Run Time Storage Managment

The semantics of procedures in a language determines how names are

bound to storage during allocation. Information needed during an execution
of a procedure is kept in a block of storage called an activation record;
storage for names local to the procedure also appears in the activation
record.
An activation record for a procedure has fields to hold parameters, results,
machine-status information, local data, temporaries and the like. Since run-
time allocation and de-allocation of activation records occurs as part of the
procedure call and return sequences, we focus on the following three-
address statements:
1. call 2. return 3. halt 4. action, a placeholder for other statements
For example, the three-address code for procedures c and p in fig. 4
contains just these kinds of statements. The size and layout of activation
records are communicated to the code generator via the information about
names that is in the symbol table. For clarity, we show the layout in Fig. 4
rather than the form of the symbol-table entries.
We assume that run-time memory is divided into areas for code, static data,
and a stack.

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STATIC ALLOCATION
Consider the code needed to implement static allocation. A call statement in
the intermediate code is implemented by a sequence of two target-machine
instructions. A MOV instruction saves the return address, and a GOTO
transfers control to the target code for the called procedure:
MOV #here +20, callee.static_area GOTO callee.code_area
The attributes callee.statatic_area and callee.code_area are constants
referring to the address of the activation record and the first instruction for
the called procedure, respectively. The source #here+20 in the MOV
instruction is the literal return address; it is the address of instruction
following the GOTO instruction.
The code for a procedure ends with a return to the calling procedure ends
with a return to the calling procedure, except the first procedure has no
caller, so its final instruction is HALT, which presumably returns control to
the operating system. A return from procedure callee is implemented by
GOTO *callee.static_area
which transfers control to the address saved at the beginning of the
activation record.
Example 1: The code in Fig. 5 is constructed from the procedures c and p in
Fig. 4. We use the pseudo-instruction ACTION to implement the statement
action, which represents three-address code that is not relevant for this
discussion. We arbitrarily start the code for these procedures at addresses
100 and 200, respectively, and assume that each ACTION instruction takes
20 bytes. The activation records for the procedures are statically allocated
starting at location 300 and 364, respectively.
/*code for c*/ 100: ACTION1 120: MOV #140,364 /*save return address
140 */ 132: GOTO 200 /* call p */ 140: ACTION2 160: HALT …… /*code for
p*/ 200: ACTION3 220: GOTO *364 /*return to address saved in location
364*/ …… /*300-363 hold activation record for c*/ 300: /*return address*/
304: /*local data for c*/ …… /*364-451 hold activation record for p*/
364: /*return address*/ 368: /*local data for p*/ fig 5. Target code for input
in fig 4.
The instructions starting at address 100 implement the statements
action1 ; call p; action2; halt
of the first procedure c. Execution therefore starts with the instruction
ACTION1 at address 100. The MOV instruction at address 120 saves the
return address 140 in the machine-status field, which is the first word in the
activation record of p. The GOTO instruction at address 132 transfers control
to the first instruction is the target code of the called procedure.
Since 140 was saved at address 364 by the call sequence above, *364
represents 140 when the GOTO statement at address 220 is executed.
Control therefore returns to address 140 and execution of procedure c
resumes.
Stack Allocation
Static allocation can become stack allocation by using relative addresses for
storage in activation records. The position of the record for an activation of a
procedure is not known until run time. In stack allocation, this position is
usually stored in a register, so words in the activation record can be
accessed as offsets from the value in this register. The indexed address
mode of our target machine is convenient for this purpose.
Relative addresses in an activation record can be taken as offsets from any
known position in the activation record. For convenience, we shall use
positive offsets by maintaining in a register SP a pointer to the beginning of
the activation record on top of the stack. When a procedure call occurs, the
calling procedure increments SP and transfers control to the called
procedure. After control returns to the caller, it decrements SP, thereby de-
allocating the activation record of the called procedure.
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The code for the 1st procedure initializes the stack by setting SP to the start
of the stack area in memory.

MOV #stackstart, SP /*initialize the stack*/

code for the first procedure

HALT /*terminate execution*/

A procedure call sequence increments SP, saves the return address, and
transfers control to the called procedure:

ADD #caller.recordsize, SP

MOV #here+16, SP /* save return address*/

GOTO callee.code_area

The attribute caller.recordsize represents the size of an activation record, so

the ADD instruction leaves SP pointing to the beginning of the next
activation record. The source #here+16 in the MOV instruction is the
address of the instruction following the GOTO; it is saved in the address
pointed to by SP.
The return sequence consists of two parts. The called procedure transfers
control to the return address using

GOTO *0(SP) /*return to caller*/

The reason for using *0(SP) in the GOTO instruction is that we need two
levels of indirection: 0(SP) is the address of the first word in the activation
record and *0(SP) is the return address saved there.
The second part of the return sequence is in the caller, which decrements
SP, thereby restoring SP to its previous value. That is, after the subtraction
SP points to the beginning of the activation record of the caller:

SUB #caller.recordsize, SP

Example 2
The program in fig .6 is a condensation of the three-address code for the
Pascal program for reading and sorting integers. Procedure q is recursive, so
more than one activation of q can be alive at the same time.
*code for s*/ action1 call q action2 halt
/*code for p*/ action3 return
/*code for q*/ action4 call p action5 call q action6 call q return

fig.6 Three-address code to illustrate stack allocation

Suppose that the sizes of the activation records for procedures s, p, and q
have been determined at compile time to be ssize, psize, and qsize,
respectively. The first word in each activation record will hold a return
address. We arbitrarily assume that the code for these procedures starts at
addresses 100,200 and 300 respectively, and that the stack starts at 600.
The target code for the program in

fig. 6 is as follows:

/*code for s*/

100: MOV #600, SP /*initialize the stack*/

108: ACTION1
128: ADD #ssize, SP /*call sequence begins*/
136: MOV #152, *SP /*push return address*/
144: GOTO 300 /*call q*/
152: SUB #ssize, SP /*restore SP*/
160: ACTION2
180: HALT
………
/*code for p*/
200: ACTION3
220: GOTO *0(SP) /*return*/
………
/*code for q*/
300: ACTION4 /*conditional jump to 456*/
320: ADD #qsize, SP
328: MOV #344, *SP /*push return address*/
336: GOTO 200 /*call p*/
344: SUB #qsize, SP
352: ACTION5
372: ADD #qsize, SP
380: MOV #396, *SP /*push return address*/
388: GOTO 300 /*call q*/
396: SUB #qsize, SP
404: ACTION6
424: ADD #qsize, SP
432: MOV #448, *SP /*push return address*/
440: GOTO 300 /*call q*/
448: SUB #qsize, SP
456: GOTO *0(SP) /*return*/
………
600: /*stack starts here*/
We assume that ACTION4 contains a conditional jump to the address 456of
the return sequence from q; otherwise, the recursive procedure q is
condemned to call itself forever. In an example below, we consider an
execution of the program in which the first call of q does not return
immediately, but all subsequent calls do.
If ssize, psize, and qsize are 20,40, and 60, respectively, then SP is
initialized to 600, the starting address of the stack, by the first instruction at
address 100. SP holds 620 just before control transfers from s to q, because
ssize is 20. Subsequently, when q calls p, the instruction at address 320
increments SP to 680, where the activation record for p begins; SP reverts
to 620 after control returns to q. If the next two recursive calls of q return
immediately, the maximum value of SP during this execution is 680.
However, the last stack location used is 739, since the activation record for q
starting at location 680 extends for 60 bytes.
RUN-TIME ADDRESSES FOR NAMES
The storage allocation strategy and the layout of local data in an activation
record for a procedure determine how the storage for names is accessed.
If we assume that a name in a three-address statement is really a pointer to
a symbol-table entry for the name; it makes the compiler more portable,
since the front end need not be changed even if the compiler is moved to a
different machine where a different run-time organization is needed. On the
other hand, generating the specific sequence of access steps while
generating intermediate code can be of significant advantage in an
optimizing compiler, since it lets the optimizer take advantage of details it
would not even see in the simple three-address statement.
In either case, names must eventually be replaced by code to access storage
locations. We thus consider some elaborations of the simple three-address
statement x := 0. After the declarations in a procedure are processed,
suppose the symbol-table entry for x contains a relative address 12 for x.
First consider the case in which x is in a statically allocated area beginning at
address static. Then the actual run-time address for x is static+12.
Although, the compiler can eventually determine the value of static+12 at
compile time, the position of the static area may not be known when
intermediate code to access the name is generated. In that case, it makes
sense to generate three-address code to “compute” static+12, with the
understanding that this computation will be carried out during the code-
generation phase, or possibly by the loader, before the program runs. The
assignment x := 0 then translates into
static[12] := 0
If the static area starts at address 100, the target code for this statement is
 MOV #0, 112

On the other hand, suppose our language is one like Pascal and that a
display is used to access non-local names. Suppose also that the display is
kept in registers, and that x is local to an active procedure whose display
pointer is in register R3. Then we may translate the copy x := 0 into the
three-address statements

t1 := 12+R3

*t1 := 0

in which t1 contains the address of x. This sequence can be implemented by

the single machine instruction

MOV #0, 12 (R3)

The value in R3 cannot be determined at compile time.

The Darjeeling Bus

It was raining heavily. It was the sort of weather that was normal during the monsoon in
Darjeeling. Naina looked out of the rain splattered window, over the lush greenery beneath.
The little house on top of the hill had withstood rain and sun for over a hundred years. She
ran back into the kitchen to take the teapot off the fire. She sat down in the porch, leaning
against the mud wall. She liked the smell when it rained. She looked fondly at the letter she
had been carrying in her pocket all day long. It was from her mother for her to open on her
18th birthday.

Rohan lived in Kolkata. He was always special. He stood first in class though he hardly ever
studied. He had a whole cupboard of medals that he won playing sports at school. His elder
brother thought he was the best brother in the world. He loved people and they loved him.
More than anything, he loved his childhood friend, Maya. They had been together since they
first became friends in pre-school. He felt she was more beautiful than any girl he had ever
seen. He got admitted to the most prestigious college in his country. He knew what he was
going to do. Get a degree, get a job, marry Maya and have lots of kids. But no person is
safe from karma. Life is all about a delicate balance, it is like the art of the tight rope
walker. A man can have a thousand extra-ordinary qualities but an imperfection can destroy
him. In Rohan's case, the imperfection was that he never lost. He knew not that a man
could lose and lose heavily but still come back from it. And so it happened the day three
years before today. His shower was not working and Rohan had to go offer his prayers to
his favorite God at the temple. He was leaving for college today and there was not much
time as he had a train to catch in two hours. Rohan grabbed a towel and ran into his
brother's bathroom. As he dried his hair after the bath, he heard the bedroom door open.
He heard whispering voices and he thought he heard a girl's voice. He knew his brother did
not have a girlfriend and he was curious. He kept listening hard as he heard his brother say
"Rohan's at the temple, no one's home. Come on!" He soon heard the sounds he wanted to
hear, they were having sex! Rohan heard the girl moaning softly. Rohan was still a virgin
and he felt his cock starting to get hard. Out of his love for Maya, he had never pressured
her to have sex. Rohan opened the bathroom door just a little. He saw his brother's cock
sliding in and out of the girl. His brother was slamming her doggy style. Through the crack,
he could only see the girl from the waist down. He wanted to catch a glimpse of her breasts
but he was afraid he would be caught. His brother started grunting and working his hips
harder. Rohan let his hands wrap around his cock. He closed his eyes and jerked off to the
sound of the hip slamming the girl's ass. Rohan exploded his semen all over the wall. He
cleaned up and was now anxious to leave the bathroom lest he miss his train. He peeped
out of the door and saw that his brother was now on top. His face was buried in her heavy
breasts and so Rohan tip toed his way towards the door. He stepped out and just as he was
about to close the door behind him, his brother rolled onto his back and pushed the girl on
top. Rohan looked as the girl sat up on his cock, working her hips over his brother's cock
and with her left hand, pushed back the long hair covering her face.

There are some moments in life that change a man's fate forever and this was one of those.
It was Maya. Her beautiful face was engulfed in lust, her eyes closed and her lips moaning
softly in harmony with my brother's penetrations. Rohan went blank. His legs seemed to
wobble and he fainted. It had been three years since the day and three years since Rohan
had gone home. He lied to his parents that he was busy with some research project. His
unsuspecting and loving parents visited him regularly during the three years. The last time
they visited, they had good news for him. His brother had revealed that he was going to
marry Maya and they thought having Maya as their daughter-in-law was a gift from God.
That day Rohan felt God had slammed him face down into a black hole and he never had
the courage to look up again. Every day since then had been filled with thoughts of suicide.

Rohan liked cigarettes. He liked them more than any other thing in the world now. He
hardly slept. His dreams took him back to the same scene that haunted him during the day.
It was the beautiful face of Maya. It was the day of graduation. Rohan had graduated with a
GPA of 1.5. It was the minimum required to graduate and he felt he owed his parents a
degree to show them that they had done well their job of raising him. He saw his parents
clapping hard when they called out Rohan's name. After the ceremony, Rohan packed his
bags and put them in the back of the his dad's van. His brother's marriage was in 10 days
and there was lot of work to be done for the elaborate wedding ceremony. Rohan went back
to his college room, picked up the backsack and got into his friend's car. He had left a
goodbye note on his desk, he knew his parents would come up to his room searching for
him if did not show up in 10 minutes.

Rohan got aboard a bus. The tickets are to be paid for after you get onto the bus in India,
depending on how far you travel. Rohan decided to end his life, go to a solitary place and
end the torment that seemed to be eat his brain. Rohan asked the bus conductor how far
the bus was going. It was going to Darjeeling. Rohan liked Darjeeling. The scenery is
absolutely incredible. On a clear day Kanchanjunga, the third highest peak in the world
watches over the town and you can see villages on other peaks across the multiple valleys.
Birds don’t look like they fly as much as glide over the mountain tops. On most days
however the clouds roll in and wrap the town in a fine mist that blows through the streets.
Rohan smiled. This was first time in 4 years he had a positive picture of something. Maybe it
was the fact that he was going to jump off the third highest mountain in the world. He liked
the idea.

The bus was full. He felt happy the seat next to him was empty. He did not want to sit next
to someone. The bus stopped. He heard the conductor talking to a woman. She was asking
him if there was space. The conductor spotted the empty seat beside me. She got aboard.
She seemed to be in her late thirties and looked very beautiful. Her long hair was tied up in
a single ponytail. Others on the bus were looking at her with more lustful thoughts. She
wore a blue saree and had a very desirable figure. Her full breasts were noticeable and her
shapely hips seemed to interest the men. As she bent forward to push her bag under the
seat, her palloo revealed a cleavage that seemed to awake his groin after a four year
absence. The smell of a light floral perfume filled Rohan's senses as she sat down. She had
light green eyes that seemed to look deep.
It seemed to me like the world was suddenly lighter as she turned towards me with a
beautiful smile. She had luscious lips, lips so deep and pink it made you want to touch them
just to see if they were real. She asked me, "Are you going to Darjeeling?". I nodded my
head, unable yet to speak any words. She continued "I lived there for 30 years since the
day I was born. Its a wonderful place for the mind to heal, for life grows in every part of its
soil. If its your first time visiting, you will know it for yourself". As I looked at more closely, I
noticed she had eyes that showed sadness. I immediately knew why I noticed that. I had
looked at those eyes for four years in the mirror. It was the same sadness. She seemed to
nod in approval as she smiled knowingly. I was suddenly close to tears, grief overwhelmed
me as I looked at her knowing someone else has had the misfortune of knowing the pain
that was inside me. She caught my hand, and slid her slender, soft fingers into my palm as
she pressed my hand in support. I asked her "Who are you?". My voice was almost a
whisper. I am not sure she even heard it over the sounds of the bus engine struggling over
the steep road. She smiled replying in the same barely audible voice in which I spoke "Does
it matter? All that matters is that we were destined to meet. I can see you have lost faith in
life the same way I did years ago. I never found someone to help me but it looks like you
have me." She looked to see if anyone was watching. Everyone was busy either sleeping or
looking out of their windows at the beauty of the countryside. She leaned over and kissed
me on my cheek. I felt her warm breath. An electric charge seemed to jolt all my hair into
standing up. It was a wonderful feeling, a time when your mind is as peaceful as a saint in
meditating in the himalayas. Her lips seemed to press into my skin, transferring a pleasure I
had never known. As she rested her head back against the seat, her moist lips had left an
impression that made me forget all my pain temporarily. I looked at her astonished not
believing what she just bestowed on me, I was now even having second thoughts about the
jump off the mountain. She laughed quietly, it sounded like the tinkle of small bells in a
gentle wind. She said "I know what you are thinking. Don't think so much. You are much
too young to comprehend life and question fate. Just enjoy the moment. I have much to
teach you on our short journey together." I looked out of the window, the wind from the
open window had the smell of fresh leaves and rain. My pain returned in a while, Maya had
never left me even during the day. She was always there, her smile, those tight breasts
with her large pointed nipples and her womanly hips. And below her was my brother
thrusting into her, implanting her with his seed. I jumped out of the dream as suddenly as I
got into it. Little drops of sweat were dripping down my forehead as I thought of the
marriage. 9 days to go, 9 days before I jumped down Kanchenjunga. I thought it as perfect
harmony, a rhythm. Their marriage and my death.

She seemed to sense my thoughts. She looked with worry at me. She asked "Why? What
was so bad that you have chosen this way?". I was astonished, she seemed to not just
sense my thoughts but read them perfectly. I told her my story, my life as it happened. I
told her how I jerked off to my own Maya being fucked by my brother without even knowing
it. I told her how my own brother had for his own happiness had broken all holy laws to
seduce Maya. I told her how I felt God had slammed me face down for being a good son, a
good brother and for trying to lead a good life. I was in tears, I was crying silently as the
bus rolled along in the night. She brought me to her bosom, I let her guide my head onto
her full breasts and rest on them. I saw my tear falling on her chest and rolling into her
deep cleavage. She told me "You are not normal. There are few innocent, good persons left
in today's world. The world is full of corrupt and selfish individuals who are driven by
jealousy, envy and greed. You know I was so much like you; naive, innocent, I believed
everyone was good and the world was an holy place. It is not. You have potential in you,
the same potential that are possessed by those working for God. I will teach you how to live
in this world. I will tell you how to administer justice. The weak are always afraid of the
righteous. They try to hurt the the path of the righteous man, just like you have been hurt
by your morally corrupt and coward of a brother. But you do not have the strength yet. For
now, you are in no shape to even understand my words. I have to heal you first, both mind
and body."

I had no idea when she said the last sentence that my healing would include making love to
her non-stop all through the journey. She whispered into my ear and said "Close your eyes
and follow your heart." She covered us with a blanket as it was getting cold. I found it was
for a different reason when she guided my hands to her breasts. She looked at me with
quivering lips and said "Go ahead, please me." I let my hand feel her breast. It was the first
time in my life I was touching a woman's boobs. It felt wonderful to cup her breast. I
squeezed it softly. She left out a soft moan and quickly opened her eyes to look around. But
everyone was fast asleep and the old bus was making way too much noise for anyone to
even notice. She leaned against my chest, her back now resting against me. Her hair smelt
of wild orchids in the spring, the moonlight gave her hair a silver glow as it flowed down
towards her slender waist. I wrapped my right hand across her delicate frame as I traced
my finger along her soft tummy. Her skin felt like velvet. She looked fairer than the moon,
like an angel in a dream. My finger finally found solace resting against her navel, teasing it
and pinching her baby soft skin. This time she moaned louder. Her sensual voice seemed to
awaken my cock as it strained against my pants roaring to let it free. My left hand was still
busy playing with her breasts. I looked around and slowly loosened the blanket so it fell a
little free on one side exposing her right breast completely and part of her left one. She had
a magnificent set of tits. They were probably a D-cup, round and full, slightly sagging
though that only added to elegance of the shape. I traced the contour of breast with my
finger, it was shaped like a mango. Steep at the top, my finger gradually traced gentler
slope and over the top of her puffy nipple. I waited a moment like an explorer that just
conquered a mountain. I was the conquerer of her breasts. I pushed her hard nipple into
her breast. She was breathing harder now against my neck, making silent noises in deep
pleasure. I continued my journey south of her nipple. I watched as the nipple came back
out slowly, standing back hard over her breast triumphantly. Her breast had developed into
more fullness near the bottom, giving her that lovely shape like a ripe mango ready to
devour. She moved her hand into my hair and lowered my head onto her erect nipple. If
ever there was heaven on earth, I felt this was it as I lowered my lips onto her breast. Like
a hungry baby, I descended on her breast sucking her nipple in short bursts. Her hand
pulled at my hair excited, she was breathing fast, eyes closed deep in pleasure. My tongue
rolled her hard nipple over. It was a battle between two equals, the meeting of two entities
that gave pleasure in mutual company. Her nippled seemed to pierce my tongue as I tried
to smother it into submission. And so it seemed like time was boundless and life eternal as
we both passed into deep sleep.