Ul t r asoni c Wel di ng

The or y
- Pr i nci pl es &
H. Po t e nt e Technologie der Kunstoff Universitfit-Gesamthochschule, Pohlweg 47/49
4790 Paderborn, Federal Republic of Germany
This paper looks into the fundamental phenomena of ultrasonic welding. It starts with a simple model rod, covering the
sound field, energy conversion and energy transmission. The geometrical dependence of ultrasonic energy transmission
and the energy conversion in the energy director are then examined on simple joined parts with real contact surface
geometries. Finally, criteria are set out for assessing the welding capacity of thermoplastics. The paper concludes by
showing the signO$canee of joining pressurg for welded seam quality.
I n t r o d u c t i o n
Ultrasound welding has come to gain a
significant share of the market over the
past twenty years. A survey of the
developments and research of these
years may be found in references 1-22.
Welding machines are available both
as compact units and as ultrasonic kits.
The latter are purpose-designed for
incorporation in special machines, pro-
duction lines and multiple-head plants.
Automatic welding machines with up to
62 sound generators are now built for
large parts - such as motor car instru-
ment panels and bumpers.
The key to the success of this process
lies chiefly in the very short welding
times. These are generally in the order
of magnitude of 0.1 to 1 sec. It must,
however, be added that the moulded
part and the process must be precisely
tailored to each other, since the shape
of the part influences the welding
process to a much greater degree than in
any other method. Failures with this
process are generally due to a lack of
coordination between the machine manu-
facturer and the user.
This paper will look into the basic
principles and the theory behind ultra-
sonic welding.
S o u n d f i el d a nd e ne r g y c o n v e r s i o n
When plastics are joined by ultrasonic
welding, longitudinal vibrations are
transmitted from the sonotrode to the
parts being joined. The frequency of the
vibrations lies between 20 and 50 kFIz.
A stationary wave field forms in the
joined parts. This has a decisive in-
fluence on the energy transmission and
the energy conversion. Theoretical
predictions about the wave field are
only possible in the simplest of geo-
metrical cases.
This is to be explained in greater
Fi g. 1 Fr i ng e pat t e r n o f t he s o u n d f i el d a nd e ne r g y
c o n v e r s i o n i n a r o d 10, 13
228 MATERIALS & DESIGN VoL 5 OCTOBER/ NOVEMBER 1984
detail t aki ng t he exampl e of a r od
irradiated by ultra-sound 10, 13. Figure 1
(left) shows t he fringe pat t er n of a
st at i onar y l ongi t udi nal wave. The r od is
pl aced on a r ever ber ant support (st eel
anvil). Wel l - f ocused zones and out -of-
focus, i.e. bl urred regions are visible in
t he Fi gure.
Pr oceedi ng f r om t he suppor t under
t he rod, i.e. t he steel anvil, t he first well-
f ocused zone occur s at a r od l engt h of
l ---- X/ 4 t he second at 3 X/ 4 and t he nt h
at 1 = n X/ 2 + ) , / 4, wher e )k is t he
wavelength. Thes e regi ons are t he
zones of maxi mum vi brat i onal ampli-
tude. The points of maxi mum alternating
strain or al t ernat i ng stress are phase-
shifted by a quar t er wavel engt h in each
case. These are t he bl urred areas in
Fig, 1. The y lie mi dway bet ween t wo
wel l -focused zones. The pl ast i c onl y
softens and fuses in the regi on of
maxi mum st rai n or stress (Fi g. 1, right).
A furt her zone of fused pl ast i c ought
t heoret i cal l y t o have occur r ed in t he
regi on of t he r od support. The r eason
for its absence is t o be f ound
a) in the hi gh sound absor pt i on of t he
fused zones above it
b) in t he hi gh heat t ransfer ( heat
conduct i on) in t he steel anvil.
Wi t h a sound- absor bent s u p p o r t - in
t he ext reme case, a i r - t he maxi mum
vi brat i onal ampl i t udes occur at r od
lengths of l = n) k/ 2 wher e n = 0, 1, 2 ....
and t he maxi mum strain or stress at I =
n) k/ 2 + )k/ 4.
The concl usi on t o be dr awn initially
from t hese model i nvest i gat i ons is t hat
wel ded seams must be pl aced in t he
area of maxi mum st rai n or stress.
The ener gy t r ansmi ssi on f r om t he
sonot r ode t o t he r od is likewise depend-
ent on geomet ry. Wi t h a r ever ber ant
t ermi nat i on, maxi mum ener gy t rans-
mi ssi on is obt ai ned with rod lengths of
1 - - n) k/ 2 + ) k/ 4 wher e ( n = 0, 1, 2. . . )
and wi t h a sound- absor bent t ermi na-
t i on at 1 = n) k/ 2. Mi ni mum ener gy
t r ansmi ssi on occur s at rod lengths
phase-shi ft ed by a quar t er wavel engt h
in each case.
Thes e simple model i nvest i gat i ons
al ready show t he deci si ve i nfl uence of
moul ded par t geomet r y on t he t rans-
mi ssi on of ul t r a- sound and on the
conver si on o f t he sound i nt o heat.
Ene r gy t r ans mi s s i on
Fl at cont act surfaces are unsui t abl e for
ul t rasoni c welding. The r eason for this
will be given later. The cont act surface
geomet ri es depi ct ed in Figs. 2 and 3
have pr oved successful, wi t h the geo-
metries shown in Fig. 2 general l y bei ng
used for amor phous t her mopl ast i cs and
t hose in Fig. 3 for semi -cryst al l i ne
- : - 0 , 1
Fi g. 2
I
CO
QU
Cont ac t surface ge ome t r i e s ref 2 0
MATERIALS & DESIGN VoL 5 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 1984 229
thermoplastics.
Almost all contact surface geometries
have a V-shaped tongue. This is called
the energy director. This energy director
can be viewed in good approximation
as a feather key which connects the
upper and lower join components to
each other.
Her e again there are joined part
geometries and critical lengths where
no energy transmission takes place
from the sonotrode to the part being
joined. Wi t h simple joined part geo-
metries such as rod, panel or pipe
systems, these critical lengths can be
calculated by the following equation
ref. 11, 13:
s - ' 7 m I . +
The parameters contained in this
equation are presented in Fig, 4. Para-
meters lb and Sb can be influenced within
certain limits by the joining pressure
(static contact pressure).
I f the vibrational amplitude at the
sonotrode output is entered as a measure
of the energy transmission, then the
critical lengths can be established experi-
mentally. Figure 5 shows an example of
this ref. 12, 13. The critical value here is
24. 4 hUrL The value obtained theoreti-
cally is 24.6 mm.
I - ' - -
" 1
o
' " " / / / A
t . ~
Fig. 3 Contact surface geometries ref 20
+ 1 . = ( ?
This pronounced dependence of the
transmittable energy on the geometry of
the joined part occurs primarily at high
joining pressures. It can be reduced
almost completely if the joining pressure
(static contact pressure) is lowered
accordingly ( Fi g 6). There is then,
however, a danger of the sonotrode
leaving marks on the surface of the joined
part. These marks can be avoided if
polyethylene film or similar is placed
between the sonotrode and the part being
joined.
Apart from the joining pressure, the
sonotrode mass also has an influence.
The geometry-dependence of the energy
transmission falls with an increasing
sonotrode mass ref. 12, 13.
Energy conversion
As has already been shown with the
example of the rod irradiated with ultra-
sound, the material fuses at points of high
alternating strain or stress. For the
energy director this means that a high
vibrational amplitude, A, must be present
at its input. At its output, i.e. at the point
of contact with the lower joined part, by
contrast, the amplitude should be as
small as possible, or in the ideal case,
zero. The maximum strain ~ is then, by
way of a first approximation, the quotient
of the difference in vibrational ampli-
tudes AA and the height of the energy
director I b ( E ~ A A f l b ) .
Figure 7 shows measured vibrational
oscillation distributions in different planes
SO- ~-
L
~ - - SC - - D
" / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
/ / / / / / ~ ' /
Fig. 4 Diagrammatic sketch of a
rod-shaped joined part geometry
230 MATERIALS & DESIGN Vol. 5 OCTOBER/ NOVEMBER 1984
12
p m
9
<
= 6
. 4 - - .
~
r'n
I:=
Cl
3
0
1 ~ml ' - - k l ~ ~ ' ' ~ " ~
10 2 0 3 0 40 J r a m 5 0
Z & .
Z. 2
height of the upper pL ate h
Fi g. 5 Amp l i t u d e at t he s o n o t r o d e o u t p u t as a f u n c t i o n
o f u p p e r pl at e he i g ht r e f 13
18
, u m
75
12
, <
cD
9
..& _
I X .
E
o 6
3
I I
, !
i
I
( : 1
~ / ~ ' / , " / ~ f 4 4 4 / , / / , . " / / / / / / J ' / . ' x . ' / / , ". :' / / / / / . ~
z/r_... :z
I - - ~ smoh' mJe
d
;
0 12 24
~ 1 ~
l
" l / / / # # f l
36
-
mat er i al : PMIqA
0 = 6 3 0 r a m . d=Smm
smotrode: 4 ]Omen
a ~ F d =Sg0 N, I=~Fit=tOaON
18 ,,,,,, go
[ength of the upper pipe t ,
Fi g. 6 Amp l i t u d e at t he s o n o t r o d e o u t p u t as a f u n c t i o n
at t he he i g ht o f t he u p p e r j o i n c o mp o n e n t a nd t he
j o i n i n g pr e s s ur e r e f 13
of a model energy director. At the energy
director input, i.e. in plane A-A, the
vibrational amplitude is high, at the
output, i.e. in plane C-C, by contrast, it is
only zero at the corners of the energy
director. The fusion process must thus
commence at these points. As can be
seen from the micrograph of the energy
director in Fi~ 8, this is indeed the case.
The tip that has penetrated the lower
joined part on account of the static
contact pressure has not fused and will
not fuse throughout the full duration of
the energy director fusion process. The
join plane (planes C-C in Fie,. 7) may not
under any circumstances be positioned at
a point of maximum vibrational ampli-
tude, since the amplitude difference AA
would then be between the upper and
lower part and the alternating strain
would be zero.
These critically joined part geometries
can only be calculated in the simplest of
cases. The shape of the lower joined part
is decisive here. With rod and panel
systems and also pipe-shaped joined
parts the critical heights of the lower
joined part ref. 12, 13 are
lc = n ~ k / 2 + X / 4 , (n =0, 1, 2. . . )
if the joined parts are placed on a steel
anvil, i.e. on a reverberant support.
The sound energy input into the energy
director is made up of a reversible and an
irreversible component is converted into
heat. The type of energy conversion
depends on the joining pressure, def'med
as the quotient of the static contact force
and the cross-sectional area of the part
being joined.
In Fig,. 9 the time to fusion is plotted
over the joining pressure with vibrational
amplitude as the parameter. Two regions
can be clearly distinguished. In the area
where the curves fall sharply the ener-
gy is made up of an internal friction
component and an interfacial friction
component. In the fiat curve branches
energy conversion takes place by intern-
al friction alone. Since the heating
times are very short an adiabatic pro-
cess sequence can be assumed by way
of good approximation. For the former
case the energy equation is then ref.
13:
(7r~7 +2m3")E~2f dt =pc d0
where
m : 0 , 2 5 [ 1 - ( ~ ) o , 7 1
For the second case the equation is:
rrrl E}2f dt=pc d0
where r/ = damping, 3' = solid-state
coefficient of friction, E = modulus of
elasticity;, ~ = maximum alternating
strain; f = frequency, t -- time, p =
density, c = specific heat capacity;, 8 =
temperature, p = pressure, PK =
MATERIALS & DESIGN Vol. 5 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 1984 231
pressure at the bend in the curves in
Fig. 9.
The equations are valid for the
t emperat ure range up to the glass
transition t emperat ure for amorphous
thermoplastics and up to the crystalline
temperature for semi-crystalline thermo-
plastics. A dampi ng maxi mum occurs
at these temperatures, such t hat the
transition to molten plastic occurs more
or less all at once. I t must further be
noted t hat all the mat eri al values are
t emperat ure-dependent and t hat the
modulus of elasticity and the dampi ng
are also dependent on frequency.
Wel di ng capaci t y o f t hermopl ast i cs
A distinction is made in ul t rasoni c
wel di ng between the di rect method and
the i ndi r ect method.
I n the di rect method - also cal l ed
near-fi el d we l d i n g - the distance be-
tween the sonotrode and the j oi ned part
is less t han 6 ram.
I n the i ndi r ect method - also cal l ed
remote wel di ng- the sound is conducted
to the contact surface over a larger
distance, through the part being joined.
The welding capacity of thermoplastics
in respect of the two methods can be
estimated with the following indexes
ref. 12, 13:
A = 7777
= f pc
dO
A is the logarithmic dampi ng factor.
Thi s constitutes a measure of the
amplitude reduction when the distance
between the front end of the sonotrode
and the cont act surface is equivalent to
one wavelength. ~5 is an energy index
1 5 r n m
&
L I 5 m m
- J e
J
. . J
A
0 L
~ : a m p l i t u d e i n
I
a m p l i t u d e i n L e v e l
C
L e v e l A - A
B- B
F
I .
a m p l i t u d e i n L e v e l C - C
Fi g. 7 Ampl i t ude di st ri but i on i n t he energy di rect or ref
12, 13
Fig. 8 Mierograph ofan energy director irradiated with
ultra-sound ref 12,13
20.
A m = I T , 6 P m
/ A r ~ , 2 0 p m
A m = 2 1 , S P r n
/ ~ I i ~ i . i . . . i # I I ~ I " I ~ l l ~ I ~ I I I " i
X ' / [ " o - - e ~ e ~ ' - - 0 " ~
" / A " k " ' r ' - A f t ) = 2 6 ~ J m X
X
J
materi aL: 'C
L
500 1000
st at i c cont act pressure p ( N/ cm 2)
1500
Fig. 9 Time to fusion as a function of joining pressure
and vibrational amplitude ref 12,13
o,~I
m
~ o.~
~ off/
0.o2
0.01
a r r o w d i r e c t i o n s hows i n c r e a s e i n t h e
w e [ d a b f l i f y b y t h e i n d i r e c t method
I 1 1 1 1 I
I II111 ~
Igid Pvcl II I I I I ~
~I . . . . . . . . ', : : l I H i t
] ~ . . . . . . t % ~ [ .I .' iill`lO~
I ll iL , l, ,
I I ~ ' I I I I I I I I I I i I ] I H
L DPE
I. . l l l l Hl I I [ i l i l i i
I L ~ - , \ l l l l l i H I J I JJrlJl
" H D E . . . . . . . ' \ ! ' , ' , ' , ' , ' , ', ] ', I I I H ,
I I I uI~I~--iI ~ 1 ~ I~ I l l l l [ I I I I l l
I l l l | " I I " I I I I M I I l l [ I I I I l l
P A S t i l ] J I I I I l l
' i 1 ] i - l--....j
. . . . . . . . . . ~ . \ \ \ \ ' ~ 1"141 I I I I I I
\ . T ~ r ; i l l l r ' - , J I I Ill
~',,\\\\\',\\\\\\\\\\\\\',~ II
~[ I IL]IIII I I l l llJ
t o t o o ~ u o
d i m e n s i o n l e s s ener gy f a c t o r
Fig. 10 Diagram for assessment of the welding capacity
of thermoplastics ref 12,13
2 3 2 M A T E R I A L S & D E S I G N V o L 5 O C T O B E R / N O V E M B E R 1 9 8 4
which is obt ai ned from energy equation
3, where 0~ is the room t emperat ure and
0~ the glass transition or crystallisation
temperature.
The higher , the more energy will be
required for the welding process, and
the smaller the logarithmic dampi ng
factor A, the more energy will arrive at
the cont act surface. The t wo values
must be viewed in relation to one
another when assessing plastics. A
small and a small A, for instance,
mean good weldability by the direct and
indirect method. Mat eri al s with a high
~b and a high A, by contrast, can onl y
be welded by the direct method. In Fig.
10 these indexes are plotted against
each other for a number of thermo-
plastics. A cl ear distinction can be
made between two groups - the amor-
phous and the semi-crystalline thermo-
plastics require a higher energy ( ~
index). Suitability for welding by the
remote met hod increases in the direc-
don of the arrow.
Figure 11 gives a survey of the
welding capaci t y of thermoplastics, as
evaluated in the literature ref. 14. Thi s
tallies well with the physical statements
(Fig, I0). A survey of a number of
thermoplastics that are mut ual l y weld-
able in the near field is further given in
Fig, 12.
I n f l u e n c e o f j o i n i n g pr e s s ur e o n
we l d e d s e a m qual i t y
I t has al ready been shown that the
joining pressure has a very considerable
influence on energy transmission and
on the nature of energy conversion. It s
influence on welded seam quality is
likewise high.
Figure 13 shows a welded seam with
a well-matched joining pressure. In Fig.
14 the joining pressure was too high.
The energy director has been inserted
into the lower hal f of the joined part
without the parts welding together at
this poinL The interface is still clearly
visible. Wel ds of this t ype have very
high internal stresses. Figure 14 shows
a weld in which the energy director was
too small and the joining pressure too
high. The molten plastic could no
longer escape at the sides here. I t was
enclosed by the upper part as it moved
down. The sound energy then t hermal l y
decomposes the molten plastic, as can
be seen from the bubbles and pores.
Ref erences
I. 14- Deans. A guide to ultrasonic sealing
equipment. Modern Plastics, August
1961, p.95 - 102, p. 165 - 166.
2. R. Pohhnann. Ultraschall-SchweiOen,
und-Prfifen yon Kunststoffert Industrie-
Anzeiger Nr. 7, Ausgabe SchweiB-
technik 1, Januar 1963, S. 110 - 113
3. W. Lehfeldt. UltrasehallschweiBen.
Industrie Rundschau 19 (1964) 11,
S. 55 - 61
4. T. J . Scarpa. Joining plastics with
ultrasonics. Plastics Technology, Jan-
uary 1962, p. 22 - 25
5. E. G. Obed& How to get good ultra-
sonic weld~ Modern Plastics, November
1964, p. 130-132, p. 137 - 138
6. R. B Bicknall. Ultrasonic Welding of
Rigid Thermoplastics. Industrial Elec-
tronics, September 1965, p. 410 - 413.
7. R. S. Soloff. New Concepts in Ultra-
sonic Sealing, Modern Plastics, March
1964, p. 269 - 273
8. C. Schmidt SchweiBen yon Kunststoffen
mit Ultraschall Plastica (1965) 12, S.
586 - 590
9. D. J. Kolb. Assembly Thermoplastics
by Ultrasonic Vibration. SPE Journal,
November 1966, p. 21 - 24
10. G. Menges, H. Potente. Schallfelder
mad Energieumsetzungen beim Ultra-
schallschweiBen von Kunststoffen.
Kunstoffe 59 (1969) 6, S. 369 - 373.
11. G. Menges, H. Potente. Studies on the
weldability of thermoplastic materials
by ultrasound. Welding in the World 9
(1971) 1/2, p. 47 - 55.
12. H. Potente Zur Frage der Energieurn-
wandlung beim UltraschallschweiBen
yon Thermoplasten. Plastverarbeiter
v o { u l a t i o n t h e r m o p l o s t i c s
- - ~ I P o / y s t y r o / ( n o r r n o l ) P S
' ! P o l y s t y r o { ( k o u t s c h u k m o d i f i z i e r t )
"~ i ~, i S t y r o l - C o p o / y m e c l s o t S A N
- ~ - 1 I
:\ J ABS- Polymer/sote
t ~ P o l y m e t h y l r n e t h a c r y l a t P M M A
E a) sprttzgegossen
~, ~\ ~ ] ~'~ L_ ', Pvc-w,,~h _~-
_ ,,~ "~.. j , P o l y c a r b o n a t P C
] r~ ~ P o / y p h e n y l e n o x i d PPO
~ " ' I qJ "~ . 1 ~ , 9 P o l y s u l f o n
P h e n o x y - -
. ~ C_ , 1
~ _ , ' ~ ~ Acetate
I , j ~,, , I B u t y r o t e
' ~ ~ ~ ) ' C e l / u { e t a , b u t y P Q t C A ~ . . . . .
' P o f y d t h y l e n P E , h o h e D i c h t e ~ . ~
' ~ P o l y a m z d . ~ E
____ ~ i I ~ Lll P o ( y o t h y l e n t e r e p h t h a ( o t ~
Fi g. 11 As s e s s me n t o f t he we l d i n g c a pa c i t y o f di f f e r e nt
t h e r mo p l a s t i c s ( l i t e r at ur e v a l ue s ) r e f 12, 14
~ P o l y $ ~ r O l l 143 E
I Polystyrol 168 N
I
SB I PolystY rol 454 H
TSG I TSG 454 E
SAN ' Luran 368 R
ABS Terlu ran 877 T
ASA Luran S 776 S '
Lupolen 1800 H
LDPE Lupolen 1800 $
Lupolen 3020 K
4261 A
HDPE Lupolen 5281 Z
! Lupolen 6011 L
I
I Novolen 112(] HX
p p I Novolen 1120 L
Ul t t ami d A3K
PA 66 Ul t t ami d A3WG5
I I Ul t t ami d A3XG5
i I Ultgamid b3S
PA 6 ! Utt r ami d BdK
I ! UI t r ami d B3WG5
i P A transp UI t r ami d KR 1297
PVC Vi nof ex 516
I PBT Ul t r adur ~ ' 5 0 0
' Ul l r a0ur B 4300
Pp~MOM [ Ultraform~, N 2200
MA Pqexig~m 6 N
Fi g. 12 As s e s s me nt o f t he i ndi vi dual and mut ual wel dabi l i t y
o f t h e r mo p l a s t i c s i n t he ne ar f i el d r e f 16
Fi g. 13 G o o d we l de d s e a m r e f 12
MA T E RI A L S & DE S I GN Vol . 5 OCT OB E R/ NOV E MB E R 1 9 8 4 2 3 3
Fig. 14 Wel ded seam for whi ch the joi ni ng pressure was Fig. 15 Wel ded seam for whi ch the joi ni ng pressure was
too high ref 12 t oo high and the energy director t oo small ref 12
22 (1971) 8, S. 556 - 5 6 2 und 22
(1971) 9, S. 653 - 658.
13. H. Pot en~ Untersuchungen zur Schwei ~
barkei t thermoplastiseher Kunststoffe
mi t Ultraschall. Di ssert at i on RWTH
Aachen 1971.
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Vorhersage der SchweiSbarkeit yon
Kunststoffen aus bekannt en Werkstoff-
kermwerterL Gummi, Kautsehuk, Kunst-
st off25 ( 1972) 6, S. 271 - 2 7 7 .
15. IC Becker, L. Pungs, K. Lamberts.
0 b e r die Vorg~nge bei m Ultraschall-
schweiBen thermoplastiseher Kunst-
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106.
16. NN. UltraschallschweifJen von Thermo-
plasten im Nahfeld. BASF-Werkstoff-
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i
17. W. Land. Unt ersuchungen zum Abl auf
des Ultraschallschweif3ens. Kunststoffe
68 (1978) 4, S. 233 - 237.
18. K Potente. Beurteilung der Sehweil3-
verfahren fdr Kunststoff-Folien mi t
Hilfe von einfachen Kennfunktionen.
DVS-Berichte, Band 36, S. 138 -
142.
19. E . J . Frankel, K. K. Wang. Energy
Transfer and Bond Strength in Ul t ra
S o n i c Welding ofThermoplastic~ Polyr~
Eng. Sci. 20 (1980) 10, p. 396 - 401.
20. W. Land. UltrasehaUschweil3en. DVS-
Berichte, Band 84, S. 34 - 38.
21. I-L Thews. Vergleich der Schweil3ver-
fahren: Ultrasehallschweil3en, Vibra-
tions- und RotationsschweiBen. DVS-
Beriehte, Band 84, S. 38 - 40.
22. M. N. Tolunay, P. R. Dawson, K. K.
Wang. Heating and Bonding Mechan-
isms in Ul t rasoni c Wel di ng of Thermo-
plastics. Pol ymer Engineering and
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Acknowl edgement
This paper is based on a lecture given
by Proj?. Dr. Ing. Potente at a Symposium
on 'Joining Plastics in Production'
organised by the WeMing Institute
Abington Cambridge CB1 6AL October
1984. Wl have kindly given permission
for its publication in advance of their
issue of the complete set of eontn'butions
in early 1985.
234 MATERIALS & DESIGN Vol. 5 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 1984