pp. 647-652.
Slattery, J.C., Momentum, Energy and Mass
Transfer in Continua, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 1972, 679 p.
Fehlberg, E.: Low-order classical Runge-Kutta
formulas with stepsize control and their
application to some heat transfer problems,
NASA TR R-315, NASA, Huntsville, AL, 1969.
Blick, E.F. and Civan, F.: Porous Media
Momentum Equation for Highly Accelerated
Flow, SPE Reservoir Engr. J., Vol. 3 (1988)
pp. 1048-1052.
Tiss, M. and Evans, R.D.: The Measurement and
Correlation of the Non-Darcy Flow
Coefficients in Consolidated Porous Media, to
appear iriJ. Petroleum Science and
Engineering.
Tiab, D. and Donaldson, E.C.: Reservoir Rock
Properties, SPE Textbook Series, Dallas, TK,
to appear.
Cornell, D., and Katz, D.L.: Flow of Gases
Through Consolidated Porous Media, Ind. Eng.
Chem., Vol. 45, p. 2145, 1953.
Ikoku, C.U.: Natural Gas Production
Engineer-, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1984, 517 p.
De Vries, A.S. and Wit, K.: Rheology of
Gas/Water Foam in the Quality Range Relevant
to Steam Foam, proceedings of 1988 SPE Annual
.
G
6 SECOND LAW ANALYSIS OF PETROLEUM RESERVOIRS FOR OPTIMIZF!D P17RFOUCE SPE 1885: .--.-. -- .
Technical Conference & Exhibition, since the Moody and Fanning friction factora are
EOR/Ceneral Petroleum Engineering, Oct. 2-5,
related by
Houston, Texas, SPE 18075, pp. 193-203.
f~ = 4fF
18.
(A.7)
Collins, R.E.: Flow of Fluids Through Porous
..................................,.
Materials, PennWell Publ. Co., Tulsa,
Oklahoma, 1961, 270 p.
and O=pae/B.
Note that if Eqa. A.3, 4 and 7 are combined
19. De Nevers, N.,: Fluid Mechanics, Addison-
the Moody friction factor is defined by
Wesley Fubl. Co., Reading, Massachusetts,
1970, 514 p.
20. Ahmed, N. and Sunada, D.K.: Nonlinear flow
in porous media, Proc. ASCE J. Hydraulic
fH=+f;)fl~~;) ..........(A.8)
Div., Vol. 95, NY 6, 1847.
The friction factor, fM, is correlated with respect
to the Reynolds number
21. Civan, F. and Sliepcevich, C.M.: Solving
Integro-Differential Equations by the
Quadrature Method, Integral Methods in
PVD
Science and Enfzineering,Payne, F.R., et al.
Re= ....................................(A.9)
(eds), Hemisphere Pub. Co., New York, pp.
M
106-113, 1986.
(2) Porous Media Flow
APPENDIX A
ENERGY DIsSIPATION RATE
Eqs. A.5.or A.6 and A.? are applicable for
calculating the energy dissipation rate during
(1) Tubular Flow
porous media flow, if the porous system is
represented by an equivalent tube whose apparent
The rate of energy dissipation due to
diameter is a volume average of irregular shaped
frictional losses is expressed by (De Vries and
pore apace conducting the fluid, considering the
Wit17)
effect of the irregularity on the flow pattern. By
this definition the mean pore diameter ~ used
&w
by Collins18 and the hydraulic diameter suggested
&=Pvr (Al)
by De Nevers19 are not adequate for the purpose of
....,..............,..........G ,G
this study. To include the effect of flow patterns
Ahmed and Sunada20 and Cornell and Katz15 utilized
an integral form of the Forchheimer equation,
where WL is the irreversible loss of work per unit
mass of fluid. ,The frictional pressure loss and
considering the average properties of.fluids and
lost work during flow through a tube are related by
the porous media over the flow distance, and showed
(Ikoku16),
that
()
1
dp
()
Ap v
p6w~ =+1 .......................(All)
- ............................(A.2)
~PU2 L pufik
dk f=~
Hence, the Reynolds number and friction factor for
The wall shear stress during tubular flow is given porous media can be written as according to Eq.
by
All,
D
()
dp Pufik
%4
=.- .............................(A.3) Rep . _ .................................
d!i f
(A.12)
u
where D is the tube diameter. The Fanning friction
factor is defined by 1
()
Ap
fps ..............................(A.13)
=W
fF =
f3PU2 L
.................................(A.4)
,0.5pv2
Comparing Eqs. A.9 with Eq. A.12 yields an
Combining Eqs. A.1-4 yields
expression for the apparent diameter
4fl?
D=~k .....................................(A.14)
%
=- (o.5pv3) .,.........................(A.5)
Since the actual velocity, v, end the apparent
D.
velocity, u, are related by
or,
u
pscfMv3
v= .............................(A. 15)
%
Q(1 - Swc)
...............................,,(A.6)
2DB
Substituting Eqs. A.lfIand A.15 and P=Psc/B into
Eq. A.6 yields
.
SPE 18855 FARUK CIVAN AND DJEBBAR TIAB
.
P~cfp13u3
%=e(l. ,)B
..........................(A.16)
Wc
APPENDIX B
POROUS MEDIA 140HENTUMEQUATION
For the purpose of entropy analysis of fluid
flow through porous media, it is important that the
momentum equation involves the effect of
irreversible leas of fluid momentum. A force
balance for the fluid contained in the pore apace
of the reservoir formation ie expressed by
Fi=Fp-Fg-Fv .....................,.....(B.1)
where Fp, Fg, Fv and Fi are the pressv:e, gravity,
viscous and inertial forces, respectively. Fp and
Fg are given by:
Fp = @tip ...................................(B.2)
where Ap is the pressure differential over a
distance L in the flow direction, and
Fg . (pALPg
. , . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (B.3)
The viscous force can be expressed by the
functionality
Fv =FV(P, u, U; z, L) ............,.........(B.4)
in which the mean pore diameter, ; is defined by
Eq. (A.14).
The dimensional anulysis method yields:
Fv
()
z Puz
=fl . , .........................(B.5)
puL L
P
The inertial force is given by
Fi = @iLPa ......,...........................(B.6)
where the coefficient of acceleration, a, can be
expressed as follows
a = a(p, M, u, Ap, x, L) ....................(B.7)
Hence, the dimensional analyais method yields
aL
(7
~ - PAp
.....0...0.......0......(B.8)
2= f2i p
Combining Eqs. B.1, 2, 3, 5 and 8 gives
-(:+P6)=*U+(3U2 ---Q--.-(B)
Taking the limit as L+O, Eq. A.9 becomes
-( )
dp B
+pg =. u + DDU2 ...................(B.1O)
d!t k
In Eq. B.1O, the permeability, k, and turbulence
coefficient, ~, are defined, respectively, by
()
WA
k s limit ...............................
(B.11)
L* f~
()
f~
f!~ limit .....,........................
(B.12)
L* L
Considering the functional dependency of fl and,f2
given by Eqs. B.5 and 8 it becomes clear that
permeability and turbulence coefficient depend not
only on the porous media geometry, but also on the
conditions of the fluid. This point has been
diecussed by Blick and Civan.12
APPENDIX C
DARCY AND NON-DARCY FLOW EQUATIONS
I. Non-Darcy Flow
1. Pseudosteady State Flow
During pseudoateady state, the rate of change
of pressure with respect to time is constant and is
given for a reservoir operating at a constant
terminal rate of q9c by
ap
qscB
= ....,...................,......(Cl)
at @cthnre2
in which B is the reservoir fluid formation volume
factor at the reservoir conditions, p pressure,re
drainageradiua,h formationthickness,e porosity,
and c total effective compressibility.
f
Letting
ct=~ pap and using the chain rule and substituting
Sq. C.1 and P=Pac/B into the equation of continuity
la .aP
.
(qp) = 2whQ .......O.................(C.2)
r h at
yields
()()
dq 2r
R-
4Sc ..............S.........(C.3)
z:
re2
Integrating Eq. C.3 gives the volumetric flow rate
in the reservoir as
q
()
r
2
-=cl-
%c
.....00.....*............(C.4)
B
Ye
where Cl is a constant of integration. The
volumetric flux is
u=q12nrh .................,...........,......(C.5)
For non-Darcy flow, Forchheimer equation appliea
dp p
=- U + ppu ........,....................(C.6)
dr k
To determine the constant, Cl, in Eq. C.4
subi$titvteEqs. C.4 and C.5 in Eq. C.6 and let
G
P=P=ch3. Hence, Eq. C.6 becomes
I
11. Darcy Flow
:= B[:QX3+)
If the flow of fluid is relatively slow then
its motion is governed by Darcys law; therefore,
f3=0in Eqs. C.7 and C.14.
+Bpsc~~7(&-3y] ................c.7.
For a volumetric reservoir, dp/dr=O at r=re, and
Eq. C.7 yields two solutions for the integration
constant,
c1 = qsc ..................,.................(C.8)
2vrhB
cl=qsc-
I
.............0..0.0...(C.9)
k(3Psc r=re
The second solution yields negative reaulta.
Therefore, only the first solution is considered
for Eq. C.7 to determine the pressure distribution.
If the average reservoir pressure, p, is
defined by
2
J
e
;=?
prdr .,...,...,.,.....,.........(Colo)
.re w
then, Eq. C.1 yields the production time as upon
integration
1
wrezh ~i v(~)ct(~)
t.ti+_
d; .O..........(c.ll)
qsc i
(j)
2. Steady State Flow
The equation of continuity, Eq. C.2,
simplifies for steady state flow as
d
~ (qP) = 0 .................,..,..,........(C.12)
SubstitutingP=Prc/B and integrating Eq. C.12
yields
ql = qsc ..........,.........,.............(C.13)
in which q denote the actual volumetric flow rate
in the reservoir and qsc the constant terminal rate
at standard conditions. Thus, substituting
O=Osc/B, Eqs. C.5 and C,13 into the Forchheimer
equation, Eq. c.6, yields
In the preceding equations, B=BO for 0:.1.
For gas B=Bg where
APPBNDIX D
PRESSURE EQUATION FOR FLOWING WELLS
The energy equation for a well of length L
and de th H, flowing at a steady rate is given by
%
Ikokul ~
dp dv 8W1
+pv +pgsine+p_=O .............(D.1)
dk dfi dt
On the other hand, one can write the following
reiutionships:
sine = H/L = dzjdt ..........................(D.2)
tiwl f@2
=- v .,..............,.,....,,......(D.3)
d!LD2
D = Psc/B ...................................(D.4)
q
= qsc ,.....,............................G ,(D.5)
/()
~D2
V=q ................................(D.6)
T
Hence, substituting Eqs. D,2-6 and rearranging Eq.
D.1 becomes
dp
=
d~
+C):X++2BZ
B
()
2
qec d
+
%c
~DZf4
dp
............(D.7)
For prescribed values of the flowrate, qsc, and the
well head pressure a numerical solution of Eq. D.7
is obtained by means of the Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg
four (five) Methodll. For gases B ~ Bg given by
Eq. C.15 and for liquids B E Bo.
SI METRIC CONVERSION tiACTORS
bbl X 1.589873
Cp x 1.0*
ft X 3.048*
psi x 6.894757
lbm X 4.535924
lbf X 4.448222
Btu X 1.055056
(F - 32)/1.8
E-01 = m3
E-03 = Pans
E-01 = m
E+OO = kPa
E-01 = kg
E+OO = N
E+03 = J
=0
c
()
P
Tz
* Conversion factor is exact.
BS=E
............................(C.15)
Sc P
I
. .
E 18855
Table I
Data for dry gas well-reservoirsystem
Quantity FieldUnits S1 Units
Ct 1.0x10-2psia 6.893x10-zPa
D 2.0 in 0.0508m
H 5,000 ft
1.52x103m
h 24 ft 7.32m
k 5 mdarcy 5X10-15m2
L 8,000 ft 2.44x103m
Pi 4,000psia
2.76x107Pa
p~b
1.45x106psia l.OxlOIOPa
(p~h)f 2,000psia 1.38x107Pa
e
2,980 ft
9.1X103In
(640ac-spacing)
w
2.0 in
0.0508m
s
Wc
0.20
0.20
T 702 R 390 K
Q 0.15 0.15
Yg
0.75 0.75
-.
WELL
(Pwh)i
&
f
(Pwh)f
SPE 1$85; .
RESERVOIR
i
---- -.
(Pwf)f
w
RADIUS,r r
e
Figure 1. Pressure Distribution in Well and Reservoir System During
Pseudo-State Production at a Constant Terminal Rate.
1.0-
w
T
0.9qsc
=0.01m3/s
(o.0305NMscf/d)
0.8
q
=0.1m3/s
S=-5
(::305MNscf/d)
0.7
0.6
~
s+)
;
0.5
5=5
/
I
1
0.4
0.
0.2 -
0.
0
106 1017
~018
~019 ~020
CUMULATIVEENTROPYPRODUCTION,J/K
Figure 2. Recovery Factor Versus Cumulative Entropy Production as a
Function of Flow Rate and Skin Factor.