!"# %&#"%'# ()*+*)%"*%,*-. %,/ 0"*)*0%+1+#&#+ ()*+*)%"*%,*-.

"#+%)#/2
0nuei aveiage utilitaiianism, !
!"
!
!
!
!
!
, anu unuei ciitical-level utilitaiianism,
!
!"#
! !!
!
!!
!
!. Aie they equivalent with iegaiu to small changes if !
!
! !
!"
.

Let's think about the iatio of welfaie changes of cieating a new life vs. incieasing the
utility of an existing life. If these aie equivalent foi all values of the utility of the new
life, then the two theoiies give equivalent oiueiings foi all lotteiies, as long as none
of the possible outcomes of the lotteiies involves a "laige" change.

Benote the changes in the utility of an existing peison as !!, anu the utility of the
new peison as !!. Let the "change opeiatoi" be !
!
foi changing the existing peison's
utility, anu !
!
foi auuing a new peison. Then
!
!
!
!"
!
!!
!
!
!
!
!
!"
!
!
!
!!!
!"
! !!
!!
!"
!
!
!
! !!
!
!
! !!
!! !
!"
!
!
!
! !!
!
!
!"
! !!
!
!
!
!
!"#
! !!!
!
!
!
!"#
! !
!
!!
!"
!
so
!
!
!
!"
!
!
!
!"
!
!
! !!
!
!
!
!"#
!
!
!
!"#
!
ueneializing, foi any two outcomes (call them 1 anu 2) that only change the
population slightly, we want to finu an uppei bounu on how uiffeiently A0 anu CL0
juuge them. We finu that
!
!
!
!"
!
!
! !!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
! !!
!
! !!!
!"
!!
!"

! !
!
!
!"
!
!
!
!
!!
!"
!
!
! !!
!
!
! !!
!
!

anu
!
!
!
!"#
! !
!
!
!!
!"
!
!
! !!
!
!!
Befine the "#$%&'#()*&+,# '&-./ as ! ! !
!
!!!
!
!, wheie ! is eithei !
!"
oi !
!"#
.
Then foi small changes,
!
!"
!
!"#
!
! !!
!
!
! !!
!
!
! ! !
!
!
!!
!
!
!
!
This uepenus only on changes in population anu not changes in aveiage utility.
Although changing aveiage utility makes A0 anu CL0

34# '#,#"%+ 0%-# 56" %,7 868(+%)*6, #)4*0- )4%) /#8#,/- 6,+7 6, %&#"%'#
()*+*)7 %,/ 868(+%)*6,
Suppose we have ! ! !!!! !!. At a paiticulai value of !!! !!, CL0 shoulu holu foi
small changes in ! anu !. In paiticulai, the iatio of welfaie changes of any two
outcomes (that uiffei only slightly fiom the oiiginal conuition) shoulu be the same
as foi CL0, so that any lotteiy ovei the outcomes will be assigneu the same expecteu
welfaie unuei ! as unuei CL0 (up to an affine tiansfoimation). The change in
welfaie is
!" !
!"
!"
!" !
!"
!!
!!!
0nuei CL0, this is
!!
!"#
! ! !!
!
!" !!"!!
So we neeu
!"
!"
!
!
! !
!"
!!
!
!
!
!"
!"
!
!
! !
!"
!!
!
!
!
!
! !!
!
!
!
! !!!
!
!
! !!
!
!
!
! !!!
!
!

foi all !
!
!! !
!
!! !
!
!! !
!
!, anu
!
!"
!"
!
!
!!
!
! ! ! !!
!
!"
!!
!
!
!!
!
! ! ! !!
!
!"
!!
!
!
!!
!
! !!
!"
!"
!
!
!!
!
!!
so
! !!
!
!
!
!"!!"
!"!!!
!
implying that foi small changes, ! is equivalent to CL0 with a ciitical level of
!
!
! ! !!
!"
!"
!"
!!
! ! !
!"
!"
!!
!!
!"!
!
Beie, !"!!" is the maiginal welfaie of an auuitional peison holuing aveiage utility
constant, anu !"!!!
!"!
is the maiginal welfaie of impioving the total utility of
existing people, holuing the numbei of people constant. In othei woius, !
!
is equal
to the aveiage utility minus the maiginal iate of substitution (NRS) /% population %/'
the utility of existing people (i.e. the utility inciease iequiieu to compensate foi the
iemoval of one peison with aveiage utility). If the NRS is laige, then auuitional
people aie veiy valuable, so the ciitical level will be low. If it is zeio, we have
aveiage utilitaiianism, anu !
!
! !.