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The Internet TESL Journal
Language Learning Strategies in Foreign Language Learning and
Teaching
Murat Hismanoglu
mhismanoglu [at usa.net
Hacette!e "niversit# $An%ara& Tur%e#'
This !a!er aims at em!hasi(ing the im!ortance of language learning strategies in foreign language learning and teaching. It summari(es the
)ac%ground of language learning strategies& defines the conce!t of a language learning strateg#& and outlines the ta*onom# of language
learning strategies !ro!osed )# several researchers. It also ta%es into account the teacher+s role in strateg# training and !oses ,uestions for
further research on language learning strategies.
Introduction
There has )een a !rominent shift -ithin the field of language learning and teaching over the last t-ent# #ears
-ith greater em!hasis )eing !ut on learners and learning rather than on teachers and teaching. In !arallel to
this ne- shift of interest& ho- learners !rocess ne- information and -hat %inds of strategies the# em!lo# to
understand& learn or remem)er the information has )een the !rimar# concern of the researchers dealing -ith
the area of foreign language learning. This !a!er !rovides the )ac%ground of language learning strategies&
gives various definitions and ta*onomies of language learning strategies !resented )# several researchers. It
also stresses the im!ortance of language learning strategies for foreign language learning and the teacher+s
role in strateg# training. In the last section& the !a!er e*hi)its some ,uestions for further research on language
learning strategies.
Background of Language Learning Strategies
.esearch into language learning strategies )egan in the /012s. Particularl#& develo!ments in cognitive
!s#cholog# influenced much of the research done on language learning strategies $3iliams and 4urden
/0056/70'. In most of the research on language learning strategies& the !rimar# concern has )een on
8identif#ing -hat good language learners re!ort the# do to learn a second or foreign language& or& in some
cases& are o)served doing -hile learning a second or foreign language.8 $.u)in and 3enden /0956/0'. In
/011& Aaron :arton !u)lished his stud# entitled The Method of Inference in ;oreign Language Stud#& -hich
-as the first attem!t on learner strategies.After :arton& in /05/& .u)in started doing research focussing on the
strategies of successful learners and stated that& once identified& such strategies could )e made availa)le to
less successful learners. .u)in $/05<' classified strategies in terms of !rocesses contri)uting directl# or
indirectl# to language learning. 3ong=;illmore $/051'& Tarone $/055'& >aiman et al. $/059'& 4ial#sto% $/050'&
:ohen and A!he% $/09/'& 3enden $/09?'& :hamot and @+Malle# $/095'& Polit(er and McAroart# $/09<'& :onti
and Bolsod# $/005'& and man# others studied strategies used )# language learners during the !rocess of
foreign language learning.
Defnition of a Language Learning Strategy
The term language learning strateg# has )een defined )# man# researchers. 3enden and .u)in $/0956/0'
define learning strategies as 8... an# sets of o!erations& ste!s& !lans& routines used )# the learner to facilitate
the o)taining& storage& retrieval& and use of information.8 .ichards and Platt $/00?6?20' state that learning
strategies are 8intentional )ehavior and thoughts used )# learners during learning so as to )etter hel! them
understand& learn& or remem)er ne- information.8 ;aerch :laus and :as!er $/09C615' stress that a learning
strateg# is 8an attem!t to develo! linguistic and sociolinguistic com!etence in the target language.8 According
to Stern $/00?6?1/'& 8the conce!t of learning strateg# is de!endent on the assum!tion that learners consciousl#
engage in activities to achieve certain goals and learning strategies can )e regarded as )roadl# conceived
intentional directions and learning techni,ues.8 All language learners use language learning strategies either
consciousl# or unconsciousl# -hen !rocessing ne- information and !erforming tas%s in the language
classroom. Since language classroom is li%e a !ro)lem=solving environment in -hich language learners are
li%el# to face ne- in!ut and difficult tas%s given )# their instructors& learners+ attem!ts to find the ,uic%est or
easiest -a# to do -hat is re,uired& that is& using language learning strategies is inesca!a)le.
Language learning strategies language learners use during the act of !rocessing the ne- information and
!erforming tas%s have )een identified and descri)ed )# researchers. In the follo-ing section& ho- various
researchers have categori(ed language learning strategies -ill )e shortl# summari(ed6
Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies
Language Learning Strategies have )een classified )# man# scholars $3enden and .u)in /095D @+Malle# et
al. /09<D @*ford /002D Stern /00?D Ellis /007& etc. '. Ho-ever& most of these attem!ts to classif# language
learning strategies reflect more or less the same categori(ations of language learning strategies -ithout an#
radical changes. In -hat follo-s& .u)in+s $/095'& @*ford+s $/002'& @+Malle#+s $/09<'& and Stern+s $/00?'
ta*onomies of language learning strategies -ill )e handled6
Rubin's (1987) Classifcation of Language Learning Strategies
.u)in& -ho !ionered much of the -or% in the field of strategies& ma%es the distinction )et-een strategies
contri)uting directl# to learning and those contri)uting indirectl# to learning. According to .u)in& there are three
t#!es of strategies used )# learners that contri)ute directl# or indirectl# to language learning. These are6
Learning Strategies
:ommunication Strategies
Social Strategies
Learning Strategies
The# are of t-o main t#!es& )eing the strategies contri)uting directl# to the develo!ment of the language
s#stem constructed )# the learner6
:ognitive Learning Strategies
Metacognitive Learning Strategies
Cognitive Learning Strategies
The# refer to the ste!s or o!erations used in learning or !ro)lem=solving that re,uire direct anal#sis&
transformation& or s#nthesis of learning materials. .u)in identified 1 main cognitive learning strategies
contri)uting directl# to language learning6
:larification E Ferification
Auessing E Inductive Inferencing
Geductive .easoning
Practice
Memori(ation
Monitoring
Metacognitive Learning Strategies
These strategies are used to oversee& regulate or self=direct language learning. The# involve various !rocesses
as !lanning& !rioritising& setting goals& and self=management.
Communication Strategies
The# are less directl# related to language learning since their focus is on the !rocess of !artici!ating in a
conversation and getting meaning across or clarif#ing -hat the s!ea%er intended. :ommunication strategies
are used )# s!ea%ers -hen faced -ith some difficult# due to the fact that their communication ends outrun their
communication means or -hen confronted -ith misunderstanding )# a co=s!ea%er.
Social Strategies
Social strategies are those activities learners engage in -hich afford them o!!ortunities to )e e*!osed to and
!ractise their %no-ledge. Although these strategies !rovide e*!osure to the target language& the# contri)ute
indirectl# to learning since the# do not lead directl# to the o)taining& storing& retrieving& and using of language
$.u)in and 3enden /0956?C=?5'.
Oxford's (1990) Classifcation of Language Learning Strategies
@*ford $/00260' sees the aim of language learning strategies as )eing oriented to-ards the develo!ment of
communicative com!etence. @*ford divides language learning strategies into t-o main classes& direct and
indirect& -hich are further su)divided into 1 grou!s. In @*ford+s s#stem& metacognitive strategies hel! learners
to regulate their learning. Affective strategies are concerned -ith the learner+s emotional re,uirements such as
confidence& -hile social strategies lead to increased interaction -ith the target language. :ognitive strategies
are the mental strategies learners use to ma%e sense of their learning& memor# strategies are those used for
storage of information& and com!ensation strategies hel! learners to overcome %no-ledge ga!s to continue the
communication. @*ford+s $/0026/5' ta*onom# of language learning strategies is sho-n in the follo-ing 6
GI.E:T ST.ATEAIES
I. Memor#
A. :reating mental lin%ages
4. A!!l#ing images and sounds
:. .evie-ing -ell
G. Em!lo#ing action
II.:ognitive
A. Practising
4. .eceiving and sending messages strategies
:. Anal#sing and reasoning
G. :reating structure for in!ut and out!ut
III. :om!ensation strategies
A. Auessing intelligentl#
4. @vercoming limitations in s!ea%ing and -riting
I>GI.E:T ST.ATEAIES
I. Metacognitive Strategies
A. :entering #our learning
4. Arranging and !lanning #our learning
:. Evaluating #our learning
II. Affective Strategies
A. Lo-ering #our an*iet#
4. Encouraging #ourself
:. Ta%ing #our emotional tem!erature
III. Social Strategies
A. As%ing ,uestions
4. :oo!erating -ith others
:. Em!hathising -ith others
It can )e seen that much of the recent -or% in this area has )een under!inned )# a )road conce!t of language
learning strategies that goes )e#ond cognitive !rocesses to include social and communicative strategies.
O'Malley's (1985) Classifcation of Language Learning Strategies
@+Malle# et al. $/09<6<9?=<97' divide language learning strategies into three main su)categories6
Metacognitive Strategies
:ognitive Strategies
Socioaffective Strategies
Metacognitive Strategies
It can )e stated that metacognitive is a term to e*!ress e*ecutive function& strategies -hich re,uire !lanning for
learning& thin%ing a)out the learning !rocess as it is ta%ing !lace& monitoring of one+s !roduction or
com!rehension& and evaluating learning after an activit# is com!leted. Among the main metacognitive
strategies& it is !ossi)le to include advance organi(ers& directed attention& selective attention& self=management&
functional !lanning& self=monitoring& dela#ed !roduction& self=evaluation.
Cognitive Strategies
:ognitive strategies are more limited to s!ecific learning tas%s and the# involve more direct mani!ulation of the
learning material itself. .e!etition& resourcing& translation& grou!ing& note ta%ing& deduction& recom)ination&
imager#& auditor# re!resentation& %e# -ord& conte*tuali(ation& ela)oration& transfer& inferencing are among the
most im!ortant cognitive strategies.
Socioafective Strategies
As to the socioaffective strategies& it can )e stated that the# are related -ith social=mediating activit# and
transacting -ith others. :oo!eration and ,uestion for clarification are the main socioaffective strategies $4ro-n
/09560C=07'.
Stern's (1992) Classifcation of Language Learning Strategies
According to Stern $/00?6?1?=?11'& there are five main language learning strategies. These are as follo-s6
Management and Planning Strategies
:ognitive Strategies
:ommunicative = E*!eriential Strategies
Inter!ersonal Strategies
Affective Strategies
Management and Planning Strategies
These strategies are related -ith the learner+s intention to direct his o-n learning. A learner can ta%e charge of
the develo!ment of his o-n !rogramme -hen he is hel!ed )# a teacher -hose role is that of an adviser and
resource !erson. That is to sa# that the learner must6
decide -hat commitment to ma%e to language learning
set himself reasona)le goals
decide on an a!!ro!riate methodolog#& select a!!ro!riate resources& and monitor !rogress&
evaluate his achievement in the light of !reviousl# determined goals and e*!ectations $ Stern
/00?6?1C'.
Cognitive Strategies
The# are ste!s or o!erations used in learning or !ro)lem solving that re,uire direct anal#sis& transformation& or
s#nthesis of learning materials. In the follo-ing& some of the cognitive strategies are e*hi)ited6
:larification E Ferification
Auessing E Inductive Inferencing
Geductive .easoning
Practice
Memori(ation
Monitoring
Communicative - Experiential Strategies
:ommunication strategies& such as circumlocution& gesturing& !ara!hrase& or as%ing for re!etition and
e*!lanation are techni,ues used )# learners so as to %ee! a conversation going. The !ur!ose of using these
techni,ues is to avoid interru!ting the flo- of communication $Stern /00?6?1<'.
Interpersonal Strategies
The# should monitor their o-n develo!ment and evaluate their o-n !erformance. Learners should contact -ith
native s!ea%ers and coo!erate -ith them. Learners must )ecome ac,uainted -ith the target culture $Stern
/00?6 ?1<=?11'.
Afective Strategies
It is evident that good language learners em!lo# distinct affective strategies. Language learning can )e
frustrating in some cases. In some cases& the feeling of strangeness can )e evo%ed )# the foreign language. In
some other cases& L? learners ma# have negative feelings a)out native s!ea%ers of L?. Aood language
learners are more or less conscious of these emotional !ro)lems. Aood language learners tr# to create
associations of !ositive affect to-ards the foreign language and its s!ea%ers as -ell as to-ards the learning
activities involved. Learning training can hel! students to face u! to the emotional difficulties and to overcome
them )# dra-ing attention to the !otential frustrations or !ointing them out as the# arise $Stern /00?6?11'.
Importance of Language Learning Strategies in Language Learning and Teaching
Since the amount of information to )e !rocessed )# language learners is high in language classroom& learners
use different language learning strategies in !erforming the tas%s and !rocessing the ne- in!ut the# face.
Language learning strategies are good indicators of ho- learners a!!roach tas%s or !ro)lems encountered
during the !rocess of language learning. In other -ords& language learning strategies& -hile nono)serva)le or
unconsciousl# used in some cases& give language teachers valua)le clues a)out ho- their students assess the
situation& !lan& select a!!ro!riate s%ills so as to understand& learn& or remem)er ne- in!ut !resented in the
language classroom. According to ;edderholdt $/0056/'& the language learner ca!a)le of using a -ide variet#
of language learning strategies a!!ro!riatel# can im!rove his language s%ills in a )etter -a#. Metacognitive
strategies im!rove organi(ation of learning time& self=monitoring& and self=evaluation. :ognitive strategies
include using !revious %no-ledge to hel! solve ne- !ro)lems. Socioaffective strategies include as%ing native
s!ea%ers to correct their !ronunciation& or as%ing a classmate to -or% together on a !articular language
!ro)lem. Gevelo!ing s%ills in three areas& such as metacognitive& cognitive& and socioaffective can hel! the
language learner )uild u! learner inde!endence and autonom# -here)# he can ta%e control of his o-n
learning. Lessard=:louston $/0056C' states that language learning strategies contri)ute to the develo!ment of
the communicative com!etence of the students. 4eing a )road conce!t& language learning strategies are used
to refer to all strategies foreign language learners use in learning the target language and communication
strategies are one t#!e of language learning strategies. It follo-s from this that language teachers aiming at
develo!ing the communicative com!etence of the students and language learning should )e familiar -ith
language learning strategies. As @*ford $/0026/' states& language learning strategies 8... are es!eciall#
im!ortant for language learning )ecause the# are tools for active& self=directed movement& -hich is essential for
develo!ing communicative com!etence.8 4esides develo!ing the communicative com!etence of the students&
teachers -ho train students to use language learning strategies can hel! them )ecome )etter language
learners. Hel!ing students understand good language learning strategies and training them to develo! and use
such good language learning strategies can )e considered to )e the a!!reciated characteristics of a good
language teacher $Lessard=:louston /0056C'. .esearch into the good language learning strategies revealed a
num)er of !ositive strategies so that such strategies could also )e used )# )ad language learners tr#ing to
)ecome more successful in language learning. Ho-ever& there is al-a#s the !ossi)ilit# that )ad language
learners can also use the same good language learning strategies -hile )ecoming unsuccessful o-ing to some
other reasons. At this !oint& it should )e strongl# stressed that using the same good language learning
strategies does not guarantee that )ad learners -ill also )ecome successful in language learning since other
factors ma# also !la# role in success.
The Teacher's Role in Strategy Training
The language teacher aiming at training his students in using language learning strategies should learn a)out
the students& their interests& motivations& and learning st#les. The teacher can learn -hat language learning
strategies students alread# a!!ear to )e using& o)serving their )ehavior in class. Go the# as% for clarification&
verification or correctionH Go the# coo!erate -ith their !eers or seem to have much contact outside of class
-ith !roficient foreign language usersH 4esides o)serving their )ehavior in class& the teacher can !re!are a
short ,uestionnaire so that students can fill in at the )eginning of a course to descri)e themselves and their
language learning. Thus& the teacher can learn the !ur!ose of their learning a language& their favorite E least
favorite %inds of class activities& and the reason -h# the# learn a language. The teacher can have ade,uate
%no-ledge a)out the students& their goals& motivations& language learning strategies& and their understanding
of the course to )e taught $Lessard=:louston /0056<'. It is a fact that each learner -ithin the same classroom
ma# have different learning st#les and varied a-areness of the use of strategies. The teacher cannot attri)ute
im!ortance to onl# one grou! and su!!ort the anal#tical a!!roach or onl# give in!ut )# using the auditor#
mode. The language teacher should& therefore& !rovide a -ide range of learning strategies in order to meet the
needs and e*!ectations of his students !ossessing different learning st#les& motivations& strateg# !references&
etc. Therefore& it can )e stated that the most im!ortant teacher role in foreign language teaching is the
!rovision of a range of tas%s to match varied learning st#les $Hall /00567'.
In addition to the students& the language teacher should also anal#(e his te*t)oo% to see -hether the te*t)oo%
alread# includes language learning strategies or language learning strategies training. The language teacher
should loo% for ne- te*ts or other teaching materials if language learning strategies are not alread# included
-ithin his materials.
The language teacher should also stud# his o-n teaching method and overall classroom st#le. Anal#(ing his
lesson !lans& the language teacher can determine -hether his lesson !lans give learners chance to use a
variet# of learning st#les and strategies or not. The teacher can see -hether his teaching allo-s learners to
a!!roach the tas% at hand in different -a#s or not. The language teacher can also )e a-are of -hether his
strateg# training is im!licit& e*!licit& or )oth. It should )e em!hasi(ed that ,uestioning himself a)out -hat he
!lans to do )efore each lesson and evaluating his lesson !lan after the lesson in terms of strateg# training& the
teacher can )ecome )etter !re!ared to focus on language learning strategies and strateg# training during the
!rocess of his teaching $Lessard=:louston /0056<'.
Conclusion
Language learning strategies& )eing s!ecific actions& )ehaviors& tactics& or techni,ues& facilitate the learning of
the target language )# the language learner. All language learners& needless to sa#& use language learning
strategies in the learning !rocess. Since the factors li%e age& gender& !ersonalit#& motivation& self=conce!t& life=
e*!erience& learning st#le& e*citement& an*iet#& etc. affect the -a# in -hich language learners learn the target
language& it is not reasona)le to su!!ort the idea that all language learners use the same good language
learning strategies or should )e trained in using and develo!ing the same strategies to )ecome successful
learners. As Lessard=:louston $/00569' mentions& studies to )e done on language learning strategies and
strateg# training should move )e#ond descri!tive ta*onomies of language learning strategies and attem!t to
see% for ans-ers to a -ide range of ,uestions& such as6 3hat t#!es of language learning strategies a!!ear to
-or% )est -ith -hat learners in -hich conte*tsH Goes language learning strategies or language learning
strategies training transfer easil# )et-een L? and ;L conte*tsH 3hat is the role of language !roficienc# in
language learning strategies use and trainingH Ho- long does it ta%e to train s!ecific learners in certain
language learning strategiesH Ho- can one )est assess and measure success in language learning strategies
use or trainingH Are certain language learning strategies learned more easil# in classroom and non=classroom
conte*tsH 3hat language learning strategies should )e taught at different !roficienc# levelsH It can )e
e*!ected that ans-ers to the a)ove mentioned and man# other ,uestions from research in a variet# of settings
-ill !ave the -a# for )uilding the theor# that seems necessar# for more language learning strategies -or% to )e
relevant to current L? E ;L teaching !ractice.
References
/. 4.@3>& Gouglas. /095. Princi!les of Language Learning and Teaching. >e- Jerse#6 Prentice
Hall.
?. LESSA.G=:L@"ST@>& Michael. /005. 8Language Learning Strategies6 An @vervie- for L?
Teachers8 on The Internet TESL Journal
C. ;AE.:H& :laus and A. BASPE.. /09C. Strategies in Interlanguage :ommunication. London6
Longman.
7. ;EGGE.H@LGT& Baren. /005. 8"sing Giaries to Gevelo! Language Learning Strategies8 on
Internet
<. HALL& Ste!hen. /005. 8Language Learning Strategies6 from the ideals to classroom tas%s8.
Language and :ommunication Givision& Temase% Pol#technic on Internet
1. @+MALLEI& J. Michael& :HAM@T& Anna ".& STE3>E.=MA>JA>A.ES& Aloria& ."SS@& .occo P.&
and L. B"PPE.. /09<. 8Learning Strateg# A!!lications -ith Students of English as a Second
Language8 in TES@L Kuarterl# /06 <<5=<97.
5. @L;@.G& .e)ecca. /002. Language Learning Strategies6 3hat Ever# Teacher Should Bno-. >e-
Ior%6 >e-)ur# House Pu)lishers.
9. .I:HA.GS& J. and John PLATT. /00?. Longman Gictionar# of Language Teaching and A!!lied
Linguistics. Esse*6 Longman.
0. STE.>& H.H. /00?. Issues and @!tions in Language Teaching. @*ford6 @"P.
/2. 3E>GE>& A. and Joan ."4I>. /095. Learner Strategies in Language Learning. >e- Jerse#6
Prentice Hall.
//. 3ILLIAMS& M. and .o)ert L. 4".GE>. /005. Ps#cholog# for Language Teachers6 A Social
:onstructivist A!!roach. :am)ridge6 :"P.
The Internet TESL Journal& Fol. FI& >o. 9& August ?222
htt!6EEiteslj.orgE
htt!6EEiteslj.orgEArticlesEHismanoglu=Strategies.html
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Hismanoglu-Strategies.html
ERIC Identifier: ED317087
Publication Date: 1989-12-00
Author: Oxford, Rebecca
Source: ERIC Clearinghoue on !anguage and !ingui"ic #ahing"on DC$
The Role of Styles and Strategies in Second Language
Learning. ERIC Digest.
Conider "he %er& differen" beha%ior or "ra"egie "ha" indi%idual "uden" ue "o learn
a ne' language$ (h&, in"ro%er"ed, anal&"icall&-orien"ed )arianne learn (*anih
"hrough gra++ar drill and en"ence anal&i$ ,nco+for"able 'i"h *on"aneou
*eech in (*anih, he reheare a +uch a he can in *ri%a"e$ In con"ra", ociable,
ex"ro%er"ed, globall&-orien"ed -oe fro+ )exico a%oid gra++ar drill bu" ee. ou"
ocial con%era"ion in Englih, hi ne' language/ he i con"en" "o ge" "he general
+eaning 'i"hou" .no'ing e%er& 'ord$
#hen in"ui"i%e 0ill "udie Ruian, he con"an"l& "rie "o build a +en"al +odel or big
*ic"ure of "he language$ 1e a%oid "e*-b&-"e* language learning$ 2ori.o, a""uned
+ore "o "he ene 3+o%e+en", ound, igh", and "ouch4 "han "o in"ui"ion, loo. for
Englih "ex" "ha" *roceed one "e* a" a "i+e$ (he ue flahcard, and 'i"h her
cla+a"e, he ini"ia"e 5"o"al *h&ical re*one5 exercie "ha" in%ol%e all "he ene$
(eriou (arah ou"line e%er& 6rench leon, *lan her "ud& eion, doe all "he
exercie in her "ex"boo. religioul&, and i no" ha**& unle he i on "i+e or ahead
of chedule$ 7la&ful )ichael "ell 8o.e in 9er+an and ha fun 'i"h "he language, bu"
ha "rouble organi:ing hi 'or., co+ing "o cloure, and ub+i""ing hi aign+en" on
"i+e$
;hee learner are uing differen" .ind of language learning "ra"egie, or *ecific
ac"ion and beha%ior "o hel* "he+ learn$ ;heir "ra"egie differ grea"l&, a" lea" in *ar"
becaue "heir general learning "&le 3o%erall a**roache "o learning and "he
en%iron+en"4 are o %aried$ Recen" reearch 3Ehr+an < Oxford, 1988, 1989/ Oxford
< Ehr+an, 19884 ugge" "ha" learning "&le ha a ignifican" influence on "uden"=
choice of learning "ra"egie, and "ha" bo"h "&le and "ra"egie affec" learning
ou"co+e$
;hi Dige" briefl& u++ari:e exi"ing reearch on learning "&le and "ra"egie in
foreign and econd language learning$ Reader are urged "o go fur"her b& conul"ing
"he reference *ro%ided a" "he end of "he Dige"$
WAT IS !EA"T #$ LEAR"I"% ST$LE&
;he "er+ learning "&le i ued "o enco+*a four a*ec" of "he *eron> cogni"i%e
"&le, i$e$, *referred or habi"ual *a""ern of +en"al func"ioning/ *a""ern of a""i"ude
and in"ere" "ha" affec" 'ha" an indi%idual 'ill *a& +o" a""en"ion "o in a learning
i"ua"ion/ a "endenc& "o ee. i"ua"ion co+*a"ible 'i"h one= o'n learning *a""ern/
and a "endenc& "o ue cer"ain learning "ra"egie and a%oid o"her 3!a'rence, 198?4$
!earning "&le i inheren" and *er%ai%e 3#illing, 19884 and i a blend of cogni"i%e,
affec"i%e, and beha%ioral ele+en" 3Oxford < Ehr+an, 19884$ @" lea" "'en"&
di+enion of learning "&le ha%e been iden"ified 37arr&, 198?/ (hi*+an < (hi*+an,
198A4$
56ield inde*endence %$ de*endence$5 One of "he +o" 'idel& reearched di+enion
of learning "&le i field inde*endence %$ de*endence$ 6ield inde*enden" learner
eail& e*ara"e .e& de"ail fro+ a co+*lex or confuing bac.ground, 'hile "heir field
de*enden" *eer ha%e "rouble doing "hi$ 6ield inde*enden" learner ho' ignifican"
ad%an"age o%er field de*enden" learner in anal&"ical "a. 31anen < ("anfield,
1981/ Cha*elle < Rober", 198B4$
5@nal&"ic %$ global *roceing5 ee+ "o be cloel& allied 'i"h field inde*endence %$
de*endence, and indeed +a& be a +ore funda+en"al and +ore ex*lana"or& di+enion
of learning "&le$ 1o'e%er, li""le foreign or econd language learning reearch exi"
concerning "he anal&"ic-global di+enion exce*" in "he con"ex" of brain
he+i*herici"&$ ;he lef" he+i*here of "he brain deal 'i"h language "hrough anal&i
and ab"rac"ion, 'hile "he righ" he+i*here recogni:e language a +ore global
audi"or& or %iual *a""ern 3#illing, 19884$ !ea%er 3198B4 *ecula"e "ha" righ"-brain
learner--"hoe 'ho *refer "he .ind of *roceing done b& "he righ" ide of "he brain--
are +ore facile a" learning in"ona"ion and rh&"h+ of "he "arge" language, 'herea lef"-
brain learner deal +ore eail& 'i"h anal&"ic a*ec" of "arge" language gra++ar$
5Coo*era"ion %$ co+*e"i"ion5 ha been onl& ligh"l& "udied a a di+enion of "&le in
"he language learning field$ Reid 319874 found "ha" in "he language claroo+, learner
rarel& re*or" uing coo*era"i%e beha%ior 3beha%ior "ha" one 'ould infer "o reflec" a
coo*era"i%e "&le4/ ho'e%er, "hi finding +igh" 'ell be rela"ed "o in"ruc"ional
+e"hodologie "ha" of"en *reclude coo*era"ion and fo"er co+*e"i"ion$ In "udie
'here "uden" 'ere "augh" *ecificall& "o be coo*era"i%e, reul" re%ealed %a"
i+*ro%e+en" in language .ill a 'ell a increaed elf-e"ee+, +o"i%a"ion, al"rui+,
and *oi"i%e a""i"ude "o'ard o"her 39underon < -ohnon, 1980/ (haran e" al$, 198A/
-acob < )a""on, 19874$
5;olerance for a+bigui"&5 i ano"her "&le di+enion of language learning$ !earning a
language can be a difficul" and a" "i+e a+biguou endea%or, and "uden" 'ho can
+ore readil& "olera"e a+bigui"& of"en ho' "he be" language learning *erfor+ance
3ee Cha*elle < Rober"/ 198B, 2ai+an, 6rohlich < ;odeco, 197A4$
;he )&er-0rigg ;&*e indica"or 3)&er < )cCaulle&, 198A4 con"ribu"e four +ore
di+enion "o learning "&le> ex"ra%erion %$ in"ro%erion, ening %$ in"ui"ion,
"hin.ing %$ feeling, and 8udging %$ *ercei%ing 3"he la" di+enion referring "o "he
i++edia"ene of "he need for cloure4$ (e%eral of "hee di+enion a**ear "o
ignifican"l& influence ho' "uden" chooe "o learn language, according "o recen"
reearch 3Ehr+an < Oxford, 1988, 1989/ Oxford < Ehr+an, 19884$
O"her i+*or"an" "&le a*ec" "ha" +a& rela"e "o language learning *erfor+ance are
le%eling-har*ening of de"ail, reflec"i%i"&-i+*uli%i"&, and con"ric"ed-flexible
"hin.ing 37arr&, 198?4$ @ddi"ional reearch need "o be conduc"ed on all "&le
di+enion in order for "eacher "o under"and +ore abou" "he baic "&li"ic
*reference of "heir "uden"$
WAT ARE LEAR"I"% STRATE%IES&
!anguage learning "ra"egie are "he of"en-conciou "e* or beha%ior ued b&
language learner "o enhance "he acCuii"ion, "orage, re"en"ion, recall, and ue of ne'
infor+a"ion 3Rigne&, 1978/ Oxford, 19904$ ("ra"egie can be aeed in a %arie"& of
'a&, uch a diarie, "hin.-aloud *rocedure, ober%a"ion, and ur%e&$ Reearch
bo"h ou"ide "he language field 3e$g$, 0ro'n, 0ranford, 6errara, < Ca+*ione, 19834
and in%e"iga"ion 'i"h language learner 3ee re%ie' b& (.ehan, 1989/ Oxford 1989/
Oxford < Croo.all, 19894 freCuen"l& ho' "ha" "he +o" ucceful learner "end "o
ue learning "ra"egie "ha" are a**ro*ria"e "o "he +a"erial, "o "he "a., and "o "heir o'n
goal, need, and "age of learning$ )ore *roficien" learner a**ear "o ue a 'ider
range of "ra"egie in a grea"er nu+ber of i"ua"ion "han do le *roficien" learner,
bu" "he rela"ionhi* be"'een "ra"eg& ue and *roficienc& i co+*lex$ Reearch
indica"e "ha" language learner a" all le%el ue "ra"egie 3Cha+o" < Du**er, 19894,
bu" "ha" o+e or +o" learner are no" full& a'are of "he "ra"egie "he& ue or "he
"ra"egie "ha" +igh" be +o" beneficial "o e+*lo&$
)an& differen" "ra"egie can be ued b& language learner> +e"acogni"i%e "echniCue
for organi:ing, focuing, and e%alua"ing one= o'n learning/ affec"i%e "ra"egie for
handling e+o"ion or a""i"ude/ ocial "ra"egie for coo*era"ing 'i"h o"her in "he
learning *roce/ cogni"i%e "ra"egie for lin.ing ne' infor+a"ion 'i"h exi"ing
che+a"a and for anal&:ing and claif&ing i"/ +e+or& "ra"egie for en"ering ne'
infor+a"ion in"o +e+or& "orage and for re"rie%ing i" 'hen needed/ and co+*ena"ion
"ra"egie 3uch a gueing or uing ge"ure4 "o o%erco+e deficiencie and ga* in
one= curren" language .no'ledge 3ee Oxford, 19904$
!anguage learning "ra"eg& reearch ha uffered fro+ an o%ere+*hai on
+e"acogni"i%e and cogni"i%e "ra"egie, 'hich are ad+i""edl& %er& i+*or"an", a" "he
ex*ene of o"her "ra"eg& "&*e "ha" are alo %er& ueful$
(o+e *reli+inar& reearch ugge" "he exi"ence of ex difference in "ra"eg& ue
3ee re%ie' b& Oxford, 2&i.o, < Ehr+an, 19884$ Choice of language "ra"egie alo
rela"e "rongl& "o e"hnici"&, language learning *ur*oe, "he na"ure of "he "a., and
o"her fac"or 3ee 7oli":er, 1983/ 7oli":er < )c9roar"&, 198A/ Oxford, 19894$ @
no"ed earlier, one of "hee rela"ed fac"or i, no doub", learning "&le$
I+*or"an" effec" of "raining in "he ue of language learning "ra"egie ha%e been
dico%ered b& a nu+ber of reearcher 3ee @".inon, 198A/ 0e8arano, 1987/ Cha+o"
< Du**er, 1989/ Cohen < 1oenfeld, 1981/ Oxford, Croo.all, !a%ine, Cohen,
2&i.o < (u""er, for"hco+ing4$ I" i clear "ha" "uden" can be "augh" "o ue be""er
"ra"egie, and reearch ugge" "ha" be""er "ra"egie i+*ro%e language *erfor+ance$
-u" ho' language learning "ra"egie hould be "augh" i o*en "o Cue"ion, bu" o far i"
ha been confir+ed "ha" "ra"eg& "raining i generall& +ore effec"i%e 'hen 'o%en in"o
regular claroo+ ac"i%i"ie "han 'hen *reen"ed a a e*ara"e "ra"eg& coure$
!anguage learning "&le and "ra"egie a**ear "o be a+ong "he +o" i+*or"an"
%ariable influencing *erfor+ance in a econd language$ )uch +ore in%e"iga"ion i
necear& "o de"er+ine "he *recie role of "&le and "ra"egie, bu" e%en a" "hi "age
in our under"anding 'e can "a"e "ha" "eacher need "o beco+e +ore a'are of bo"h
learning "&le and learning "ra"egie "hrough a**ro*ria"e "eacher "raining$ ;eacher
can hel* "heir "uden" b& deigning in"ruc"ion "ha" +ee" "he need of indi%idual
'i"h differen" "&li"ic *reference and b& "eaching "uden" ho' "o i+*ro%e "heir
learning "ra"egie$
RE'ERE"CES
@".inon, R$C$ 3198A4$ )ne+o"echnic in econd-language learning$ 5@+erican
7&chologi",5 30, **821-28$
0e8arano, E$ 319874$ @ coo*era"i%e +all-grou* +e"hodolog& in "he language
claroo+$ 5;E(O! Fuar"erl&,5 2, **?83-A0?$
0ro'n, @$!$, 0ranford, -$D$, 6errara, R$ < Ca+*ione, -$C$ 319834$ !earning,
re+e+bering, and under"anding$ In -$2$ 6la%ell < E$ )$ )ar.ha+ 3Ed$4,
5Car+ichael= +anual of child *&cholog&, %1$5 2e' Eor., 2E> #ile&$
Cha+o", @$,$ < Du**er, !$ 319894$ !earning "ra"egie in foreign language
in"ruc"ion$ 56oreign !anguage @nnal,5 22, **13-2?$
Cha*elle, C$ < Rober", C$ 3198B4$ @+bigui"& "olerance and field inde*endence a
*redic"or in Englih a a econd language$ 5!anguage !earning,5 3B314 **27-?A$
Cohen, @$D$ < 1oenfeld, C$ 319814$ (o+e ue of +en"ali"ic da"a in econd
language acCuii"ion$ 5!anguage !earning,5 31, **28A-313$
Ehr+an, )$ < Oxford, R$ 319884$ 5@n" and graho**er, badger and bu""erflie>
Fuali"a"i%e and Cuan"i"a"i%e ex*lora"ion of adul" language learning "&le and
"ra"egie$5 7a*er *reen"ed a" "he (&+*oiu+ on Reearch 7er*ec"i%e on @dul"
!anguage !earning and @cCuii"ion, Ohio ("a"e ,ni%eri"&, Colu+bu, O1$
Ehr+an, )$ < Oxford, R$ 319894$ Effec" of ex difference, career choice, and
*&chological "&*e on adul"= language learning "ra"egie$ 5)odern !anguage
-ournal,5 73, **1-13$
9underon, 0$ < -ohnon, D$ 319804$ 0uilding *oi"i%e a""i"ude b& uing coo*era"i%e
learning grou*$ 56oreign !anguage @nnal,5 13, **39-?3$
1anen, -$ < ("anfield, C#$ 319814$ ;he rela"ionhi* of field de*enden"-inde*enden"
cogni"i%e "&le "o foreign language achie%e+en"$ 5!anguage !earning,5 31, **3?9-
B7$ 3ERIC Docu+en" Re*roduc"ion (er%ice 2o$ ED 19B 27A4
-acob, E$ < )a""on, 0$ 319874$ 5,ing coo*era"i%e learning 'i"h language +inori"&
"uden"> @ re*or" fro+ "he field$5 #ahing"on, DC> Cen"er for !anguage Educa"ion
and Reearch$ Cen"er for @**lied !ingui"ic$
!a'rence, 9$ 3198?4$ @ &n"hei of learning "&le reearch in%ol%ing "he )0;I$
5-ournal of 7&chological ;&*e,5 8, **2-1A$
!ea%er, 0$!$ 3198B4$ 1e+i*heri"& of "he brain and foreign language "eaching$ 56olia
(la%ica,5 8, **7B-90$
)&er, I$ < )cCaulle&, )$ 3198A4$ 5)anual> @ guide "o "he de%elo*+en" and ue of
"he )&er-0rigg "&*e indica"or$5 7alo @l"o, C@> Conul"ing 7&chologi" 7re$
2ai+an, 2$, 6rohlich, )$, < ;odeco, @$ 3197A4$ ;he good language learner/ 5;E(!
;al.,5 B, **A8-7A$
Oxford, R$ 319894$ ;he ue of language learning "ra"egie> @ &n"hei of "udie 'i"h
i+*lica"ion for "ra"eg& "raining$ 5(&"e+,5 12324, **23A-?7$
Oxford, R$ 319904$ 5!anguage learning "ra"egie> #ha" e%er& "eacher hould .no'$5
2e' Eor.> 2e'bur& 1oueG 1ar*er < Ro'$
Oxford, R$, Croo.all, D$, !a%ine, R$, Cohen, @$, 2&i.o, )$, < (u""er, #$
3for"hco+ing4$ 5("ra"eg& "raining for language learner> (ix i"ua"ional cae "udie
and a "raining +odel$5
Oxford, R$ < Croo.all, D$ 319894$ Reearch on ix i"ua"ional language learning
"ra"egie> )e"hod, finding, and in"ruc"ional iue$ 5)odern !anguage -ournal,5
733?4$
Oxford, R$ < Ehr+an, )$ 319884$ 7&chological "&*e and adul" language learning
"ra"egie> @ *ilo" "ud&$ 5-ournal of 7&chological ;&*e,5 1B, **22-32$
Oxford, R$, 2&i.o, )$ < Ehr+an, )$ 319884$ Hi%e la differenceI Reflec"ion on ex
difference in ue of language learning "ra"egie$ 56oreign !anguage @nnal,5 213?4$
7arr&, ;$($ 3198?4$ 5;he rela"ionhi* of elec"ed di+enion of learner cogni"i%e "&le,
a*"i"ude, and general in"elligence fac"or "o elec"ed foreign language *roficienc&
"a. of econd-&ear "uden" of (*anih a" "he econdar& le%el$5 Dier"a"ion, Ohio
("a"e ,ni%eri"&, Colu+bu, O1$
7oli":er, R$ 319834$ @n ex*lora"or& "ud& of elf-re*or"ed language learning beha%ior
and "heir rela"ion "o achie%e+en"$ 5("udie in (econd !anguage @cCuii"ion,5 B, **A?-
B8$
7oli":er, R$ < )c9roar"&, )$ 3198A4$ @n ex*lora"or& "ud& of learning beha%ior and
"heir rela"ionhi* "o gain in lingui"ic and co++unica"i%e co+*e"ence$ 5;E(O!
Fuar"erl&,5 19, **103-2?$
Reid, -$)$ 319874$ ;he learning "&le *reference of E(! "uden"$ 5;E(O!
Fuar"erl&,5 21, **87-111$
Rigne&, -$ #$ 319784$ !earning "ra"egie> @ "heore"ical *er*ec"i%e$ In 1$6$ O=2eil, -r$
3Ed$4, 5!earning "ra"egie,5 **1B?-20A$ 2e' Eor.> @cade+ic 7re$
(haran, ($, Duell, R$, 1er":-!a:aro'i":, R$, 0e8arano, E$, Ra%i%, ($, < (haran, E$
3198A4$ Coo*era"i%e learning effec" on "he e"hnic rela"ion and achie%e+en" in Iraeli
8unior high chool claroo+$ In R$ (la%in e" al$ 3Ed$4, 5!earning "o coo*era"e,
coo*era"ing "o learn$5 **31?-??$ 2e' Eor.> 7lenu+$
(hi*+an, ($ < (hi*+an, H$ 3198A4$ Cogni"i%e "&le> (o+e conce*"ual,
+e"hodological, and a**lied iue$ In E$ 9ordon 3Ed$4, 5Re%ie' of reearch in
educa"ion,5 %12, **229-91$ #ahing"on, DC> @+erican Educa"ional Reearch
@ocia"ion$
(.ehan, 7$ 319894$ 5Indi%idual difference in econd language learning$5 !ondon>
Ed'ard @rnold$
#illing, D$ 319884$ 5!earning "&le in adul" +igran" educa"ion$5 @delaide, (ou"h
@u"ralia> 2a"ional Curriculu+ Reearch Council$
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