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Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

David Glover
Kevin Winstead
Mark Yaconetti

UNC Charlotte, Department of Mechanical Engineering
MEGR 3094; Clean Coal Technology

April 26, 2014







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Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Main Body ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Overview ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Pros ......................................................................................................................................... 4
Cons ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Gasification ................................................................................................................................. 5
Chemistry ................................................................................................................................ 6
Purpose .................................................................................................................................... 7
Process .................................................................................................................................... 7
Final Result ............................................................................................................................. 7
History..................................................................................................................................... 7
IGCC Cycle ................................................................................................................................. 8
Emissions .................................................................................................................................... 9
Cost Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 10
Problems/Solutions ................................................................................................................... 10
IGFC Technology ..................................................................................................................... 11
Combined Cycle........................................................................................................................ 11
The Brayton Cycle ................................................................................................................ 11
The Rankine Cycle ................................................................................................................ 12
Benefits of Combined Cycle ................................................................................................. 13
Heat Recovery Steam Generator ........................................................................................... 14
Benefits of Multiple Pressures .............................................................................................. 16
Future Plans .............................................................................................................................. 16
Resources ...................................................................................................................................... 18

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Abstract
To assist in emission reduction, Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) coal fired
power plants have been developed. These plants run at a much higher efficiency than Pulverized
Coal Combustion plants and Gas Turbine plants. By combining a Brayton cycle with a Rankine
cycle, the efficiency of the power plant is greatly increased. Coal is a cheap, abundant and
reliable fuel source; however, new EPA standards are forcing companies to find ways of
removing CO
2
from their flue gasses. IGCC plants are pre-combustion carbon capture ready
from the gasification process. By gasifying coal, a more efficient and cleaner power plant is
possible, and with a more efficient thermodynamic cycle, less fuel needs to be used which also
assists in reducing emissions.
Introduction
By developing a system that uses a combined cycle (Rankine and Brayton), the efficiency is
greatly increased. In order to make use of a more efficient combined cycle, a gas needs to be
combusted to run the Brayton cycle (natural gas); however, coal can be used as a fuel source if it
is gasified. This allows coal to remain competitive in the energy market while still remaining
within the EPA standards for emissions control. IGCC coal fired power plants are a fairly new
design compared to Pulverized Coal Combustion (PCC) plants, but they are very promising
providing efficiencies over 45% (LHV) and pre combustion CO
2
removal. Problems with IGCC
plants are as follows: cost, complexity, scale, and difficulty of adding pure O
2
to the gasification
process.
Main Body
Overview
An overview of an IGCC is shown below:
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Figure 1: Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle Overview
Pros
Efficiency
IGCC plants run at higher efficiencies than any other power producing plant (over 45% LHV).
This is a huge advantage because less fuel has to be used to generate the same output and
therefore also reducing the amount of emissions.
Water Consumption
For similar sized plants, IGCC power plants use a third of the amount of water, this is critical in
locations that have shortages of water.
Ash
Ash becomes a glassy slag making it easier to remove and transport than fly ash from PCC
plants.
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CO2
Pre combustion CO
2
removal is readily available, which is much easier and cheaper to perform
than post combustion removal.
Bi-Products
The bi-products of the gasification pre combustion removal systems can be sold and reused.
Cons
Expensive
IGCC plants are much more expensive to build and to run.
Bulky
The gasifier and other capturing components take up a lot of space that is not available at all plan
locations.
Complicated
The complexity of IGCCs is much greater than that of any other plant type due to more
thermodynamic cycle components as well as more equipment for the gasifier and removal stages
of the plant.
O2 Separation from Air
The addition of pure oxygen from ambient air into the gasifier to mix with the coal slurry is
critical to the gasification process; however, this is a very complicated and expensive process.
Gasification
The particular stage of the overall cycle for gasification and removal systems is shown below:
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Figure 2: Gasifier and removal systems cycle overview
Chemistry
Gasification Process
2
C CO 2CO (1)
2 2
C H O CO H (2)
2 2 2
CO H O CO H (3)
As can be seen in the equations above, the main products of the gasification process are
CO, H
2
, and H
2
O.
Combustion
2 2
2CO O 2CO (4)
2 2 2
2H O 2H O (5)
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As can be seen in the equations above, combustion occurs with carbon monoxide and hydrogen
and the bi-products are carbon dioxide and water.
Purpose
Why go through the trouble of gasification to burn hydrogen and carbon monoxide? The
motivation behind this process is to develop carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide pre-
combustion, making it cheaper and easier to remove them to reduce emissions.
Process
Gasification
The process of gasification begins by mixing coal with water to create a slurry. The slurry is
then heated and mixed with pure oxygen to create syngas shown in Equations (1), (2), and (3).
Syngas creation occurs in the component of the plant called the gasifier as shown in Figure 2.
The syngas is cooled at the end of the gasification process and the heat is recovered and used to
increase cycle efficiency through thermal integration in the combined cycle portion of the plant.
Syngas Treatment
SO2
Hydrogen sulfide found in the syngas is removed in the MDEA Acid Gas Removal System
shown in Figure 2 above.
NOx
NO
x
emissions are removed in the Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) component.
CO2
Pre combustion carbon capture is available but not yet implemented on any full-sized units.
Equation (3) shows that this is possible because CO
2
is one of the primary product of the
gasification process.
Final Result
The final result of the gasification and syngas treatment processes is a clean syngas consisting of
carbon monoxide and hydrogen that can be effectively used in the combustion phase of the
combined cycle to produce electrical power.
History
The idea of an Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) was first developed in 1972.
The first IGCC power plant went into operation at the Luenen power plant in Germany. This
setup included five air-blown fixed bed gasifiers, a 74 MW gas turbine, and a 96 MW non-reheat
steam turbine, according to research of Lothar Balling, Heinz Termuehlen, and Ray
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Baumgartner. The net efficiency of the first IGCC power plant based on the lower heating value
(LHV) of the coal was 37%. This type of technology was studied for two decades before
engineers lost interest in it. However, in the mid 1990s the technology made a comeback, with
newer technology being able to be incorporated into the existing theory of IGCC power plants.
IGCC Cycle
This new technology used in IGCC plants was the driving force in the resurgence of the theory
of IGCC plants. According to the International Energy Agency, Integrated gasification
combined cycle uses gasification, with low (sub-stoichiometric) levels of oxygen or air, to
convert coal into a gaseous fuel. IGCC incorporating the latest 1500C gas turbines can achieve
efficiencies higher than 45% (LHV, net). The IGCC cycle is shown in Figure 3, produced by
Duke Energy.

Figure 3: Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

Figure 1 has five key points that outlines the IGCC cycle. Point 1 shows the gasifier, which
converts coal and oxygen into a synthesis gas (called syngas), as well as produces steam. The
hot syngas is process to remove sulfur compounds, mercury, and particulate matter (PM), which
is shown at Point 2. The clean syngas is used to fuel a combustion turbine generator (Point 3),
which produces electricity. From the gasifier, processed steam is combined with the heat in the
exhaust gasses from the combustion turbine, which is recovered to generate additional steam
(Point 4). From the heat recovery steam generator, steam (Point 5) drives a steam turbine
generator to produce additional electricity.
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Emissions
IGCC technology has an advantage over pulverized coal combustion plants in terms of
emissions. The CO
2
, NO
x
, SO
2
, and particulate emissions are all reduced in an integrated
gasification combined cycle power plant. IGCC has low emissions partly because the fuel is
cleaned before it is fired in a combined cycle gas turbine. Table 1, taken from the IEA:
Technology Roadmap High-Efficiency, Low-Emissions Coal-Fired Power Generation, shows the
emissions of various coal power plants. It is clearly shown that IGCC plants have emissions that
are greatly reduced then typical pulverized coal combustion plants.

Table 1: Emissions of Various Coal Power Plants

Duke Energy has also conducted a study of the emission of an IGCC power plant. Duke Energy
has an IGCC plant in Edwardsport, Indiana, which is located on the site of a retired pulverized
coal plant. According to the data collected, the original Edwardsport plant was a 160 Megawatt
plant that ran approximately 30% of the year. Within that year, emissions of NO
x
, SO
2
, and PM
combined to approximately 13,000 tons. The new Edwardsport IGCC plant, running at 100% all
year, had combined emissions of NO
x
, SO
2
, and PM of approximately 2,900 tons. The IGCC
plant will produce 10 times as much power as the former plant at Edwardsport, yet with about 70
percent fewer emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and particulates combined.
Edwardsport's efficiency also reduces its carbon emissions per megawatt-hour by nearly half.
The IGCC plant, running at full capacity, will generate enough energy to power approximately a
half million homes.


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Cost Analysis
The cost of an Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle power plant is one of the main issues
with building the plant. According to the World Energy Outlook: Investment Costs, the capital
cost of an IGCC plant will be approximately $2600 per kW in 2010. However, by 2035, the cost
is expected to reduce to $2400 per kW. Table 2 shows the expected capital costs, operations and
maintenance costs, and gross efficiency based on the lower heating value. Table 2 was found
from the power generation Excel spreadsheet.

Table 2: Cost Analysis of Building IGCC Plant in Various Countries


Problems/Solutions
There are various problems and solutions outlined by the IEA: Technology Roadmap High-
Efficiency, Low-Emissions Coal-Fired Power Generation. The first problem deals with the type
of coal used. Low-grade coals (such as hard coal and lignite) present particular challenges for
both efficiency and emissions, partly because of their high content of either moisture or ash. In
order to correct the efficiency and emissions problem, engineers are focusing on the drying and
cleaning processes of the coal. The second problem outlined by the IEA: Technology Roadmap
High-Efficiency, Low-Emissions Coal-Fired Power Generation deals with the amount of oxygen
required for the IGCC cycle. The large amount of oxygen require considerable amount of energy
to produce. To correct this, engineers are researching Ion Transport Membrane (ITM)
technology. This type of technology is just beginning, with commercial-scale plants still some
ways off. Kirsten Foy and Jim McGovern, of the Dublin Institute of Technology, outline the way
ITM operates. They write:
Ion Transport Membranes (ITMs) are ceramic membranes that are permeable to
oxygen and nothing else. Much research has been conducted into the use of ITMs
to oxygenate a sweep gas. There has also been a substantial amount of research on
ITMs used to convert methane to syngas, a reaction that consumes oxygen. Wang
et al. (2003) found that the flux across a tubular membrane when used in this way
NPS Scenario
Capital costs
($2010 per kW)
O&M Costs
($2010 per kW)
Efficiency
(gross, LHV)
2010 2020 2035 2010 2020 2035 2010 2020 2035
IGCC
Europe 2400 2400 2200 84 84 77 48% 50% 52%
United States 2600 2600 2400 91 91 84 48% 50% 52%
Japan 2900 2900 2700 102 102 95 48% 50% 52%
Russia 2500 2500 2300 88 88 81 48% 50% 52%
China 1100 1100 900 50 50 41 47% 49% 51%
India 2000 1900 1800 90 86 81 43% 45% 47%
Middle East 2000 1900 1800 90 86 81 46% 48% 50%
Africa 2300 2200 2100 92 88 84 44% 46% 48%
Brazil 2000 1900 1800 90 86 81 48% 50% 52%
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can be up to 8 times the oxygen flux when used to oxygenate a sweep gas. Most
ion transport membrane materials are only permeable to oxygen at temperatures
above 700C (975 K). The membrane therefore needs to be heated, however the
energy required is significantly less than for other forms of oxygen production.
IGFC Technology
According to the IEA: Technology Roadmap High-Efficiency, Low-Emissions Coal-Fired Power
Generation, a further advance is to integrate fuel cells into integrated gasification systems. This
new technology, called Integration Gasification Fuel Cell (IGFC), differs from IGCC in that part
of the syngas exiting the gasifier is diverted into a high temperature fuel cell. This fuel cell can
include solid oxide or molten carbonate fuel cells. The process from the coal gasifier is shown in
Figure 4. IGFC has the potential to raise the conversion efficiency significantly above that
possible using only IGCC.


Figure 4: Integration Gasification Fuel Cell Process from Coal Gasifier


Combined Cycle
The Brayton Cycle
The Brayton cycle is commonly used around the world in gas turbines and jet engines. In the
case of IGCC, a Brayton cycle is used in the form of a gas turbine that burns the syngas produced
in the gasification process to rotate a generator and produce electricity. The Brayton cycle is
composed of three main elements; the compressor, the combustor, and the turbine.
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Figure 5: Brayton Cycle Entropy Diagram
Figure 1 above shows the T-S diagram for the ideal Brayton cycle. In process A-B, air at
atmospheric pressure and temperature is brought into the compressor and compressed in an
ideally isentropic process. Due to irreversibilities, the actual process results in an increase in
entropy. The compressor is a multi-stage design composed of blades that are attached to a central
rotating shaft commonly referred to as the rotor. Between each stage of rotating blades is a set of
stationary blades (stator blades) that help guide the flow of air onto the next set of rotating
blades. In process B-C, compressed air is brought in from the compressor to the combustion
chamber (known as the combustion can) where it is mixed with syngas and combustion occurs.
In process C-D, the products of combustion at a very high temperature and pressure are brought
in from the combustion cans and directed onto the first stage turbine blades by the turbine nozzle
guide vanes (known as buckets). The high temperature and pressure gases expand over the
turbine blades and induce rotation. This mechanical rotation is used to power the compressor and
generator which produce electricity. In process D-A, hot gasses leave the exit of the turbine still
at a very high temperature and are ejected into the atmosphere. In the case of a combined cycle,
these gasses are passed onto a Rankine cycle where they are used to create steam and power a
steam turbine.
The Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle in which water is used to convert heat into usable
energy from a turbine. Almost every power plant in the world uses the Rankine cycle as the main
method to produce electricity. A combined cycle power plant uses the Rankine cycle as a
bottoming cycle to extract remaining heat leftover from the Brayton cycle. The Rankine cycle is
made up of 4 components; the boiler, the turbine, the condenser, and the pump.
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Figure 6: Rankine Cycle Entropy Diagram
Figure 2 shows the T-S diagram for the Rankine cycle. In process 1-2, water is pumped up to a
high pressure in the pump in an ideally isentropic process. The pump is used to maintain pressure
in the entire system. In process 2-3, heat is added to the working fluid at a constant pressure. For
combined cycle, the heat addition process is completed in the HRSG. Process 3-4 is isentropic
expansion of water through a steam turbine. Steam turbines are actually made up of several
different smaller turbines that are coupled together on a common shaft. After leaving the HRSG
the steam first enters the high pressure turbine where the pressure is lowered and temperature is
lowered, it is then sent back to the HRSG to be reheated. After being reheated, the steam returns
to either the low pressure turbine for 2 pressure level HRSGs, or the intermediate pressure
turbine for 3 pressure level HRSGs. After steam leaves the intermediate pressure turbine it is
then sent directly to the low pressure turbine where almost all of the remaining energy is
extracted from the steam. In process 4-1 in figure 2, heat is rejected from the water at a constant
pressure in the ideal process. This is done through the condenser, which is usually situated
directly below the low pressure turbine exhaust. The condenser is a shell and tube type heat
exchanger that uses a circulating cold water source to reduce the temperature of the steam and
condense it back into a liquid so that it can be efficiently pumped back to the HRSG to continue
the cycle.
Benefits of Combined Cycle
When the Brayton cycle is used alone, as in a simple cycle combustion turbine plant, the exhaust
gases from the turbine are ejected directly into the atmosphere. The exhaust gasses are at a
temperature in excess of 1400 degrees Fahrenheit and represent a huge amount of energy that is
wasted into the atmosphere. The reason that combined cycle plants can achieve such high
efficiencies is because the Rankine cycle is used as a bottoming cycle. By using the HRSG to
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capture the wasted heat from the gas turbine, the efficiency of the whole cycle is increased
dramatically. Combined cycle plants have some of the highest efficiencies of any power
generation technology.

Figure 7: Combined Cycle T-S Diagram
Figure 3 above shows the combined cycle T-S diagram. Looking at the Brayton cycle by itself,
one can see the amount of space underneath the graph that is wasted. The area under the graph
on a T-S diagram represents usable work that is captured. Putting the Rankine cycle underneath
the Brayton cycle allows you to be able to capture that work and turn the wasted energy into
usable energy. By using the Rankine cycle as a bottoming cycle, the efficiency increases
dramatically because you are getting more generator output from the unit without inputting more
fuel.
Heat Recovery Steam Generator
The heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is the component that acts as the boiler in the
Rankine cycle. Instead of receiving its heat from the burning of coal, it is received from the
exhaust of the gas turbine. The HRSG is a heat transfer device that transfers the heat from the
exhaust gas to water, turning it into superheated steam.
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Figure 8: HRSG Component Layout
As the gas moves from the front of the HRSG to the rear, air temperatures decrease due to the
transfer of heat to the water. Water moves through the HRSG from the rear to the front, opposite
of water. The water enters in the rear where the air is cooler and moves forward as it is heated.
The water then leaves the front of the HRSG as superheated steam and goes to the steam turbine.
The tube bundles inside the HRSG are broken up into different components, usually acting at
different temperatures. The superheat and reheat sections are located farthest forward in the
HRSG where gas temperatures are the highest. Evaporator sections are located toward the middle
of the HRSG are always located directly below a water-steam separation drum. The evaporator
tube bundles and drums are where the water is actually turned into steam and separated. The
evaporator tube sections operate on natural circulation and have downcomers that feed water
from the drum to the bottom of the evaporator tube bundle. As the water is heated it rises upward
and feeds back into the drum. Inside the drum there are mechanical separation devices that help
separate the steam from the water. The steam is drawn off of the top of the drum and sent to the
superheat tube sections to be heated even further. The economizer tube section is located last in
the HRSG at the coldest end. This is where the water first enters the HRSG and is heated just
enough to prevent shocking the low pressure steam drum when it is added. Desuperheaters (also
known as attemporators) are used between stages in the superheat and reheat sections of the
HRSG. The attemporators spray subcooled water directly into the stream of superheated steam to
help precisely control the steam temperatures. Attemporating has a negative effect on
performance though, because it is reducing the temperature of the steam that took energy to heat.
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Benefits of Multiple Pressures

Figure 9: Multiple Pressure CC Diagram
HRSGs use multiple pressures to maximize the amount of energy pulled from the CT exhaust.
Figure 5, above, shows the temperature-enthalpy curve for a combined cycle. The straight line
represents the temperature of the exhaust gases and the jagged line represents the temperature of
the steam. The area between the two is available work that could be captured by the steam.
Getting the steam line as close as possible to the exhaust line maximizes the amount of energy
extracted. The point on the steam line where the two phase region begins is known as the pinch
point. Once the pinch point reaches the exhaust line, it can go no further. Adding multiple
pressure levels allows for there to be more steps on the steam line and means that overall; the
steam line can get closer to the exhaust line and maximize the amount of energy that is extracted.

Future Plans
With the improvement of technology, the IGCC integration will continue to grow within existing
power plants. The IEA: Technology Roadmap High-Efficiency, Low-Emissions Coal-Fired
Power Generation has outlined a roadmap that will lead to success of integrating and
improving IGCC technology. As science and technology continue to improve, the efficiency of
the IGCC plant will continue to increase, while the emissions will decrease. The IEA document
outlined a future outlook by first emphasizing that deployment of IGCC technology must be
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increased to 85% of all PC combustion units. The gross efficiency should be raised to 50% or
over based on lower heating value. In order for IGCC plants to be built, the cost differential
against PC combustion plans must be reduced, and components and cycles must be improved.
Polygeneration, which takes place when a plant simultaneously produces two or more
marketable products, should be explored. Finally, carbon capture and storage (CCS) using pre-
combustion capture should be deployed while innovative, next-generation CCS systems are
developed. Table 3 shows the breakdown of date in which these actions should be competed.
Table 3: Future Outlook of IGCC with Milestone Dates




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