WB Course Part 3

Low Temperature Eutectic Bonding
¾There are a range of indium alloys that allow eutectic

bonding to be performed at temperatures < 200oC. (Ref 50)
¾This is important for compatibility with materials that

cannot be subjected to higher temperatures.
¾ Sufficiently low a temperature to consider using the process

for joining dissimilar materials for which a thermal expansion
mismatch exists
AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

Low Temperature Eutectic Bonding
(Ref 43)
In Au Phase Diagram

The bonding principle of In-Au system:
(a) multiplayer Au-In composite on the
die converts to In-AuIn2 composite right
after deposition;
(b) at 157 o C, indium layer melts and

turns the composite into a mixture of
liquid phase with AuIn2 grains;
(c) in 157-180 o C range, more AuIn2 is

produced;
(d) solidification of the mixture to form a

joint below 157 o C.
Despite the large mismatch on coefficient
of thermal expansion (CTE) between
silicon and copper, no die cracking is
observed
Materials for Adhesive Bonding
Epoxies Thermal or two part curing
UV-epoxies One of the substrates has to be transparent to

UV light)
+ve photoresists UV / thermal curing, selective bonding, weak bond
-ve photoresists UV / thermal curing, selective bonding
Benzocyclobutene (BCB) thermal curing, high yield , selective bonding
PMMA thermal curing, hot melt
Fluoropolymers thermal curing, chemically very stable bond
Waxes hot melt, mainly for temporary bond

Time Scale for Moisture Penetration through
various Materials
(Ref 33)

Typical process steps for adhesive wafer bonding
(1/3)
1. Cleaning and drying of the wafers. Remove particles,
contaminations, and moisture from the wafer surfaces.
2. Treating the wafer surfaces with an adhesion promoter -
optional.
Adhesion promoters can enhance the adhesion between
the wafer surfaces and the polymer adhesive
3. Applying the polymer adhesive to the surface of one or
both wafers; patterning the polymer adhesive optional.
The most commonly used application method is spin
coating.
3a. Polymer patterning (optional)
(2/3)
4. Soft baking or partially curing of the polymer. Solvents
and volatile substances are removed from the polymer
coating. Thermosetting adhesives should not be
polymerized, or may only be partially polymerized.
Thermoplastic adhesives may be completely polymerized,
since they can be remelted to achieve bonding.
5. Placing the wafers in the bond chamber, establishing a
vacuum atmosphere, and joining the wafers inside the
bond chamber.
The wafers are joined in a vacuum atmosphere to prevent
voids and gases from being trapped at the bond interface.
The vacuum atmosphere can also be established after the
wafers are joined, as long as trapped gases at the bond
interface can be pumped away before the bond is initiated.
(3/3)
6. Apply pressure to the wafer stack with the bond tool.
The wafer and polymer adhesive surfaces are forced into

intimate contact over the entire wafer. For thermosetting
polymer adhesives, the bonding pressure should be
applied before the curing temperature is reached. If
thermoplastic polymer adhesives are used, the bond
pressure can be applied after the bonding temperature is
reached.
7. Remelting or curing the polymer adhesive while applying
pressure with the bond tool.
The hardening procedure depends on the curing
mechanism of the used polymer adhesive. The reflow of
the polymer adhesive is typically triggered through elevated
temperature.
8. Chamber purge, cool down, and bond pressure release.
Polymer adhesive and wafer materials
¾The intermediate polymer adhesive must not release
solvents or by-products during the hardening process if the
wafer materials are not permeable to gases.
¾Volatile substances get trapped as voids at the bond
interface if they evolve from the polymer adhesive after the
wafers are joined.
The polymer adhesive must provide sufficient wetting of the
wafer surfaces and flow or achieve a viscoelastic state during
the bonding process.
¾The wafer materials must be compatible with the bonding
process e.g., temperatures, UV light transparency.

Amount /size of particles, wafer surface
topography, and adhesive thickness
¾Particle-free surfaces are key to good bonding results.
Particles at the wafer surface that are larger than the
thickness of the polymer adhesive may cause bonding defects
or extended voids.
¾ If the wafer surface topography is high compared to the
thickness of the polymer layer, unbonded areas can result.
The polymer reflow and the wafer deformation may not
compensate for the topographic features on the wafer surface.
¾-The use of very thin 1μm polymer layers more likely results
in unbonded areas than the use of thicker polymer layers.
Thin polymer layers compensate for surface non-uniformities
and particles at the bond interface to a lesser extend.
Alignment during adhesive bonding
Issue – accurate alignment can be difficult when using thick

adhesive layers. The problem arises due the wafers moving
relative to each other due to the pre-cured adhesive acting as
a lubricating layer. This restricts alignment accuracy to approx
20microns
AML have developed special tooling that overcomes this
limitation.
The key step is to pin the wafers together at the centre during
curing
In Situ Observation of Bond Progress
In-situ observation of epoxy spread during

aligned bonding
Bonding Tools
Controlled wafer contact Wafer bow system
The system shown enables

the aligned wafers to
brought into contact
without any alignment
shift (provided that the
platens are set up to be
lower chuck
parallel
The set up works even with thick adhesive bonding , enabling 1 micron
alignment accuracy, whereas conventional mask aligner / transfer to
bond chamber processes can only achieve 10-20 micron accuracy.

Bonding pressure / force
¾The bonding pressure facilitates deformation of the
intermediate polymer adhesive and the wafers, and brings the
surfaces in sufficiently close contact to achieve bonding.
¾High bonding pressures increase the conceivable
deformation of the polymer adhesive and the wafers.
However, excessive bonding pressures may cause high
stress. Thus, structures that are present on the wafers can be
destroyed or the wafers may crack.
¾The bonding pressure that is introduced to the wafer stack
should be uniform to avoid differences in the resulting
thickness of the intermediate polymer material.
¾Polymer adhesives tend to flow from areas of higher
pressure towards areas of lower pressure while they are in a
liquid phase. AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services
Polymerisation level of the polymer adhesive
¾Thermosetting polymer adhesives should be unpolymerized

or partly polymerized prior to bonding.
¾If the amount of polymerization before creating the bond is
too high, the polymer adhesive does not deform and adapt
sufficiently to the wafer surfaces.
¾For thermoplastic polymer adhesives the amount of
polymerization before the bonding is not decisive. They remelt
during the bonding process to achieve bonds between the
surfaces.

Wafer thickness
¾Thin wafers are more easily deformed by the bonding
pressure to compensate to surface nonuniformities at the
bond interface and thus, less stress is introduced at the bond
interface.
Polymer curing conditions
¾The bonding temperature and the temperature ramping

cycles have to be adjusted to the requirements of the
used polymer adhesive.

Anodic Bonding: Comparison
with Adhesive Bonding
Advantages:
• Higher strength bond
• True hermetically sealed cavities achievable (polymer adhesives
have significant diffusion rates)
• Better long term stability
• Zero thickness bondline results in better dimensional control
• Better thermal expansion match
Drawbacks:
• Higher process temperatures
• Sealing over thick tracks not possible
Thermocompression
Bonding
•Bond formed by plastic deformation of bonding layers
•Bond formed with heat + pressure only
•Relatively low temperature process (typically in the
250C~320C region)
•Thin film intermediary as bonding layer
•Au is the principle material used in thermocompression
bonding. Cu and other metals can be used. Softer metals
allow for less aggressive process conditions, e.g. indium.
•Intermediary needs to yield under the available process
conditions.
•Accommodates larger surface roughness than direct
bonding.

Thermocompression
Bonding 2
•For hermetic seals the surface roughness still needs to be very
low
•Thin film intermediary means thermal mismatch between
bonding layer
and substrate is less critical
•Good dimensional control of the bond interface / structures in
the interface
•For large bonding areas, very high forces are required
•Bonding has been successful at pressures between 1MPa and
120MPa.
Insert SAM example

Thermocompression
Bonding 3
•Trade off between process temperatures and bonding force
•High strength bonding requires >30MPa.
•Purity of the gold layer is important
•A diffusion barrier is required to prevent Si diffusion into
the gold layer.
•Thermocompression reference – ref 49
SEM images of gold surface

without diffusion barrier.

Thermocompression 4
•Layer thickness can be as low as 0.25um, however thicker layers
are required to overcome wafer TTV.
•Important to have all bonding surface in contact at low pressure
•Bonding time is not a significant variable. Process can be very short

•reference
Thermocompression
Applications
•Gold thermocompression bonding can be performed 260C,
therefore many devices can be packaged
•In principle a thermocompression bond can form a hermetic

seal given smooth surfaces and flat wafers.
•Bond can also be used to form interconnections to the device

wafer during the encapsulation process.
•There is no out gassing during the bonding process so the

technique is suitable for high vacuum packaging.

Examples of
Thermocompression Bonds

Applications of Wafer
Bonding
Breakdown of bonding applications in industrial devices
• Glass Frit ~43%

• Anodic 37%
• Silicon bonding 8%
• Epoxy 7%
• Eutectic 5%

Some products on the market
that use anodic bonding
• Pressure sensors – Bosch

• Accelerometers - SensoNor
• Gyroscopes - British Aerospace
• Micropumps - Debiotech

Devices under development
using anodic bonding
• Optical MEMS switches
• Microfluidic Devices
• Optical Tuneable filters
• Microphones
• Flow simulators for the oil industry

Example of Anodic Bonding Application
Bosch - Bulk micromachining Pressure
sensor
Sensor chip Membrane
Bondwires
Reference
vacuum
Metall Glass
housing basis
Test environment

Example of SensoNor Product
that uses Triple Stack Bonding
• 4th generation
SensoNor wafer
process
• 3-stack glass-Si-glass
• Hermetically sealed
• Buried conductor
technology (patent)

SensoNor - Foundry Service using Bulk
Micromachining and Wafer Bonding
The central silicon wafer is structured using bulk

micromachining to form beams, cantilevers,
nozzles, etc, and the outer glass wafers are
hermetically bonded using wafer bonding (in this
case, anodic bonding)
Product examples
Accelerometers
• SA series
e.g. 20 ,30 ,50
Tyre pressure sensors

• SP series
e.g. 10,11,12,13..
SensoNor

Silicon Sensing Products; Gyro

Debiotech’s micropump

Debiotech’s micropump
Cross section
showing pump
mechanism
Pump chip
- AML – Wafer Bonding

APPLIED MICROENGINEERING - AML Machines & Services
- the Design House
Applications of Silicon
Direct Bonding

Application of Direct Bonding
Microfluidics (Valves and Pumps)

Combine Bonding with DRIE

Microcombustor
•MEMS for power

generation
Hydrogen or
hydrocarbon fuels
•Multi-wafer stack
•Aligned wafer
bonding

Microcombustor

Smart Cut ™ Process

Applications of Glass
Frit Bonding

Bosch accelerometer
Cross Section of the accelerometer Structure
Glass frit bond

Memscap Precision Pressure
Sensor

Applications of
Adhesive Bonding

Three Dimensional Wafer Integration Using
Adhesive Bonding

Process Sequence for Membrane Transfer
Bonding Using Adhesive Bonding
Sacrificial
Device Wafer Sacrificial Adhesive Transducer
Device Wafer
Target Wafer Target Wafer Target Wafer
(a) (b) (c)

Electrical
Contact Pads Via Contacts
Target Wafer Target Wafer Target Wafer
(d) (e) (f)

Process Sequence for CMOS compatible
Bolometers Using Adhesive Bonding
Sacrificial SiO2
Device Wafer Sacrificial Contact
Device Wafer ULTRA-i 300 Pads (Al)
SiN Ti/Pt Si
Target Wafer (IC) Target Wafer (IC) Target Wafer (IC) Target Wafer (IC)
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Electrical Poly Silicon
Electrical Via Contacts (Al) (Thermistor)
Sputtered Al Via Contacts MoSi Contact Pads (Al) Ti/Pl SiN MoSi
Target Wafer (IC) Target Wafer (IC) Target Wafer (IC) Target Wafer (IC)
(e) (f) (g) (h)

Applications of Low
Temperature Bonding
• Opto- electronic Integration
• Thermal management
• Engineered Substrates
• Layer transfer

Applications of Low Temperature Bonding
Layer Transfer
•Layer transfer by:-
–Bonding and Etch Back Using Etch Stop Layer
–Etch Release Layer, e.g. porous Si layer
–Layer Splitting, e.g. “Smart Cut” technology where H ion
implantation causes a defect plane which can be cleanly split
away from the bulk material
–Lateral Etching
•Important for SOI fabrication and epi layer fabrication
ref 19,20,
Engineered Substrates
•Ability to bond at room temperature allows
different CTE substrates to be bonded
together, e.g.
•Particularly important for opto electronics,
allows combination of electronics with high
performance optical substrates

Source:
MIT

Source:
MIT

Source:
MIT

Emerging Application:
Wafer Level Packaging
• Anodic bonding already widely used for first order
packaging (i.e. sensitive microstructure already
hermetically sealed but bond pads exposed for wire
bonding (e.g. SensoNor devices)
• Techniques under development for including vias in the

glass, plated feedthroughs and solder bumps such that the
diced silicon / glass chips become the complete package.

Vacuum encapsulation
Many MEMS devices require vacuum encapsulation
be used – some perform better than others
Many bonding methods can

Avoid adhesives – issues with outgassing during bonding, and permeation in
subsequent use
Anodic bonding and glass frit bonding limited to 1 mBar (oxygen evolutin for
anodic, general outgassing for glas frit)
Metal seals are the most hermetic
Eutectic and thermocompression capable of achieving 10-4mBar
Maintaining the vacuum level requires use of getters

Getters
Getters maintain the vacuum level in encapsulated volumes
by reacting with / adsorbing evolved gasses
For wafer bonding best to use thin film getters
Can be deposited and patterned to locate the getters only in

the device cavities
Service provided by SAES Getters
Getters are chemically compatible with standard MEMS

cleaning processes inc SC1 and SC2

Getters
Can remove H2O, O2, CO, CO2, N2 & H2
Improves the vacuum level and also extends the life of the
device
Layer thickness typically 2 micron
Activation required at temperature 300 – 500C
Selective hydrogen getter also available

Getter Activation
Temp –Time Profile
Commercially Available Wafer
Bonding Equipment
For aligned bonding, only 3 serious manufacturers in the world
• AML
• EVG
• Suss Microtec (Karl Suss)

Commercially Available Wafer
Bonding Equipment
Important difference between AML wafer bonders and
other commercially available wafer bonding eqpt.
AML bonders are the only ones to feature in-situ alignment

Alignment
Two approaches taken by bonder manufacturers: pre-
alignment; and in-situ alignment.
Method Pros Cons
Pre-aligned •Can prepare wafers in advance •Requires separate aligner (usually a mask
•Simplifies bonder (no need for aligner), and a transfer tool for each wafer
manipulator stage with vacuum pair prepared in advance.
feedthroughs) •Cannot be sure alignment is maintained
•No lower limit on glass thickness during transfer and bonding.
In-situ •What you see is what you get – can •Increased machine complexity. Needs its
monitor (and change) alignment right up own split-field optical system
to the moment of bonding •Upper wafer must be > 200μm thick, or
•All processes integrated in one machine else larger diameter than the silicon
•Much lower overall cost
•Faster throughput

Important Issues for
Bonding Equipment
Alignment system is compatible with required processes (visible or IR)
Platen flatness (<5μm needed for force uniformity), Parallelism < 10 μm
Accurate temperature control (+/- 2oC – needed for some processes)
Independent control of upper & lower platens
Active cooling using N2(needed for high throughput)
Graphite platens and current limiting (for high quality anodic bonding)
Uniform force distribution (for eutectic, adhesive and frit bonding)
High vacuum – 2x10-6 mBar (needed for some wafer-scale packaging applications,
and devices such as bolometers)

Bonding Environment
• The surface chemistry of Si wafers is very important in direct
bonding
• Initial bond energy shown to decrease with time in vacuum
(H2O molecules leave the surface, reduction in range and
magnitude of hydrogen bonding)
• Variation in surface properties across the wafer can cause
variation in bond strength from device to device
• AML system maintains large separation between the wafers.
Therefore vacuum or process gas pressure is well known where
it matters – at the wafer surfaces
• Large wafer separation allows rapid and controllable pumping
time and therefore minimises time under vacuum

AWB04
•In-situ alignment +/-1μm
• PC controlled system
•Up to 2.5kV @ 40mA
•Wafers up to 150mm as standard
(200mm option)
•Max. wafer stack thickness
10mm
•Independent control of upper and
lower heaters to 560ºC in 1ºC
steps
•Highly flexible design – easily
customised
• Force up to 5kN

AWB04
•PC control (Automatic & manual modes)

Chamber Schematic for In-situ bonders
Features of AML Bonding Equipment
• Platens held in large separation during

heat up and pump down –good for
vacuum encapsulation
• Top wafer held inverted, clamped at
edge, no contact with bonding surface
• Top wafer is distorted by central pin
to ensure single wavefront
propagation
• Ability for in-situ cleaning / chemical
preparation of the wafer surfaces prior
View of chamber lid showing to bonding
in-situ optics

AML tooling solutions for Direct Bonding
• Two approaches – forced bond propagation and unforced bond
propagation
• Ideally Si-Si bond is self propagating- minimises stress/bow in
the resulting assembly (ref 3). The AML spring pin / edge clamp
tool allows control of self bond propagation rate and bond
initiation point
• If bulk physical properties and / or surface properties of the
wafers mean a bond will not self propagate - necessary to force
the wafers together. The AML pin chuck bond tool is designed
for this requirement
• The pin chuck tool allows wafers to be force bonded to a
particular curvature – in principle this could help to minimise
stress or achieve a flatter post bond assembly (important if multi
stack bonding is required) see below

WB Course Part 3

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Low Temperature Eutectic Bonding

¾There are a range of indium alloys that allow eutectic

¾This is important for compatibility with materials that

¾ Sufficiently low a temperature to consider using the process

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

(b) at 157 o C, indium layer melts and

(c) in 157-180 o C range, more AuIn2 is

(d) solidification of the mixture to form a

UV-epoxies One of the substrates has to be transparent to

+ve photoresists UV / thermal curing, selective bonding, weak bond

-ve photoresists UV / thermal curing, selective bonding

Benzocyclobutene (BCB) thermal curing, high yield , selective bonding

PMMA thermal curing, hot melt

Fluoropolymers thermal curing, chemically very stable bond

Waxes hot melt, mainly for temporary bond

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

The wafer and polymer adhesive surfaces are forced into

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

Issue – accurate alignment can be difficult when using thick

In-situ observation of epoxy spread during

The system shown enables

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

¾Thermosetting polymer adhesives should be unpolymerized

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

Polymer curing conditions

¾The bonding temperature and the temperature ramping

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

Insert SAM example

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

SEM images of gold surface

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

•Bonding time is not a significant variable. Process can be very short

•In principle a thermocompression bond can form a hermetic

•Bond can also be used to form interconnections to the device

•There is no out gassing during the bonding process so the

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

• Glass Frit ~43%

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

• Pressure sensors – Bosch

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

The central silicon wafer is structured using bulk

Tyre pressure sensors

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

- AML – Wafer Bonding

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

•MEMS for power

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

AML – Wafer Bonding Machines & Services

Cross Section of the accelerometer Structure