Land Surveying

Land
Surveying 2

(DE 6207 & ENGG 6207)

Lecture 1
NDS & NZDE
Introduction
Course Details
Lecturer: David Allen
(Room 114 4024 on extn 8641).
My background & experience in surveying &
land development industries, working as a
surveyor, an engineer and project manager.
Values - (Respectful environment, everyone is
valued, welcome & encourage your input).
Working relationship, between you and me
We want you to enjoy the learning
experience, work hard and be successful in
your endeavours.

Introduction
Expectations
13 weeks course time mix of theory lectures, field practical
components, calculations and written reports, with some
revision
Internal Assessment is a mix of three assignments; two
Tests; and a final exam
Reiterate the importance of completing assignments and
practicals.
50% internal assessment & tests; 50% external exam
Attendance & completion of all internal assessment
elements is critical to your success.
Intention to have one or two guest lecturers (TBA), and
possibly a site visit.
Land Surveying 2
Aim & Purpose
To develop further
land surveying
knowledge, skills &
understanding.
Land Surveying 2
Learning Outcomes
Undertake advanced setting out &
levelling techniques
Demonstrate knowledge of the
cadastral survey system and land
subdivision process in NZ
Application of GPS in surveying
Demonstrate knowledge of survey
computations
Land Surveying 2
Course Outline / content / topics
13 week program (divided by mid-term break in
October)
Further develop your knowledge of surveying principles
and the use of GNSS equipment for different types of
survey project.
Working from the whole to the part; error theory; control
networks for engineering projects
Develop an understanding of survey specialisation in
certain areas, (i.e. setting out of complex engineering
works; GNSS survey methods; advanced levelling
procedures and techniques; & computer applications)
A mix of lecture (theory), field work elements, self
directed learning, assignments and tests

Land Surveying 2
Course Objectives
Enable students to gain an understanding of:

The principles of GNSS measurement,
including different measurement modes &
techniques
Advanced levelling techniques, including
trigonometric levelling principles
Gain some hands-on experience using
Leica VIVA GPS equipment, as well as
digital precise level
Land Surveying 2
Course Objectives (cont)
Enable students to gain an understanding of:

Basic knowledge of 3D reference &
measurement surfaces, and the relationship
to height values.
Explain construction methods & associated
surveying setting-out techniques used for
specific engineering works.
Outline the land development process from
start to finish, including design, costings,
compliance.

Land Surveying 2
Course Assessment
Mix of Assignments; Tests & Individual
Assessment & a Final Exam (Total 100%)
Three (3) assignments (50% of total course mark)
Assignt 1: a practical field element for setting out and
levelling - 20%
Assignt 2: A survey computations assignment - 10%
Assignt 3: Related to cadastral survey / land tenure
aspects - 10%

Tests (x2) Duration will be 1.0 1.5hr (One Open book &
one Closed Book) - (10% of total mark)
Final Exam 3hrs duration (on everything covered within the
course (50% of total marks)

Land Surveying 2 - content
Define the terms engineering works and
engineering surveys.
What are they? What are the requirements?
Outline GNSS (for those who are new to this
technology).
Principles and techniques
Accuracy, knowledge of potential errors, equipment
constraints, personnel & logistic limitations.
A quick review / definition of survey reference
surfaces & their relationship.
Levelling techniques (ordinary, precise, &
trigonometric heighting).

Land Surveying 2 content (cont)
Complete a field project (survey set-out of engineering
works) to demonstrate understanding of survey practice
Land tenure systems & interests in land
LINZ role & standards, including a review of Landonline
NZ land legislation
An overview of the land development process
Resource Management Act & Land Transfer Act
A look at the typical subdivision process
An analysis of subdivision costs, including a case study example
Infrastructure design requirements
Compliance requirements
Survey computations
Areas, resection, intersection, & free station calculations
Land Surveying 2
Engineering works defined
What do you think they are?
Mainly concerned with those works associated
with civil & structural engineering projects.
Civil engineering The design and
construction for engineering projects, such as
public and private works, such as infrastructure
(roads, railways, water supply & treatment etc),
pipelines, dams & reservoirs, bridges & tunnels,
and buildings.
Land Surveying 2
Engineering surveys
Engineering surveying covers the
detailed surveys required for design
of engineering projects (roads,
bridges, dams, buildings, tunnels
etc) as well as the setting out and
monitoring of the subsequent
construction or structures.

Construction surveying
Construction surveying is generally performed by
specialised technicians.
Construction surveyors perform the following tasks:
Survey existing conditions of the future work site, including
topography, existing buildings & infrastructure (including
underground infrastructure)
Construction surveying setting-out: involves staking out
reference points & markers that will guide the construction of
new structures such as roads or buildings for subsequent
construction.
Verify the location of structures during construction
As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the
construction project to verify that the work authorised was
completed to the specifications set on plans.

Engineering Works
The terms is wide and varied & relates to
numerous facets & project types
Building or construction projects
Relates to specific structures
e.g. low level; medium to high rise buildings, stadiums;
residential buildings; standard & odd shaped structures, etc.
(The list is extensive)
Can include civil structures, (such as bridges, tunnels,
dams, drainage facilities such as treatment plants,
pump stations, etc) with significant structural elements
involved.
Engineering Works
Infrastructure projects
Infrastructure is the basic physical and
organisational structures needed for the
operation of a society or enterprise, or
the services and facilities necessary for
an economy to function. (Wikipedia, 2012)
The term typically refers to the technical
structures that support a society, such as
roads, water supply, sewers, power grids,
telecommunications, and so forth.
Engineering Works
Civil engineering projects normally (i.e.
motorways & roading projects, bridges,
tunnels, rail, drainage & pipeline projects;
utility services projects (power, telecoms,
gas, water supply).
Hard Infrastructure: transport, energy,
water management, communications,
solid waste management, earth
monitoring & measurement networks
Building or Construction projects

Hydropolis
Hotel,
Dubai
Sagrada Familia
(Barcelona)

Roading projects
Rail projects

Bridges & Tunnels
Drainage projects
Utility Services
Land Development
The terms land improvement and land development
are general terms that in some contexts may include
infrastructure. Generally refer only to smaller scale
systems or works that are not included under an
infrastructure definition, as they are typically limited to a
single parcel of land, and are owned and operated by the
land owner.

For example, a regional irrigation canal compared to a
private irrigation system on an individual land parcel.

Service connections to municipal service and public
utility networks would also be considered land
improvements, not infrastructure.
Engineering Works
Land development projects
Numerous project types
e.g. Urban, Rural, Rural-Residential
(residential, commercial, industrial, recreational),
Differing project & site conditions
Greenfields
Brownfields (in-fill development)
Stratum estates; Apartment developments
Retirement Villages
Sporting & Recreational facilities
Industrial complexes
Land Development Projects
Engineering Works
Civil construction
Earthworks, dams, roading, harbours, structures
Special purpose
Mining
Energy sector (i.e. hydro-electric, wind, geothermal,
petrochemical)
Structure positioning (e.g. oil rigs, cranes, tunnelling
machines)
Industrial applications (e.g. related to production
machinery aspects of alignment, extension, flatness,
uniformity)
Earth deformation; geotechnical sub-surface movement

Special Purpose Surveys
Mining
Pit and open-cast operations)

Energy sector
Hydro-electric; Wind farm; Geothermal; petrochemical

Structure positioning
Oil rig location; Mechanical structures

Earth Deformation Surveys
Fault line monitoring, & landslip & subsidence

Geotechnical sub-surface survey
Sub-surface profiling; piezometer & borehole location, ground
radar surveys, seismic surveys

Engineering Surveys
Engineering surveys are conducted to obtain
data essential for planning, estimating, locating
and layout for the various phases of projects.

The objectives of engineering surveys include
obtaining preliminary data required for selecting
suitable routes and sites and for preparing
structural designs, establishing a system of
reference points, and marking lines, grades and
principal points.
Engineering Surveys
Buildings
set-out both horizontal & vertical elements, during
construction; & can include post construction
monitoring)
Industrial applications
Often associated with manufacturing processes
Deals with issues such as alignment; flatness; truly
level surface
e.g. Pacific Steel Bar mill; F & P crane gantry
Relative precision a key issue
Can be high accuracy requirements depending on
applicn (e.g. Pacific Steel bar mill: 1mm in Z)
Engineering Surveys
Processing or treatment plants
Similar to industrial applications in some instance
(i.e. alignment, flatness; etc)
Asset location fixing (e.g. Watercare); monitoring;
quantities
Numerous project types
e.g. roading, drainage, utility services, rail,
Again encounter differing project & site conditions
Require a good understanding of accuracy
requirements, specifications & an understanding of
what they actually mean (e.g. Metrowater ICS specn)
(i.e. Fitness for Purpose)
Access & OSH issues applicable

Engineering Surveys
Survey Methodologies
As with many surveys, often requires a mix of
instrumentation to achieve end result
Selection of instrument type critical: ~ to ensure
required specification can be met or exceeded.
Sometimes restricted by what is available.
Check project brief for relevant accuracy
specifications & other data
Relevant checks & Q.A
Depends on survey requirements
Must be able to determine if specification has been met
Redundant observations & suitable checks onto known
points

Engineering Surveys

Principles of Surveying
There are a few rules that apply to all categories and
whenever field work is being carried out & should be
adhered to at all times.
Worthwhile reiterating these again.
1. Working from the whole to the part
One of the underlying principles of surveying (i.e. working within a
framework of established points to fix points that are unknown)
2. Accuracy
Use of instruments to measure angles, distances and level
(requires techniques & procedures to be mastered)
Important to realise that Absolute precision can never be obtained,
despite ideal conditions and the use of the best equipment &
techniques
3. Errors
Much of what is done in surveying is prone to errors
Gross (mistakes), systematic & random (unavoidable)
Mistakes arise from inattention, inexperience and
carelessness. Important to adopt procedures or
independent checks that eliminate or isolate such errors.
Systematic errors are those which may exist but whose
pattern and effects are known, can be monitored and
compensated for by applicn of appropriate corrections.
(e.g. EDM distance; - also measure temp & pressure)
Random errors are unavoidable & due to imperfections
in instruments used, human elements such as eyesight,
& inconsistent conditions that cause such errors.

4. Survey methods
Surveys can usually be executed in several ways by a
combination of instruments and methods. Main
factors to consider when deciding upon technique to
be used:
Purpose & extent of the survey
Degree of accuracy required
Control of errors
Nature of the country (i.e. topography, vegetation,
visibility & access issues, etc)
Commercial issues (i.e. budget & programme
considerations)

5. Good survey practice (As a general guide)
Use equipment which is well maintained, regularly
checked and calibrated
Analyse acceptable error limits for each component of
the survey (i.e. set the target accuracy specification)
Be aware of likely error sources; resolve existing &
underlying errors (dont introduce new ones)
Conform with defendable marking, measuring,
recording and processing methods.
ALWAYS take check (redundant) measurements.
Be careful & objective when collecting, assessing and
recording measurements & data, & while documenting
and analysing results
(Dont cook the books!!)

Land Surveying 2

Exercise
~ What is the difference between how engineers
& surveyors perceive the requirements for
surveying on engineering projects?
~ Split into 2 groups (5 to 10 minutes), discuss,
formulate opinion & then report to the class.
47
BREAK
Survey Control Networks
A control network is a set of
reference points of known
geo-spatial coordinates.

The higher-order control points
are normally defined in both &
time using global or space techniques, & are used
for lower order points to tie into.
The discipline that deals with the
establishment of coordinates of
points in a higher order, control
network is called geodetic
surveying.

A control network is normally
divided into horizontal (X & Y) and vertical
(Z) controls, but with the advent of GPS, this division
is becoming obsolete.
Control networks provide a reference framework
of points for:
1. Topographical mapping & large-scale plan
production.
2. Dimensional control of construction work.
3. Deformation surveys for all manner of
structures, both new & old.
4. The extension & densification of existing
control networks.
Control Networks
In general & in relation to engineering projects
A survey control system (network) consists
of physical control marks, often with
beacons to promote remote access to a
network.

Traditional networks of control marks
consist of a hierarchy of marks based on
accuracy (called orders).
Control Networks
In general & in relation to engineering projects
The NZ geodetic system enables
consistent spatial positioning (X,Y & Z)
across the country, playing an important role
in the development of our country.

The geodetic system includes the control
system, geodetic datums, vertical datums,
projections & other information used to
define a nationally consistent reference
frame.
Control Networks
In terms of NZ national control
system, the most accurate control
marks are Order 0 (are also CORS
stations i.e. GNSS Continuously
Operating Reference Stations).

There are 33 CORS stations in total
(PositioNZ network)
Several of the PositioNZ station are also International
GNSS Service (IGS) sites.

Control Networks
Enhancements to the PositioNZ network, such as
the provision of real-time data in being considered.
Connects NZ to Global Reference systems,
ensuring that NZ geodetic system is comparable
with international systems.

Control Networks
This control network is being continually upgraded
and extended to meet increased accuracy
requirements and to meet the needs of an
increasing range of users.
Measuring and mapping continues today, with the
management of our natural and economic
resources becoming increasingly dependent on
the availability of accurate and consistent spatial
geographic information.
Require an accurate spatial reference system,
being the NZ geodetic system.
NZ Geodetic Datum 2000
(NZGD2000)
Is the official geodetic datum of NZ & its offshore
islands (implemented in 1998, replacing NZGD1949).
It is a three-dimensional semi-dynamic datum (i.e.
positions described by coordinates in terms of latitude,
longitude, and ellipsoidal heights).
Uses a deformation model to correct coordinates
and survey observations for the effect of regional-scale
tectonic movements.
NZGD2000 is essentially coincident with World
Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84), being the reference
system used by GNSS receivers.
Accuracy defined by a series of
ORDERS classifications.

(NZGD2000)
Name New Zealand Geodetic Datum
2000
Abbreviation NZGD2000
Reference Ellipsoid GRS 80
Reference Frame ITRF96
Reference Epoch 01 January 2000
Deformation Model LINZ deformation model

Relevance
The network forms the basis for geodetic networks
within all the meridional circuits (e.g. Mt Eden 2000)
NZTM2000 uses a Transverse Mercator projection
and is based on the NZGD2000 datum using the
GRS80 reference ellipsoid.
Many engineering projects require survey networks to
be established in terms of such localised reference
datums (e.g. NZTA projects, Watercare projects, etc).
Vertical elements usually in terms of a Local Vertical
Datum (LVD) or NZVD2009
Final as-built certification values usually
required in terms of local projection.

Control networks for engineering sites
General Principles
A control survey provides a framework of survey
points, whose relative positions (2D or 3D) are
known to specified degrees of accuracy (Schofield &
Breach, 2007)
Areas covered:
Whole country as basis for national maps
Smaller areas, encompassing a construction site
Must work from the whole to the part
Preservation of precision important.

General Principles (cont)
Important to understand the project specifications
(what do they actually mean?)
How precise & reliable does the survey control need to
be?
Specification limits will also determine instrumentation
requirements & appropriate survey methodologies.
Horizontal and vertical elements should be considered
separately. They will utilise different origin datums.
Control networks will usually be specific to the
engineering project concerned. Common for them to
be in terms of local external systems.

General Principles (cont)
Remember, a survey is designed for a specific purpose,
so that a technical and commercial objective can be
achieved at minimum cost.
Questions to be answered:
1. What is the survey for?
2. How extensive does it need to be?
3. What are the budgetary & programme constraints exist?
(i.e. commercial factors)
4. With logistical constraints in mind, where is it?
5. How precise & reliable does it need to be?
Faulty set-out causes loss of time & money in corrective
work.

Adjustment of Control Networks
Necessary for all site specific control networks to
be properly adjusted. (Depends on reqts).
Remember adjustment it is not simply a means
of getting rid of gross errors in the observation
phase.
Methods on larger projects usually RIGOROUS.
i.e. Least squares estimation technique (statistical
probability analysis that details precisions/accuracies)
Important to understand what accuracies are achieved
in the control network, to ensure that set-out
accuracies & tolerances can be met
(i.e. working from the whole to the part)

Setting out (definition)
Setting out is the establishment of marks & lines to
define the position & level of elements of the
construction work so that works may proceed with
reference to them. This process may be contrasted
with the purpose of Surveying which is to determine
by measurement the positions of existing features.
(ISO_7078: 1985 Building Construction Procedures for Setting out, Measurement &
Surveying Vocabulary & Guidance Notes.)
Alternate definition is that setting out is the reverse of
Surveying. (i.e. surveying is a process of producing a plan
or a map of a particular area, setting out begins with the
plan and ends with the various elements of an engineering
project correctly positioned in the area. (Uren, J. et al 2006).

Setting out (definition)
Attitudes to setting out vary from site to site, with
generally insufficient importance attached to the
process.
It tends to be rushed (time constraints & pressure from
contractors), often leading to errors & in some cases
resultant costly corrections
Good work practices & techniques in setting out
essential to minimise errors & to ensure the
construction process proceeds smoothly.
Good knowledge is vital, as the setting out phase is
one of the most important stages in any civil
engineering construction project.

Setting out (AIM)
The aims of setting out are to position the
works in their correct relative spatial and
absolute positions, & to ensure that they
proceed smoothly and that their costs are
minimised. (Uren, J. et al 2006)
Chances of this aim being achieved will be
greatly enhanced by the use of suitable
control methods, availability & reference to
correct plans, and where good working
practices are adopted.

Setting out (AIM)
Two main aims:
1. Various elements of the scheme must be
correct in all three-dimensions both relative
and absolute (i.e. correct size, plan position &
reduced level).
2. Once set-out begins, it must proceed quickly &
with little or no delay so the works can proceed
smoothly and costs can be minimised.
Note* - worth remembering that the construction
contractors main commercial purpose is to make
a profit, & hence efficient setting out procedures
will help this be realised.

Setting out (dimensional control)
In engineering, first step in the planning and
design of a construction project is the
production of an accurate scaled plan.

Thereafter, the project, designed in terms of
this plan, must be set-out on the ground in
correct absolute and relative position, & to its
correct dimensions.

3D survey control planned with the setting out
(& monitoring & compliance elements) in mind
& control stations conveniently sited
accordingly
(i.e. to facilitate easy, economical set-out).

Control marks placed must survive the
construction processes (i.e. stability,
permanence, reliability).

A complete & thorough understanding of the plans, setting
out data, tolerances, & the time scale of operations is
imperative.
Make sure you are working off the current set of design plans
& calculations data !!!!
Surveyors should be proficient in AutoCAD.
enables data manipulation prior to bringing into survey
package.
Have a sound working knowledge of the survey
instrumentation available, including the effects of
instrumental errors on setting-out observations.
Select the right instrument(s) for the project.

General Principles
Points of known plan position must be established within or
near the site from which the design points can be set out in
their correct plan positions (i.e. involves horizontal
control techniques)
Points of known elevation relative to an agreed datum are
required within or near the site from which the design
points can be set out at their correct reduced levels. (i.e.
involves vertical control techniques).
Accurate methods must be adopted to establish design
points from this horizontal and vertical control. This
involves positioning techniques.
Setting out
Most important aspects
Making sure that the data provided to you is
suitable for set-out, so check this in the office prior
to going to site.
Understand the importance of completing
independent checks on computations, set-out data
extrapolation & actual setting out procedures.
You will sleep better at night when you complete
your checks.
Remember: if it doesnt look right, then review &
recheck it. Dont just proceed.

Planning & layout of survey control
Building construction
1. Small scale buildings (i.e. residential, commercial)
Building dimensions usually obtained from architects
plans. Always CHECK them they are often incorrect.

Architects plans

Individual building corners, or specific foundation positions
(piles), set-out from known control.
(i.e. bearing & distance to each corner). Usually in X & Y only.
GPS or total station techniques (GPS suitable for X & Y only)
Perpendicular offset methods can be used
Height value obtained when set-out peg has been placed,
and then used as a height reference (or use separate BM)
Height control normally achieved via standard levelling
techniques, to achieve required accuracy.

Importance of checking right angles & cross-dimensional
angle and distances
(i.e. nothing is ever square when set out from a single point).
Corner markers can be offset if required.
Initial foundation excavation will likely destroy the set-out mark as
placed
Always discuss with the building contractor (what do they need?)
Builders still use stringlines, via profile boards
Alternative: set-out marks on builders profiles.
Check offsets to boundaries
Verify location of building on the site
Check any HIRTB requirements


2. Large buildings (i.e. industrial, medium & high rise)
Important for the surveyor to liaise with architects,
structural & civil engineers involved (where appropriate), &
the site foreman.
Set out data must be consistent from all sources; must be
the latest version & suitable for setting out purposes.
Everyone must be working from the same set of plans or
data.
Accuracy can be achieved in a variety of ways, using
different instruments. Accuracy specs sometimes
dependent on construction method
(e.g. precast panels, therefore requires tight tolerance)

Survey control can (& often is) site specific, not connected to
a wider control network
Can be achieved using building coordinates, specifically
setting-out individual corners or columns, foundation piles, or
services.
Extended baselines can be utilised where building profiles or
stages extend over distance.
(e.g. retirement village complex).
Via the building (structural) grid system. These are coincident
with the structural (column) elements & form the basis for
multiple level construction.
Legal boundary issues must be considered.

On medium and high rise structures, verticality & height
transfer from level to level is an issue, and as such must be
checked at every floor.
Various techniques to achieve this.
Conventional levelling using precise methods & equipment
Trigonometric heighting (requires room to make the observations).
Direct optical (vertical) transfer at building corners
(i.e. optical or laser plummets)
Precise GPS (RTK) techniques to plumb building columns. Larger
high rise buildings are now incorporating inclination sensors to
monitor building deviation (corrects for displacements due to tilt,
contraction & expansion, as well as wind).
Case studies (IBM House, & Skytower).

IBM House, Auckland CBD.
(5-storey medium rise building; 2 parts to the bldg design.)
Grid system for horizontal control, on the alignment of the main
columns. (Site control network only, not linked to outside control).
Heights in terms of local AK MSL 1946 datum; (site BM required).
Instrumentation: Standard precision theodolite, right angle eye-piece
for vertical alignment facet; ordinary Leica level for height control.
Trigonometric heighting & standard levelling used for height control
Floor by floor construction, reinforced concrete structure.
Column lines setout & alignment extended onto adjacent bldgs.
Grids transferred floor by floor,(became more difficult with height).
Distances setout using EDM & calibrated steel band.
Time pressures the norm (setout just ahead of construction)
Heaps of independent checks !!!

Auckland Skytower, Auckland CBD.
Construction is reinforced concrete;
type of slip-form formwork.
Unique survey methodology; (precise tolerances)
Close relationship with technology suppliers &
international experts.
Challenging site conditions (high risk; complex).
Contract had tight timeframe (penalties?) so
surveyors on call 7 days a week (2.5 yrs).
External control system for horizontal control.
Alignment control; direct measurement
from external locations; GPS meast &
direct vertical alignment observation.
Account for building sway (up to 1m)
Control points located on adjacent
high rise structures (e.g. ASB Tower).

1. Roading highways or motorway projects
Numerous elements to consider.
Earthworks; roading alignments (H & V); drainage
elements; retaining structures; bridges & tunnels; services
locations; as-builts; monitoring; legal boundary elements;
Often high risk environments for the surveyors (due to
construction machinery; proximity to existing live road
environment).
Huge OSH requirements (Site Induction, Site Safe passports)
Starts with surveyor accepting data design in electronic
format to load into instruments.
Data can be manipulated to suit (i.e. offsets & height
adjustments).
Proprietary packages assist process

Survey control needs to account for all facets of the project
(i.e. relative accuracy spec set appropriately; - usually
defined at contract tender stage with reference to NZTA
survey stds document).
Set-out methods need to be adaptive to the conditions.
Get the maximum benefit out of the equipment available
Alignment corridors long and narrow; survey controls
designed to fit the specific environment
Communication!-(working with the contractor, engineers etc).
Contractors often have their own surveyors



Roading highways or motorway projects
Main survey control marks located outside construction zone, along full
length of the project; utilises existing LINZ control marks where
available as the basis for the control network. (requires search of LINZ
geodetic database form control framework).
Main marks need to be protected during project duration. Costly & time
consuming to replace (possibly delays).
Control network observed with a mix of GPS, total stations & precise
levelling methods. Normally adjusted using rigorous method
(i.e. Least squares estimation technique).
Internal set out marks required (temporary in nature)
Setouts include: horizontal & vertical positioning for roading
centrelines, kerb lines, centre islands, barrier locations; retaining walls,
bridge piers & alignments; formwork locations; drainage locations
(cesspits, culverts, etc); lighting; signage;

2. Urban & rural roads
Network required to cover entire project.
Different levels of control & set-out for each
OSH requirements (roading environments are dangerous)
horizontal & vertical elements (local coordinate & height systems)
Contract documents usually specify accuracy requirements.
Necessary to work closely with the contractor
Again set-out requirements linked to the nature of the work
Centrelines, kerb & channel alignments; cesspits & culverts; embankments &
any retaining structures; specific detail at intersections.)
On rural roads, contractor can usually interpret from centreline
positions only.

1. Drainage projects

Earthworks construction projects
1. Conventional methods
Staked set-out for bulk earthworks sites.
Cuts or fill measurements marked on stakes.(Sometimes colour
coded for cut or fill).
Stakes left on small mounds, with earthworks going on around them.
Mark out the perimeter (edge) of the excavation; (i.e. site rail level)
Regular survey undertaken to monitor progress & to reinstate visual
markers for the contractor (time consuming & costly).
Stake markers often destroyed, as they were needed in the
construction zone.
Spray marks on the ground sometimes used to mark works limit, or
to indicate cut or fill depths
Achieved construction precision not great; often required rework
More precise works - greater surveyor input

Earthworks construction projects
2. Machine guidance & machine control
The use of GPS, Total Stations or Lasers technology to
guide or control agricultural, construction and mining
machinery.
Accurately guiding, positioning or controlling the machine
can significantly improve accuracy, and productivity as well
as reducing operational costs. (Global Survey, 2011).
Machine Guidance vs. machine control
Guidance is the where the operator fully controls the machine, and
they receive visual indications and prompts from the system
Control is where the system provides full hydraulic control
Guest lecturer (Ray Copeland, 10 August
MD for Global Survey Ltd, NZ)

Machine Control

Industrial applications
1. Manufacturing / processing
High precision / accuracy the norm
Flatness, alignment, orientation; position
Linked to manufacturing processes,
or machinery installation.
E.g. kiln alignment; power generator positioning; satellite dish
position and alignment
Instrumentation choice & methods used are critical.
Accuracy usually the key aspect (right first time imperative)
Localised control if any. Usually related to position of other plant
Confined space & working environment aspects to consider
Examples:
F & P crane rail; Genesis Huntly generator;
Waihi Gold Mine conveyor setout

Good working practices when setting out
1. Keep careful records
Neat & tidy records (field books, sheets, digital files).
Note any that had an influence on the works.
Can be used as evidence in any dispute
2. Adopt & implement sensible filing procedures
Quantum of field records & setting out documents
grows quickly as project proceeds.
Often only record of particular activity (i.e. evidence)
Important that they are carefully stored (i.e. safe &
easily retrievable).
Records properly & adequately labelled and marked

3. Care of instruments & safe use
Look after the tools of the trade (i.e. care of equipment
imperative. Instruments kept adjusted, calibrated & in
good working order).
Transported correctly (in the vehicle & in the field)
Consequences of loss of time due to badly adjusted or
damaged instruments can be serious (i.e. construction
plant & workers kept idle; programme delays; wastage of
materials). Time is money !!
4. Check the drawings / plans
Essential that you have the correct information at hand.
Check them for consistency & completeness
Drawing versions are current

5. Walk the site
Initially walk the whole site & carry out reconnaissance.
Must be familiar with the area (cannot do this from inside
the office).
Note any ground surface problems, & discrepancies
between the site & the drawings to be reported.
Inspect the site regularly (i.e. missing or damaged control
or set-out points; carry out checks where necessary)
6. Work to the programme
Be familiar with the works programme.
Plan setting out operations in advance
Execute them on time to prevent delays
Agreed changes to be immediately recorded

7. Work to the specifications
Contract documents specify required tolerances for
different setting out operations.
Adopt suitable equipment & techniques to meet specns
8. Maintain accuracy
Working from whole to the part principle should apply.
In practise this means that all design points must be
set out from control framework.
This approach avoids any compounding errors.

9. Check the work
Each setting out operation must incorporate a checking
procedure.
Golden Rule: work is not completed until checked.
Checks must be independent of the initial method used
(e.g.).
Points fixed from one position checked from another
Critical points may require a third check.
If all four corners of a building have been established, the two
diagonals should be measured and checked.
Use correct (closed loop) levelling procedures to known RL pts.
Once distance has been set out, it should be measured twice as
a check. Measured in both directions if possible.

10. Communicate
Lack of communication is one of the main causes of
errors on construction sites.
Essential to understand what is to be done before
proceeding with the task.
Verbal commn acceptable in most cases, however
for matters which may be disputed .. requires
confirmation in writing
Errors reported as soon as discovered.
Nothing to be gained trying to hide errors. Prompt
action may save considerable amount of money.

Developments in surveying technology
Towards integrated surveying
Major advances in recent years
total stations, satellite and airborne surveying systems,
data collection & data communication aspects, software
Trend towards integrated surveying.
System made up of:
A surveying sensor (instrument) - (e.g. total station, GPS
receiver, laser scanner, digital level)
Data collection hardware & software
Data communications
Processing & design software
In practical terms, it means that all surveying
instruments (sensors) will be interchangeable &
data flow across all surveying disciplines will be
seamless. (Uren & Price, 2006).
For example, data from control survey, acquired by
GPS, then transferred directly on site to a total
station or laser scanner for mapping purposes.
Several instruments involved; but each dataset
combined by one software application to produce a
map, DTM or plan.
Predicted that sensor technology will continue to
improve.
Especially laser scanning & systems based on airborne mapping
Advancements in wireless communications
Mobile (cellular) phone technology increasingly important
Significant changes to GNSS systems
new players; signal modifications
Proper data integration will enable surveyors &
engineers to combine all kinds of data &
information, without complicated conversions &
data loss.
Engineering surveyors role in the future?
Still requires the ability to observe and measure angles,
distances and heights using fairly basic equipment
Conventional theodolites, steel tapes, std levelling equipment
Retain the ability to use a calculator & process observations by hand
Construction phase .. Most of time in engineering surveying
involves setting out work.
Is the practical application of routine survey techniques to
construction, & requires knowledge of these.
Such knowledge obtained through training & practical experience
Surveyor needs to understand best methods for specific aspects
Engineering surveyors also involved to improve data
integration (i.e. data managers, that oversee the continuous
acquisition, processing & transfer of data between site & office)

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