Index

ii
ULTIMATE LOAD CAPACITY OF OPTIMALLY DESIGNED

CELLULAR BEAMS

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES
OF
MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

BY

FERHAT ERDAL

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR
THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
ENGINEERING SCIENCES

FEBRUARY 2011

Approval of the thesis:

CELLULAR BEAMS

submitted by FERHAT ERDAL in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering Sciences Department,
Middle East Technical University by,

Prof. Dr. Canan ZGEN ________________
Dean, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences

Prof. Dr. Turgut TOKDEMR ________________
Head of Department, Engineering Sciences

Supervisor, Engineering Sciences Dept., METU

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Polat SAKA ________________
Co- Supervisor, Engineering Sciences Dept., METU

Examining Committee Members:

Prof. Dr. Aye DALOLU ________________
Civil Engineering Dept., KTU

Engineering Sciences Dept., METU

Prof. Dr. Murat DCLEL ________________

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ouzhan HASANEB ________________
Civil Engineering Dept., METU

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ferhat AKGL ________________
Date: .../.../..

iii

I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained
and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I
also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited
and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work.

Name, Surname : Ferhat ERDAL

Signature :

iv
ABSTRACT

CELLULAR BEAMS

Erdal, Ferhat
Ph.D., Engineering Sciences Department
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Turgut Tokdemir
Co-Supervisor: Prof. Dr. M. Polat Saka

February 2011, 184 Pages

Cellular beams became increasingly popular as an efficient structural form in
steel construction since their introduction. Their sophisticated design and
profiling process provides greater flexibility in beam proportioning for
strength, depth, size and location of circular holes. The purpose of
manufacturing these beams is to increase overall beam depth, the moment of
inertia and section modulus, which results in greater strength and rigidity.
Cellular beams are used as primary or secondary floor beams in order to
achieve long spans and service integration. They are also used as roof beams
beyond the range of portal-frame construction, and are the perfect solution for
curved roof applications, combining weight savings with a low-cost
manufacturing process.

The purpose of the current research is to study optimum design, ultimate load
capacity under applied load and finite element analysis of non-composite

v
cellular beams. The first part of the research program focuses on the optimum
design of steel cellular beams using one of the stochastic search methods called
harmony search algorithm. The minimum weight is taken as the design
objective while the design constraints are implemented from the Steel
Construction Institute. Design constraints include the displacement limitations,
overall beam flexural capacity, beam shear capacity, overall beam buckling
strength, web post flexure and buckling, vierendeel bending of upper and lower
tees and local buckling of compression flange. The design methods adopted in
this publication are consistent with BS5950. In the second part of the research,
which is the experimental work, twelve non-composite cellular beams are
tested to determine the ultimate load carrying capacities of these beams under
using a hydraulic plug to apply point load. The tested cellular beam specimens
have been designed by using harmony search algorithm. Finally, finite element
analysis program is used to perform elastic buckling analysis and predict
critical loads of all steel cellular beams. Finite element analysis results are then
compared with experimental test results for each tested cellular beam.

Keywords: Web-expanded beams, cellular beams, steel structures, optimum
structural design, minimum weight, stochastic search techniques, harmony
search algorithm, particle swarm method, failure modes of beams and finite
element method

vi
Z

OPTMUM BOYUTLANDIRILMI DARESEL GZENEKL PETEK
KRLERN YK TAIMA KAPASTES

Erdal, Ferhat
Doktora, Mhendislik Bilimleri Blm
Tez Danman: Prof. Dr. Turgut Tokdemir
Ortak tez Danman: Prof. Dr. M. Polat Saka

ubat 2011, 184 Sayfa

Dairesel gzenekli petek kiriler balanglarndan beri elik yaplarda etkin bir
yap modeli olarak artan bir popleriteye sahip oldular. Gelimi tasarmlar
kendilerine dayanm,derinlik, boyut ve dairesel boluklarn yerleri iin dier
kirilere oranla daha fazla esneklik salar. Bu kirilerin retiminin asl amac;
kiriin derinlii, atalet momenti ve kesit katsaysn arttrmaktr. Artan atalet
momenti ve kesit katsays kiriin dayanmnn ve rijiditesinin ykselmesini
salar. Dairesel gzenekli petek kiriler byk aklklar rahat geebilmek iin
birincil yada ikinci derecede olan deme kirileri olarak kullanlr. Bu kiriler
ayrca ereve sundurmalarn tesinde at kirileri olarak kullanlr ve eimli
at uygulamalarnda arlk ve maliyet drlmesiyle mkemmel sonular
verirler.

vii
Bu almann amac; dairesel gzenekli elik kirilerin optimum
boyutlandrlmas, uygulanan yk altnda tama kapasitesinin llmesi ve
sonlu elemanlar yntemiyle modellenmesidir. Aratrmann ilk aamas
dairesel petek kirilerin algya dayal arama yntemlerinden biri olan harmoni
arama teknii kullanlarak optimum boyutlandrlmasna odaklanmtr.
Harmoni arama yntemi UB kesitleri arasndan uygun profili seer bylece
SCI (Steel Construction Institute)da tanmlanan tasarm snrlamalar salanr
ve sistemin arl minimuma indirgenir. Tasarm snrlayclar olarak
deplasman kstlaycs, kiri profilin esneklik kapasitesi, kiri kesme
kapasitesi, kiri gvdesi esneklik ve burkulma kapasitesi, kiriin alt ve st
paralarnn vierendeel (ikincil) eilme kapasitesi ve st flanda blgesel
burkulma alnr. almann ikinci aamas olan deneysel srete; ilk ksmda
harmoni arama yntemi kullanlarak optimizasyonu yaplan 12 adet NPI kesit
elik dairesel gzenekli petek kirilerin hidrolik g niteli basn silindiri
altnda dayanm test edilecektir. Son olarak, btn kiri numunelerinin elastik
burkulma analizi ve tayabilecekleri kritik ykleri sonlu eleman program
kullanlarak yapldktan sonra herbir kiri iin sonlu eleman analizi sonular
deneysel almadan elde edilen sonular ile kyaslanr.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Gvdesi geniletimi kiriler, dairesel gzenekli petek
kiriler, elik yaplar, yapnn optimum boyutlandrlmas, minimum arlk,
harmoni arama yntemi, parack sr optimizasyonu yntemi, kirilerin
gme durumlar ve sonlu eleman yntemi

viii

To my family,
For your endless support and love

ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis supervisor Prof. Dr.
M. Polat SAKA for his guidance, understanding, kind support, encouraging
advices, criticism, and valuable discussions throughout my thesis.

I am greatly indebted to Prof. Dr. M. Ruen GET and Prof. Dr. Turgut
TOKDEMR for their guidance and providing me every opportunity to use in
Engineering Sciences Department.

My special thanks are due to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ouzhan Hasanebi from METU
Engineering Faculty Civil Engineering Department for his great advices and
discussions in performing this research.

I would sincerely thank to Erkan DOAN, Hakan BAYRAK, Memduh
KARALAR, Fuat KORKUT, Serdar ARBA, Refik Burak TAYMU and Semih
ERHAN for their endless friendship, making my stay in METU happy and
memorable and being always right beside me.

I would also like to thank to my friends, Selman SALAM, Mehmet DOAN,
zgr AKTRK, Fatih GKE, Kaveh Hassanzehtap and Ali Sinan DKE for
cooperation and friendship, and helping me in all the possible ways.

My greatest thanks go to my parents, Mehmet ERDAL and Habba ERDAL for
their support, guidance and inspiration all through my life, my brother Fatih
ERDAL, my sisters Filiz and Fidan ERDAL who are always there for me.

I owe thanks to the most special person in my life Asl BUGAY for her
boundless moral support giving me joy of living. This life would have never
been meaningful without her.

x
TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................iiv

Z. ................................................................................................................ vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................... ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS......................................................................................... x

LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................. xiv

LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................... xvi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...xxi

CHAPTERS

1 WEB-EXPANDED BEAMS IN GENERAL................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction to Web-Expanded Beams ........................................................ 1
1.2 Castellated Beams ........................................................................................ 2
1.3 Cellular Beams ............................................................................................. 3
1.3.1 Applications of Cellular Beams ................................................. 6
1.4 Literature Review....................................................................................... 10
1.5 Objective and Scope of Research............................................................... 24

2 THE DESIGN OF CELLULAR BEAMS..................................................... 26
2.1 Failure Modes of Web-Expanded Beams................................................... 26
2.1.1 Formation of a Vierendeel Bending Mechanism. ............................. 27
2.1.2 Lateral Torsional Buckling................................................................ 29
2.1.3 Web-Post Buckling............................................................................ 30
2.1.4 Rupture of Welded Joints .................................................................. 31

xi
2.1.5 Flexure Mechaanism. ........................................................................ 32
2.2 Design Process of Cellular Beams ............................................................. 33
2.2.1 Overall Beam Flexural Capacity. ...................................................... 34
2.2.2 Beam Shear Capacity. ....................................................................... 34
2.2.3 Flexural and Buckling Strangth of Web-Post.................................... 36
2.2.4 Vierendeel Bending of Upper and Lower Tees................................. 37
2.2.5 Classification of Cellular Beams. ...................................................... 39
2.2.6 Deflection of Cellular Beams ............................................................ 41

3 THE DESIGN OPTIMIZATION OF CELLULAR BEAMS
USING META-HEURISTIC SEARCH TECHNIQUES.......................... 44

3.1 Optimum Design Problem of Cellular Beams............................................ 44
3.2 Stochastic Search Techniques in Optimization.......................................... 47
3.2.1 Harmony Search Method................................................................... 49
3.2.2 Particle Swarm Optimization Method............................................... 54
3.2.3 The Comparison of HS and PSO Algorithms with An Example ...... 57
3.2.3.1 Cellular Beam with 4-m Span ............................................... 58
3.3 Design Examples........................................................................................ 64
3.3.1 Cellular Beam with NPI-240 Section.......... .....65
3.3.2 Cellular Beam with NPI-260 Section ....... .......69
3.3.3 Cellular Beam with NPI-280 Section ................ ......73

4 EXPERIMENTAL TESTS ON OPTIMALLY DESIGNED
STEEL CELLULAR BEAMS...................................................................... 77

4.1 Experimental Studies on Steel Cellular Beams.......................................... 77
4.2 Fabrication of Optimally Designed Cellulat Test Beams........................... 80
4.3 Load Cell Calibration ................................................................................. 84
4.4 Flexural Bending Testing with Hyraulic Power Unit................................. 89
4.5 Experimental Test Program of Optimally Designed Cellular Beams ........ 91
4.5.1 Test Specimens.................................................................................. 92

xii
4.5.2 Test Arrangement .............................................................................. 92
4.5.3 Instrumentation of Tests.................................................................... 92
4.5.4 Test Procedure................................................................................... 93
4.5.5 Material Properties of Specimens...................................................... 94
4.5.6 Flexural Bending Tests of Cellular Beams........................................ 94
4.5.6.1 NPI_240 Section Cellular Beams.......................................... 94
4.5.6.2 NPI_260 Section Cellular Beams........................................ 102
4.5.6.3 NPI_280 Section Cellular Beams........................................ 108

5 TENSILE TESTS ON OPTIMALLY DESIGNED STEEL
CELLULAR BEAM SPECIMENS ........................................................... 114

5.1 Sample Requirements............................................................................... 114
5.2 Test Setup and Equipment........................................................................ 119
5.3 The Objective of Tension Test ................................................................. 120
5.4 The Procedure of Tensile Testing ............................................................ 120
5.5 Tensile Test Results.................................................................................. 122

6 NONLINEAR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS ON OPTIMALLY
DESIGNED STEEL CELLULAR BEAMS.............................................. 126

6.1 Introduction to Finite Element Modeling................................................. 126
6.2 Finite Element Modeling of Cellular Beams............................................ 128
6.2.1 Element and Material Modeling on ANSYS Program...................... 131
6.2.2 Mesh Generations on Cellular Beams with ANSYS......................... 133
6.2.3 Setting Contact Analysis Parameters ................................................ 137
6.2.4 Identification Contact and Target Surface......................................... 137
6.2.4.1 Types of Contact ................................................................. 138
6.2.4.1.1 Frictional Contact ............................................................. 139
6.2.4.1.2 Frictionless Contact .......................................................... 139
6.2.4.1.3 Rough Contact .................................................................. 139
6.2.4.1.4 Contact without Separation .............................................. 140

xiii
6.2.4.1.5 Bonded Contact ................................................................ 140
6.2.4.2 Behaviour of Contact........................................................... 140
6.2.4.3 Contact Analysis Algorithm................................................ 141
6.2.4.3.1 Penalty Method................................................................. 141
6.2.4.3.2 Multipoint Constraint Method.......................................... 141
6.2.4.3.3 Pure Lagrangian Method.................................................. 141
6.2.4.3.4 Augmented Lagrangian Method....................................... 142
6.3 Nonlinear Finite Element Model of Cellular Beams................................ 142
6.3.1 Definition of Static Structural Analysis Settings .............................. 142
6.3.2 Nonlinear Solution of NPI_240 Cellular Beam................................ 146

7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...................................................... 167
7.1 Overview and Summary of the Thesis ..................................................... 167
7.2 Conclusions .............................................................................................. 169

REFERENCES........................................................................................ 172
VITA......................................................................................................... 180

xiv
LIST OF TABLES

TABLES

Table 1.1 An investigation of open web expanded beams ................................... 11
Table 1.2 An experimental investigation of open-web beams ............................. 12
Table 1.3 The plastic behaviour of castellated beams .......................................... 14
Table 1.4 Tests on Castellated beams................................................................... 15
Table 1.5 Failure of castellated beams due to rupture of welded joints ............... 16
Table 1.6 Optimum expansion ratio of castellated beams.................................... 18
Table 1.7 Web buckling in thin webbed castellated beams.................................. 19
Table 1.8 Ultimate strength designs of beams with multiple openings................ 21
Table 2.1 Limiting width to thickness ratios ........................................................ 39
Table 3.1 The initial feasible designs selected by PSO and HS algorithms ......... 59
Table 3.2 Feasible designs obtained after 32 iterations by PSO and HS
algorithms............................................................................................ 60
algorithms............................................................................................ 61
Table 3.4 Comparison of optimum designs for 4-m simply supported beam...... 62
Table 3.5 Feasible designs obtained after 650 iterations by HS algorithms......... 66
Table 3.6 Optimum Design of NPI_240 Cellular beam with 3-m span ............... 67
Table 3.7 Feasible designs obtained after 900 iterations by HS algorithms......... 70
Table 3.8 Optimum Design of NPI_260 Cellular beam with 3-m span ............... 71
Table 3.9 Feasible designs obtained after 1200 iterations by HS algorithms....... 74
Table 3.10 Optimum Design of NPI_280 Cellular beam with 3-m span ............. 75
Table 4.1 The variation of setting weight with minimum division set 100.......... 86
Table 4.2 The variation of setting weight with minimum division set 50............ 87
Table 4.3 The variation of setting weight with minimum division set 20............. 88
Table 4.4 Dimensional Properties an Ultimate Load of NPI_240........................ 95

xv
Table 4.5 Ultimate Load Capacities and Failure Modes of NPI_240 Sections.. 101
Table 4.6 Dimensional Properties an Ultimate Load of NPI_260...................... 102
Table 4.8 Dimensional Properties an Ultimate Load of NPI_280...................... 108
Table 5.1 Dimensions for Standart Tension Test Specimens ............................. 116
Table 6.1 Numbers of Nodes and Elements for Mesh Types ............................. 133
Table 6.2 Displacement Values at The Middle of NPI-240 Cellular Beam....... 147

xvi
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Basic Process of Castellated Beam........................................................ 2
Figure 1.2 Basic Process of Cellular Beam............................................................. 4
Figure 1.3 The comparison of cellular and original I-beams .................................. 5
Figure 1.4 Reduction of Beam Depth by Placing Service Integrations in
Holes...................................................................................................... 5
Figure 1.5 Premier Place with 15 m clear span....................................................... 6
Figure 1.6 ASTA shopping center........................................................................... 7
Figure 1.7 A curving roof cellular beam application .............................................. 7
Figure 1.8 Blackpool Car Park ................................................................................ 8
Figure 1.9 Cambridge Car Park............................................................................... 8
Figure 1.10 Stamford Bridge Stadiums ................................................................... 9
Figure 1.11 Cantilever design of cellular beam in stadium..................................... 9
Figure 2.1 High bending in the cellular beam....................................................... 27
Figure 2.2 High shears in the cellular beam.......................................................... 28
Figure 2.3 Lateral torsional buckling along beam................................................. 29
Figure 2.4 Web buckling on web-expanded beams............................................... 30
Figure 2.5 Rupture of welded joints on web-expanded beams ............................. 31
Figure 2.6 Geometrical parameters of a cellular beam.......................................... 33
Figure 2.7 Horizontal shear in the web post of cellular beam............................... 35
Figure 2.8 Olanders curved beam approach......................................................... 38
Figure 3.1 Loading of 4-m simply supported beam.............................................. 58
Figure 3.2 The design history graph for 4-m cellular beam.................................. 63
Figure 3.3 Typical cross section of beam with 3-m for NPI-240.......................... 65
Figure 3.4 The design history graph for NPI_240 cellular beam.......................... 67
Figure 3.5 Optimum Shape of NPI-240 after 10,000 Iterations ............................ 68

xvii
Figure 3.7 The design history graph for NPI_260 cellular beam.......................... 71
Figure 3.8 Optimum Shape of NPI-260 after 10,000 Iterations. ........................... 72
Figure 3.10 The design history graph for NPI_280 cellular beam......................... 75
Figure 3.11 Optimum Shape of NPI-280 after 10,000 Iterations ........................... 76
Figure 4.1 Cellular Beam in Test Frame ............................................................... 78
Figure 4.2 Experimental set up and load introduction. ......................................... 79
Figure 4.3 The appearance of the computer drawing of the cellular beam............ 80
Figure 4.4 The first flame cutting process of original I-section beam................... 81
Figure 4.5 The second flame cutting process of original I-section beam............... 81
Figure 4.6 The separation of tee sections of the beam........................................... 82
Figure 4.7 The assembling of the tee sections........................................................ 82
Figure 4.8 The welding of upper and lower tees of the cellular beam................... 83
Figure 4.9 The appearance of cellular beam after cutting and re-weld process ..... 83
Figure 4.10 Canister Load Cell for heavy duty design........................................... 84
Figure 4.11 NT-501A Indicator for calibration...................................................... 84
Figure 4.12 The variation of setting weight for minimum division set 100........... 86
Figure 4.13 The variation of setting weight for minimum division set 50............. 87
Figure 4.14 The variation of setting weight for minimum division set 20............. 88
Figure 4.15 NPI-200 beam under point loading in the self-reaction frame............ 91
Figure 4.16 Demonstration of transducers on beam .............................................. 93
Figure 4.17 NPI-240 Cellular Beam with Eight Openings..................................... 95
Figure 4.18 Lateral torsional buckling on NPI-240_TEST1.................................. 96
Figure 4.19 Load-Deflection Graphic for NPI-240_TEST1 .................................. 96
Figure 4.20 Lateral torsional buckling on NPI-240_TEST2.................................. 97
Figure 4.22 Web-post Buckling on NPI-240_TEST3 ............................................ 99
Figure 4.24 Web-post Buckling on NPI-240_TEST4 .......................................... 100

xviii
Figure 4.25 Load-Deflection Graphic for NPI-240_TEST4 ................................ 100
Figure 4.26 Vierendeel Bending and Web Buckling on NPI-260_TEST1 .......... 103
Figure 4.34 Web buckling on NPI-280_TEST1................................................... 109
Figure 4.36 Web Buckling on NPI-280_TEST2 .................................................. 110
Figure 5.1 Standard Dimensions for Tensile Test Specimen ............................... 115
Figure 5.2 Cutting process of standart test specimen with CNC method............. 117
Figure 5.3 Standart Tension Test Specimen from NPI Profiles ........................... 118
Figure 5.4 Dimensions for rectangular coupon from cellular beam specimen..... 118
Figure 5.5 Universal Testing Machine. ................................................................ 119
Figure 5.6 Rectangular Test Specimens under Tension. ...................................... 121
Figure 5.7 View of Test Specimens after Rupture ............................................... 121
Figure 5.8 One of Test Specimens after Tension Test ........................................ 122
Figure 5.9 Stress-Strain Graph of Tensile Test of NPI_240 Profiles ................... 123
Figure 5.10 Stress-Strain Graph of Tensile Test of NPI_260 Profiles ................. 124
Figure 5.11 Stress-Strain Graph of Tensile Test of NPI_280 Profiles ................. 125
Figure 6.1 Finite Element Model of Non-composite Cellular Beam.................. 126
Figure 6.2 The Geometry of Cellular Beam with Solidworks............................. 128

xix
Figure 6.3 Structural Properties of NPI_240 Steel Cellular Beam....................... 129
Figure 6.4 Alternating Stress Curve of NPI_240 Steel Cellular Beam................ 130
Figure 6.5 Strain-Life Parameter Graph of NPI_240 Steel Cellular Beam.......... 130
Figure 6.6 Tetrahedron Volume Element Node Patterns ..................................... 131
Figure 6.7 3-D Contact Element Geometry.......................................................... 132
Figure 6.8 TARGE-170 Element Geometry......................................................... 133
Figure 6.9 Different Types of Mesh Generations................................................. 135
Figure 6.10 Different Mesh Sizes and Stress Values ........................................... 136
Figure 6.11 Tetrahedron Mesh Model with 25-mm Size ..................................... 137
Figure 6.12 Contacts and Target Surface. ............................................................ 138
Figure 6.13 Contact Types ................................................................................... 138
Figure 6.14 Analysis Settings for Cellular Beam................................................. 143
Figure 6.15 Load-Diagram and Steps for NPI_240 Cellular Beam Section ........ 144
Figure 6.16 Plasticity Properties of NPI_240 Steel Section................................. 145
Figure 6.17 Applying Load to NPI_240 Cellular Beam....................................... 146
Figure 6.18 Linear and Nonlinear Load-Deflection Diagram for NPI_240
Cellular Beam.................................................................................... 148
Figure 6.19 Eqivalent Stress Values on NPI_240 Cellular Beam........................ 149
Figure 6.20 Deformation Values on NPI_240 Cellular Beam ............................. 149
Figure 6.21 Normal Stress Values on NPI_240 Cellular Beam........................... 150
Figure 6.22 Shear Stress Values on NPI_240 Cellular Beam.............................. 150
Figure 6.23 Load-deflection-curve for upper flange of NPI_240_TEST3........... 151
Figure 6.24 Load-deflection-curve for lower flange of NPI_240_TEST3........... 151

xx

xxi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

g
d

Overall depth of the section

f
b Width of flange

w
t Thickness of web

f
t Thickness of flange

e Length of welded joint

0
h Height of hole

S Distance between hole centers

Angle of castellation
y
F Yield Stress
U
M Maximum moment under applied load combinations
P
M Plastic moment capacity of the cellular beam
LT
A Cross sectional area of lower tee
Y
P Design strength of steel
U
H Distance between centrals of upper tee and lower tee
VY
P Vertical shear capacity of the beam
VH
P Horizontal shear capacity of the beam
WUL
A Total cross sectional areas of webs of tees
WP
A Minimum area of the web post
V Shear force
T Axial force
M Bending moment at the cross section
0
x Distance between the axial forces to flange.
MAX
M Maximum allowable web post moment and

xxii
E
M Web post capacity at section
0
D Diameter of the web holes
3 2 1
, , C C C Constants
w
t Web thickness
O
P Force on the section
M Moment on the section
U
P Area of critical section
Y
P
P
M The plastic modulus of critical section
Y
P in plastic sections or
elastic section modulus of critical section
Y
P in other sections
x
S Plastic modulus of section
x
Z Elastic modulus of section
Constant in connection with limiting with to thickness ratios
F
Slenderness ratio for I-shaped member flanges and the thickness
W
Slenderness ratio for beam web
i
T

The axial forces in tees

h
V Horizontal forces in tees
h Distance between the centroids of upper and lower tees
h i
i
V N
V
, ,
2

Internal forces under a unit load

mt
y

Deflection due to bending moment in tee
wp
y

Deflection due to bending moment in web post of beam
at
y

Deflection due to axial force in tee
t
y

Deflection due to shear in tee
w
y

Deflection due to shear in web post
E

Elasticity modulus of steel cellular beam

xxiii
T
I Total moment of inertia of cell beam
G Shear modulus of steel
X

Web post form factor
T
y

Total deflection of a single opening under load conditions
I Integer design vector
1
I Sequence number of for the rolled beam section
2
I Sequence number for the hole diameter
3
I Total number of holes in the cellular beam
CB
W Weight of the cellular beam,
s
Density of steel
A
CB
, Total cross-sectional area of a steel profile
L
CB
, Span of the cellular beam
N
hole
Number of holes in the beam
MAXSUP
V Shear stresses computed at the supports
V
P Allowable shear stresses
MAX O
V Shear stresses at the web openings
VY
P Allowable vertical shear stresses
MAX H
V Horizontal shear stresses
VH
P Allowable horizontal shear stresses
AMAX A
M

Maximum moment determined at A-A section
MAX W
M Maximum allowable web post moment
TEE
V Vertical shear on the tee at 0 = of web opening
MAX
y Maximum displacement
hms Harmony memory size
hmcr Harmony memory considering rate
par Pitch adjusting rate
cyc
N Maximum search number

xxiv
v Velocity of particle
Number of particles
max
I Total number of values in the discrete set
i
k
x

Design space positions.
i
k
p

Optimum particle position
g
k
p

Global optimum particle position
1
r ,
2
r Random numbers between 0 and 1
i
k
p Best position found by particle i
g
k
p Best position in the swarm at time k
w Inertia of the particle
1
c ,
2
c Trust parameters in the swarm
SCI Steel Construction Institute
BS British Standart
ASD-AISC American Institute of Steel Construction-Allowable Stress
Design
LRFD Load and Resistance Factor Design
FEM Finite Element Model
HEA I-shaped steel beam according DIN 1025 and Euro-norm 53-62
UB Universal Beam Sections according British Standart
NPI I-shaped cross-section beams according Eurocode
HS Harmony Search Algorithm
PSO Particle Swarm Optimization
CB Cellular Beam

1

CHAPTER 1

WEB-EXPANDED BEAMS IN GENERAL

1.1 Introduction to Web-expanded Beams

Structural engineers have always tried to find new ways to improve the
practices in the design and construction of steel and composite buildings so that
the overall cost can be decreased. Beams with web openings and open web-
expanded steel beams are some of these ways. Web openings with different
geometrical properties have been used for many years to pass duct work or
utilities through the web holes in order to decrease floor height and
constructional cost of large scale buildings. This is because; decrease in story
height reduces interior volume and exterior surface of building and these
results in cost saving. Furthermore, in comparison with solid web beams, web-
expanded beams can easily increase the shear capacities, vertical bending
stiffness and capacities of structure.

Steel I-beam sections can be modified to intensify their strength by creating an
open-web expanded section from an original solid beam. This is achieved by
cutting the web of a solid beam in a certain pattern and then re-welding the two
parts to each other. As a result of these cutting and re-welding processes, the
overall beam depth increases which in return causes increase in the capacity of
the original section. There are two common types of open web expanded
beams: with hexagonal openings, also called castellated beams and beams with

2
circular openings referred to as cellular beams. Castellated and cellular beams
have been used in various types of constructions for many years. The most
common structure types built using these beams are office buildings, car parks,
shopping centers and any structure with a suspended floor. Web-expanded
beams provide a very economical solution for producing tapered members,
which have been used extensively in big sports stadiums.

1.2 Castellated Beams

H
Hs
Cutting Process
Seperation of Webs
Welding Process

Figure 1.1 Basic process of castellated beam

Castellated beams are steel sections with hexagonal openings that are made by
cutting a saw tooth pattern along its centerline in the web of a rolled I-beam
section along the length of its span. The two parts of original beam are then
welded together to produce a beam of greater depth with halves of hexagonal
holes in the steel section as shown above in Figure 1.1.

3
The cutting and re-welding processes increase the overall beam depth, moment
of inertia and section modulus of the original rolled beam, while reducing the
overall weight of the beam. Since the 1940s the high strength to weight ratio of
castellated beams has been a desirable item to structural engineers in their
efforts to design even lighter and more cost efficient steel structures [1].

1.3 Cellular Beams

The emergence of cellular beams was firstly for architectural application,
where exposed steelwork with circular web openings in the beam was
considered aesthetically pleasing more than castellated beams. Cellular beams
are steel sections with circular web openings that are made by twice cutting an
original rolled beams web in a half circular pattern along its centerline,
separating two tee parts and re-welding these two halves of hot rolled steel
sections as shown in Figure 1.2. This circular opening up of the original rolled
beam increases the overall beam depth, moment of inertia and section modulus,
while reducing the overall weight of the beam.

4

H
Hs
Double Cutting Process
Seperation of Web Parts
Re-Welding Process

Figure 1.2 Basic process of cellular beam

Cellular beams have been used in over 3500 projects in all around the world
[1]. The most common building types for the cellular beams are office
buildings, car parks, shopping centers and structures with a suspended floor.
Cellular beams are also used as roof beams beyond the range of portal-frame
construction, and are perfect solutions for curved roof applications, combining
weight savings with a low-cost manufacturing process. Cellular beams are a
very economical means of producing tapered members, which have been used
extensively in sports halls. They can also be used as gable columns and wind-
posts at practical applications.

Cellular beams always produce a more cost-effective solution than castellated
beams as a result of their flexible geometry. Although the profile for any
castellated beam section is standard or fixed, the major dimensions which are
the final depth, cell diameter and spacing are completely flexible in cellular
beams. The production process of cellular beams improves the section

5
properties of the original beam used, thus saving enormous weight compared to
plain original beams. Figure 1.3 shows that cellular beams are approximately
40-60% deeper and 40-60% stronger than the original member while reducing
the overall weight [2]. As a result of using cellular beams, structures are
lightened, spans are increased, and pulling spaces helps us to save in overall
height. This flexibility goes together with the functionality of allowing
utilization of the web openings as passages for pipes and ducts services through
the web holes shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.3 The comparison of cellular and original I-beams

Services
Depth Saving
Hf
Hs

Figure 1.4 Reduction of beam depth by placing service integrations in holes

6
1.3.1 Applications of Cellular Beams

Cellular beams have been used in various designs of structural buildings. Some
of them are office buildings, car parks, shopping centers, hospitals and any
structure with a suspended floor. Cellular beams provide long clear spans and
great flexibility for service integration, when they are used as floor beams as
shown in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Premier place with 15 m clear span, London

Cellular beams can be used as roof beams because of their low cost. They are
the perfect solution for roof applications shown in Figure 1.6 and 1.7,
combining a considerable weight saving and providing a building with minimal
internal columns compared with original beam sections.

7

Figure 1.6 ASTA shopping center, Tamworth

Figure 1.7 A curving roof cellular beam application, Winchester

8
Cellular beams are efficient structural members under car park loadings with
long clear spans. Besides their lighter weight, cellular beams provide exact
beam depth and a light and airy interior to improve personal security for
modern parking constructions (Figure 1.8 and 1.9).

Figure 1.8 Blackpool car park, Cork

Figure 1.9 Cambridge car park

9
The low cost and structural efficiency of cellular beams in clear long span
structures make these beams extensively suitable for use in big sports stadiums
shown in Figure 1.10 ad 1.11. They are much lighter and shallower than
original solid beams and much less costly than lattice beams.

Figure 1.10 Stamford bridge stadiums, London

Figure 1.11 Cantilever design of cellular beam in stadium, Dumferline

10
1.4 Literature Review

Web-expanded steel beams were firstly used by engineers in the 1940s to
decrease the cost of steel structures [1]. Increasing the stiffness of original
beam without any increase of weight of the steel beam has been the purpose of
the selection of these beams from designers. Reviews on non-composite web-
expanded beams have been extensively reported in the literature. An outline of
previous experimental and theoretical studies on these beams is reported here
in chronological order with the objective of describing the main purposes of
each investigation.

Web-expanded non-composite beams were firstly studied by Altifillisch et al.
in 1957. The main focus of this study was to investigate the structural
behaviour, strength and failure modes of castellated beams under two
concentrated loads both in elastic and plastic ranges [3]. Simply supported
10B11.5 three different types fabricated beams were tested to search the
influence of beam depth, web opening geometry and expansion ratio for these
experiments. The first type beam with fully bearing stiffeners, 10B11.5-I, was
failed through extensive yielding of the tee section and local compression
flange buckling. Three tests were performed for the second type of beam,
10B11.5-II, but one of these tests, involved loading to destruction of beam,
were excluded from experiments on account of the inadequacy of lateral
bracing system. Stress and deflection analysis of other two test beams was
substantiated under elastic range loads. In a similar manner with 10B11.5-II
beams, the last type of beams with short bearing stiffeners, 10B11.5-III, were
tested in the elastic range for the first two tests and the other one was loaded to
destruction of beams. Yielding at the corner of the web holes in the shear span
and local buckling of the compression flange were defined after applied loads.
They concluded that by expanding the depth of beam may be carried 10% to

11
%35 more moment in comparison with original beam. Data and results of
tested beams are given with more detail in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 An investigation of open web expanded beams (1957).

Beam 10B11.5-I 10B11.5-II 10B11.5-III
d
g
330.20 mm 374.65 mm 412.75 mm
b
f
100.33 mm 100.33 mm 100.33 mm
t
w
4.57 mm 4.57 mm 4.57 mm
t
f
5.18 mm 5.18 mm 5.18 mm
e

85.73 mm 88.90 mm 251 mm
h
0
158.75 mm 247.65 mm 323.85 mm
s 330.20 mm 425.45 mm 501.65 mm
45
0

45
0

45
0

F
y-web
326.81 MPa 326.81 MPa 326.81 MPa
F
y-flange
297.51 MPa 297.51 MPa 297.51 MPa
Ultimate Loads 199.6 kN - 252.5 kN
Type of Failure Flange Buckling No Result Flange Buckling

Toprac and Cooke tested ten 8B10 rolled section beams under four
concentrated point loads to investigate load carrying capacity and optimum
expansion ratio of castellated beams [4]. Experimental results of these tests
were then compared with theoretical computations. Excessive lateral buckling
at the first two specimens caused the failure so they were excluded from the
study. Although ultimate load of third specimen was recorded, but there was
not given detail about this test. When the load was reached to maximum,
compression flange buckling was observed at 8B10-IV specimen. At the same
manner, yielding and flange buckling mode in the pure bending region was

12
described for 8B10-V specimen. As for specimen 8B10-VI, local buckling of
the compression flange in the constant moment region was observed as failure
mode. The next specimen, 8B10-VII, failed due to high shear forces across the
web openings called vierendeel mechanism. Buckling of compression flange in
the constant moment region and vierendeel bending in the highest shear region
were observed for the 8B10-VIII and 8B10-IX specimens respectively. The test
data and results of these beams are shown with more detail in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 An experimental investigation of open-web beams (1959).

Beam 8B10-I 8B10-II 8B10-III 8B10-IV 8B10-V
d
g
266.70 281.94 297.94 335.28 330.96
b
f
101.60 101.60 100.33 101.60 100.33
t
w
4.57 4.50 4.83 4.34 4.70
t
f
5.13 5.08 5.13 5.08 5.11
e

57.15 57.15 57.15 57.15 57.15
h
0
133.10 143.26 196.34 247.40 264.92
s 247.40 257.56 310.64 361.70 379.22
45 45 45 45 45
F
y-web
274.14 274.14 274.14 290.10 290.10
F
y-flange
274.14 274.14 274.14 290.10 290.10
Ultimate Loads - - - 215.1 kN 287.3 kN
Type of Failure
No
Result
No
Result
No
Result
Flange
Buckling
Flange
Buckling

13
Beam 8B10-VI 8B10-VII 8B10-VIII 8B10-IX 8B10-X
d
g
297.18 330.20 295.91 354.33 200.91
b
f
99.06 101.60 100.33 100.33 100.33
t
w
4.70 4.72 4.45 4.70 4.70
t
f
5.08 5.08 5.16 5.13 5.11
e

57.15 76.20 38.10 38.10 N.A.
h
0
195.58 264.16 194.31 309.63 N.A.
s 347.98 416.56 270.51 385.63 N.A.
45 45 45 45 N.A.
F
y-web
290.10 296.41 296.41 296.41 N.A.
F
y-flange
290.10 296.41 296.41 296.41 N.A.
Ultimate
Loads
- 320.6 kN 274.1 kN 406.8 kN -
Type of Failure No
Result
Shear
Mechanism
Flange
Buckling
Shear
Mechanism
No
Result

In 1966, Shelbourne designed a test program for seven specimens consisting of
simply supported beams with bearing stiffeners. The objective of these tests
was to examine the interaction of shear forces and moments on the behavior of
castellated beams under varying load combinations [5]. The first specimen,
Beam_A1, failed through extensive yielding of the mid-depth of the post
between the first and second hole under single concentrated load at mid-span.
The effect of pure moment investigated at second specimen, Beam_A2, under
two concentrated point loads. Failure of Beam_A2 was associated with
extensive yielding in the end zones experiencing both shear and moment
forces. Beam_A3 was subjected to two point loads and failed through web
buckling in the zone of maximum shear. The effect of pure shear across the
holes was studied at Beam_ A4 and web buckling observed as failure mode. In
addition to these four tests, Shelbourne tested three more specimens under pure

14
bending moments. The first two tests were reported to fail by flexural
mechanisms. The last one was also reported to fail by flexural mechanism;
however, lateral torsional buckling was also associated with the failure mode.
The test data and results of these beams are given with more detail in Table
1.3.

Table 1.3 The plastic behaviour of castellated beams (1966).

Beam Beam_A1 Beam_A2 Beam_A3 Beam_A4
d
g
228.60 228.60 228.60 228.60
b
f
76.20 76.20 76.20 76.20
t
w
5.84 5.84 5.84 5.84
t
f
9.58 9.58 9.58 9.58
e

38.10 38.10 38.10 38.10
h
0
152.40 152.40 152.40 152.40
s 164.59 164.59 164.59 164.59
60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00
F
y-web
283.00 283.00 283.00 283.00
F
y-flange
283.00 283.00 283.00 283.00
Ultimate Loads 338.2 kN 366.8 kN 382.5 kN 362.9 kN
Type of Failure
Mid-Post
Yielding
Mid-Post
Yielding
Web
Buckling
Web
Buckling

Later, Bazile and Texier were tested two different types of beams to develop a
further understanding of different beam characteristics and properties,
geometry and expansion ratios of web-expanded beams in 1968 [6]. To

15
accomplish this, simply supported HEA_360 and IPE_270 type castellated
beams were tested under eight concentrated loads. The different phases of load-
deflection diagram of each beam also described under test loads. Two
specimens were not included to further study due to failed by lateral torsional
buckling. Failure of other three beams (Beam_T1, Beam_T2 and Beam_T3)
was associated with web buckling in the zone of maximum shear. The test data
and results of these beams are tabulated in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 Tests on Castellated beams (1968).

Beam
Beam_T1 Beam_T1 Beam_T1
d
g
500.00 600.00 500.00
b
f
300.00 300.00 135.00
t
w
10.00 10.00 6.60
t
f
17.50 17.50 10.20
e

168.00 168.00 138.00
h
0
300.00 370.00 320.00
s 504.00 504.00 414.00
60.80 55.00 52.50
F
y-web
370.00 302.00 336.00
F
y-flange
299.00 245.00 249.00
Ultimate Loads 295.7 kN 251.1 kN 211.9 kN
Type of Failure Web Buckling Web Buckling Web Buckling

In 1971, Husain and Speirs were tested six simply supported beams under
various load conditions to study the yielding and rupture of welded joints of
castellated beams [7]. Sufficient lateral bracings and bearing stiffeners were
provided to lateral torsional buckling of each beam. Beam_H1 and Beam_S1

16
were subjected to a single concentrated load and as for that Beam_H2,
Beam_H3, Beam_S2 and Beam_S3 were subjected to two concentrated loads.
Yield and ultimate shear stress values are recorded for each beam. Due to the
strain hardening, measured shear stress values were higher than stress values
would have been expected from tensile tests. The test data and results of these
beams are given with more detail in Table 1.5. Husain and Speirs also
investigated the effects of opening geometry on the strength of web-expanded
beams [8]. They concluded that narrowing the throat width increases the
performance of these beams.

Table 1.5 Failure of castellated beams due to rupture of welded joints (1971).

Beam
Beam_H1 Beam_S1
d
g
381.00 381.00
b
f
101.60 101.60
t
w
4.88 5.33
t
f
6.83 6.83
e

68.33 50.55
h
0
254.00 254.00
s 390.53 247.65
45.00 60.00
F
y
248.21 248.21
Ultimate Loads 441.0 kN 330.1 kN
Type of Failure Web Buckling Web Buckling

17

Beam
Beam_H2 Beam_H3 Beam_S2 Beam_S3
d
g
381.00 381.00 381.00 381.00
b
f
101.60 101.60 101.60 101.60
t
w
4.88 4.88 4.88 4.88
t
f
6.83 6.83 6.83 6.83
e

68.33 68.33 68.33 68.33
h
0
254.00 254.00 254.00 254.00
s 390.53 390.53 390.53 390.53
45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00
F
y
248.21 248.21 248.21 248.21
Type of Failure Web Buckling Web Buckling Web Buckling Web Buckling

Four castellated beams fabricated from W10x15 sections were tested by
Galambos et al in 1975. The objective of these experiments was to confirm a
numerical analysis approach to determine the optimum expansion ratio based
on both elastic and plastic methods of analysis [9]. A single concentrated load
was applied at mid-span of all beams. The span and weld lengths of beams
were taken as constants, but the depth of beams were varied based upon
distinct expansion ratios. Ultimate load capacity values of each test beams were
recorded, but no further discussion about the modes of failure was given. The
test data and results of these beams are shown with more detail in Table 1.6.

18
Table 1.6 Optimum expansion ratio of castellated beams (1975).

Beam
W10x15-I W10x15-II W10x15-III W10x15-IV
d
g
302.65 354.58 381.00 381.00
b
f
101.60 101.60 101.60 101.60
t
w
5.84 5.84 5.84 5.84
t
f
6.86 6.86 6.86 6.86
e

152.40 152.40 152.40 152.40
h
0
100.89 202.59 176.58 302.51
s 425.45 425.45 425.45 425.45
39.9 59.30 55.68 68.30
F
y
333.43 333.43 333.43 333.43

Then, Zaarour and Redwood tested fourteen castellated beams to examine the
buckling of the web post between openings [10]. Some of these beams had
plates welded between the halves at the web-post. A single concentrated point
load was applied at mid-span of all light beams. The ultimate strength values of
each beam were measured depended upon load capacities. The first two tests
were reported to fail by local buckling of the tee-section above the holes
through greatest bending moments taken placed. Web buckling failure mode
was described for other ten specimens. Finally, last two experiments omitted
from consideration because of lateral torsional buckling. Finite element model
analysis was also used to predict ultimate web buckling load and compared
with experimental results. The test data and results of these beams are tabulated
in Table 1.7.

19
Table 1.7 Web buckling in thin webbed castellated beams (1996).

Beam
B8-I B8-II B8-III B8-IV
d
g
302.64 359.66 307.34 358.90
b
f
59.44 58.42 58.42 58.93
t
w
3.43 3.48 3.51 3.48
t
f
4.69 4.72 4.57 4.72
e

48.51 48.26 57.40 58.67
h
0
222.25 270.26 222.25 270.00
s 224.02 222.25 342.90 342.90
60.1 60.1 44.00 44.00
F
y
374.40 374.40 374.40 374.40
Type of Failure Shear Mech. Web Buckling Shear Mech. Web Buckling

Beam
d
g
370.59 417.83 376.43 425.45
b
f
69.09 69.85 70.61 70.61
t
w
3.58 3.61 3.61 3.68
t
f
4.39 3.98 4.45 4.27
e

58.17 57.66 57.91 58.93
h
0
245.87 295.15 260.53 308.10
s 254.00 254.00 368.30 368.30
60.30 60.30 45.40 45.40
F
y
357.10 357.10 357.10 357.10
Type of Failure Shear Mech. Web Buckling Shear Mech. Web Buckling

20
Beam
d
g
476.25 527.81 449.58 501.65
b
f
78.49 77.98 78.23 77.98
t
w
4.69 4.59 4.62 4.69
t
f
5.33 5.36 5.35 5.33
e

73.41 74.42 71.37 68.33
h
0
352.81 403.86 302.51 349.75
s 355.60 355.60 438.15 438.15
59.90 59.90 45.20 45.20
F
y
311.60 311.60 311.60 311.60

In 1998, Redwood and Demirdijan focused to examine the buckling of the web
post between holes and to investigate the effects of moment-to-shear ratio on
the mode of failure in their experiments [11]. Four castellated beams with same
cross sectional but different number of openings were tested. All beams were
simply supported and subjected to a central point loading. Two identical beams
with four openings, 10_4B1 and 10_4B2, and beam with six openings, 10_6B,
were failed by web-post buckling mode. Beam with eight openings, 10_8B,
was excluded from study since failed by lateral torsional buckling. Elastic
finite element analysis was then used to simulate beams tested and compare the
buckling loads were reported between experimental and finite element analysis
results. The test data and results of these beams are shown with more detail in
Table 1.8.

21
Table 1.8 Ultimate strength designs of beams with multiple openings (1998).

Beam Beam_10A Beam_10B Beam_10C
1
Beam_10D
d
g
380.50 380.50 380.50 380.50
b
f
66.90 66.90 66.90 66.90
t
w
3.56 3.56 3.56 3.56
t
f
4.59 4.59 4.59 4.59
e

77.80 77.80 77.80 77.80
h
0
266.20 266.20 266.20 266.20
s 306.40 306.40 306.40 306.40
60.20 60.20 60.20 60.20
F
y-web
352.90 352.90 352.90 352.90
F
y-flange
345.60 345.60 345.60 345.60
Type of Failure
Web
Buckling
Web
Buckling
Flange-Tee
Buckling
-

Lastly, Erdal and Saka studied optimum design algorithm which based on one
of the recent meta-heuristic technique called harmony search method for
castellated beams in 2009 [12]. The design problem of castellated beams is
formulated as optimum design problem. The minimum weight is taken as the
design objective while the design constraints are implemented from The Steel
Construction Institute (SCI). The design methods adopted in this publication
are consistent with BS5950. Discrete programming problem comes out when
the design problem of steel castellated beams are formulated considering the
design limitations mentioned in the previous publication. The design algorithm

22
presented selects the optimum UB steel section to be used in the production of
a cellular beam subjected to a general loading, the optimum hexagonal hole
dimensions and number of holes in the castellated beams.

In comparison with castellated beams; there are limited theoretical and
experimental studies on cellular beams. These beams were firstly used on full
scale destructive tests to confirm structural integrity and design criteria at
Bradford University in 1988 with supervision of steel construction institute
(SCI).After several tests, web post buckling was described as failure mode at
cellular beams. Afterwards, the evaluation of results were performed of design
methods for web beams and analytical studies were undertaken using non-
linear finite element analysis to seek the capacity of the web posts and the
upper and lower tees [13].

Then, design for simply supported steel and composite cellular beams as used
in structures was presented by Ward J.K. in 1990 [14]. Design procedures were
associated with British Standart 5950: Part I and Part 3.1 provisions. The
behaviour of these beams was described and flexural, local, web-post strengths
and bending modes of non-composite and composite cellular beams were also
derived from parametric study involving detailed finite element analysis. On
the basis of plastic analysis of cellular beams at ultimate loads and elastic
analysis at serviceability loads, design procedures were applied to beams.

Later, the stress distribution around the holes of cellular beams under load
combinations are investigated by Dionisio et al. in 2004 [15]. The main
objective of this research was to describe the critical location around a typical
circular cell under load conditions. The study consisted of experimental tests
and analytical modeling using finite element modeling. In the experimental
part of research, twelve simply supported cellular beams were subjected to
monotonically loading. Primary and vierendeel bending stress around circular

23
holes were defined as failure modes. 3D finite element model of tested cellular
beams were then built up in ANSYS to compare with experimental results.

In 2006, in addition to an overview of cellular beams, stress distribution around
the web openings and effect of cope geometry to failure of cellular beams were
studied by Hoffman et al. In this research [16], linear elastic for service
loadings and nonlinear buckling finite element analysis of cellular beams were
evaluated and then compared with experimental results. For this purpose,
eighteen A570 steel cellular beams with span of 4.57-m were tested in a self
reacting frame. Ultimate load and vertical displacement values for every beam
were recorded to compare with FEM results. Web-post buckling around first
holes and regional buckling between the edge of cope and the edge of the first
hole were determined as failure modes in experimental tests.

The optimum design algorithm which based on one of the recent meta-heuristic
technique called harmony search method was presented for cellular beams by
Erdal and Saka in 2008 [17]. The design problem of cellular beams is
formulated as optimum design problem. The minimum weight is taken as the
design objective while the design constraints are implemented from SCI
publication number 100. The design methods adopted in this publication are
consistent with BS5950 part 1 and 3. Discrete programming problem comes
out when the design problem of cellular beams are formulated considering the
design limitations mentioned in the previous publication. The design algorithm
presented selects the optimum HEA section to be used in the production of a
cellular beam subjected to a general loading, the optimum holes diameter and
the optimum number of these holes in the cellular beam. Furthermore, this
selection is also carried out such that the design limitations are satisfied and the
weight of the cellular beam is the minimum. Erdal et al. were then adopted
particle swarm optimizer to cellular beams and evaluated performance of

24
harmony search algorithm and particle swarm optimizer for steel cellular
beams [18].

1.5 Objective and Scope of Research

The current dissertation research encompasses an investigation into the
optimum design, experimental research and finite element studies of non-
composite cellular beams. In this dissertation thesis, chapters are arranged as
follows;

In Chapter 1, a general definition is given about web-expanded beams. Then,
the common types of open web expanded beams: beams with hexagonal
openings and beams with circular openings are explained respectively. Lastly,
a literature survey on the web opening beams is included in a historical order
and the practical applications of cellular beams are shown with some pictures.

Chapter 2 presents failure modes of web-expanded beams and then the first
phase of the research with focus on the design process of cellular beams
according to BS5950 provisions to prevent the failure of these beams. The
design procedure of cellular beams is taken from The Steel Construction
Institute (SCI) Publication No: 100 titled Design of Composite and Non-
composite Cellular Beams.

The design equations of cellular beams are explained in Chapter 3. This
chapter also contains the general concepts of harmony search and particle
swarm optimization methods in a detailed manner and includes general
information about these stochastic-based optimum design techniques.
Furthermore, simply supported cellular beams are subjected to different types

25
of external loading are designed using the algorithms developed in this thesis
and the results are presented.

The experimental part of the research is presented in Chapter 4. In the
experimental phase of the study, 12 optimally designed non-composite cellular
beams are tested in a self reacting frame. The tested cellular beam specimens
have been designed using harmony search optimization technique.

In chapter 5, three tension test coupons from web of the every NPI steel
cellular beams are tested. Besides modulus of elasticity, yield and ultimate
stress values obtained from tensile tests are then used in finite element analysis
of these beams.

The last part of the thesis study, Chapter 6, focuses on performing a numerical
study on steel cellular beams utilizing finite element analysis. The finite
element code, ANSYS, is used to perform elastic buckling analysis and predict
critical loads for all tested specimens. Finite element analysis results of these
optimally designed steel cellular beams are compared with the experimental
results.

Finally, in the last chapter, some brief discussions and conclusions are
presented.

26

CHAPTER 2

THE DESIGN OF CELLULAR BEAMS

Structural design is one of the primary tasks of a structural engineer. The aim
of structural designer is to come up a structure that fulfills the criteria set by the
owner or builder of a building. The structure must also satisfy the safety
requirements regulated by the provisions of design codes and in the mean time
it should be economical to be constructed. Design of a steel structure in
particular requires a meticulous attention to design of steel members as well as
the details of their connections. Non-composite web-expanded steel beams are
no exception to this procedure. Structural designer has to consider all cases of
failure that can occur in such beam so that safety is assured in their life time.
The failure modes that can take place in web-expanded steel beams are
explained in the following subsections with more details.

2.1 Failure Modes of Web-Expanded Beams

There are mainly six different failure modes of these beams according to
experimental tests carried out by Kerdal and Nethercot on web-expanded
beams [19]. These failure modes are caused by beam geometry, web
slenderness, type of loading, and provision of lateral supports. Under applied
load conditions, failure is likely to occur due to one the following modes:

27
Formation of a Vierendeel mechanism
Lateral torsional buckling of the entire span
Lateral torsional buckling of the web post
Rupture of the welded joint
Web post buckling
Formation of a flexure mechanism

2.1.1 Formation of a Vierendeel Bending Mechanism

This failure mode is associated with transferring high shear forces across the
web holes, parallel to rate of change of bending moment along the beam. The
formation of a Vierendeel mechanism often occurs in web-expanded beams
with long horizontal opening lengths.

Yield in Compression
Yield in Tension

Figure 2.1 High bending in the cellular beam

28
The collapse of web-expanded beam has two reasons in the absence of regional
or overall instability. Firstly plastic tension and compression stresses in the
upper and lower tee parts in regions of high overall bending may lead to such a
collapse, shown in Figure 2.1. The second cause of collapse of these beams is
formation of plastic hinges at the all corners of the holes in regions of high
shear called Vierendeel bending moment, shown below in Figure 2.2.

Plastic Hinges

Figure 2.2 High shears in the cellular beam

When a web-expanded beam is subjected to a shear, the top and bottom tee
sections must carry the applied shear, as well as the primary and secondary
stresses. The primary stress is the formal bending moment on the beam cross-
section. This stress is applied uniformly over the areas of the upper and lower
part of tees. The secondary stress, also called the Vierendeel bending, comes
from the transfer of shear force in the tee sections over the horizontal length of
the web opening. The resulting overall stress is the sum of the primary and
secondary stresses.

29
2.1.2 Lateral Torsional Buckling

This mode of failure is mainly brought about by out of plane motions of the
beam which does not have web distortions in original web beams. Lateral
torsional buckling, as shown in Figure 2.3, is usually associated with longer
span beams with inadequate lateral support to the compression flange. The
reduced torsional stiffness of the web-expanded beam, which is a result of
relatively deeper and slender section properties, contributes to lateral buckling
mode.

Figure 2.3 Lateral torsional buckling along beam

30
This mode of failure was first investigated in 1982 by Nethercot and Kerdal
[20]. After experimental tests, they concluded that web openings only had a
negligible effect on the overall lateral torsional buckling behavior of the web-
expanded beams. Furthermore, they stated that due to the reduced cross
sectional properties, web-expanded beams can be subjected to the same design
procedures as original solid beams, to settle the lateral buckling strength.

2.1.3 Web-Post Buckling

Web post buckling has been a subject matter for many analytical and
experimental studies on web-expanded beams. This failure type is caused by
concentrated loading or reaction points applied directly over a web-post of
beam. Horizontal shear in the web-post of the beam is due to double curvature
bending over the depth of the web-post.

Figure 2.4 Web buckling on web-expanded beams

31
Web buckling is also related with on web thickness and the ratio of pitch
opening and hole diameter. The first inclined edge of the opening is stressed in
tension and the other edge of the hole in compression, all of which in a twisting
effect of the web post along its depth, shown in Figure 2.4.

2.1.4 Rupture of Welded Joints

This mode of failure depends upon the length of the welded joint. Hussain and
Speirs [7] have found this mode after tested six castellated beams with short
welded throat. These tests showed that if the horizontal shear stresses exceed
the yield strength of the welded throat, weld joint depth of the web between
two openings could be ruptured.

Figure 2.5 Rupture of welded joints on web-expanded beams

32
Figure 2.5 demonstrates that the failure of welded joints owing to high
horizontal shear and short weld length at web-expanded beam. The horizontal
length of the openings is equal to the weld length, and if the distance between
these openings is reduced to decrease secondary moments, the welded throat of
the web-post becomes more vulnerable to failure in this mode.

2.1.5 Flexure Mechanism

Under pure bending conditions, provided the section is compact, which means
that the beam does not exhibit buckling behavior, the tee sections above and
below the openings yield in tension and compression until they become fully
plastic. This mode of failure was reported in the works of Toprac and Cooke
(1959) [4]. They concluded that yielding in the tee sections above and below
the openings of a web-expanded beam was similar to that of an original solid
beam under applied pure bending forces.

33
2.2 Design Process of Cellular Beams

The design process of a cellular beam consists of checks such that the above
mentioned failure modes do not occur. The strength of a beam with various
web openings shall be determined based on the interaction of flexure and shear
at the web opening. Design constraints include the displacement limitations,
overall beam flexural capacity, beam shear capacity, overall beam buckling
strength, web post flexure and buckling, Vierendeel bending of upper and
lower tees, local buckling of compression flange and practical restrictions
between cell diameter and the spacing between cells.

The design procedure given here is taken from The Steel Construction Institute
(SCI) Publication No: 100 titled Design of Composite and Non-composite
Cellular Beams [14]. The design methods are consistent with BS5950 part 1
and 3, [21].
S
D
0
bf
Hs
tw
Upper Tee
e e
Lower Tee
tf

Figure 2.6 Geometrical parameters of a cellular beam

The basic geometry and notations used for cellular beams are shown in Figure
2.6. Although the diameter of holes and spacing between their centers are left
to designer to select the following ratios are required to be observed.

34

5 . 1 08 . 1
0
< <
D
S
(2.1)

75 . 1 25 . 1
0
< <
D
H
S
(2.2)

2.2.1 Overall Beam Flexural Capacity

Under unfavorable applied load combinations the cellular beam should have
sufficient flexural capacity to be able to resist the external loading. That is the
maximum moment
U
M under applied load combinations should not exceed
plastic moment capacity
P
M of the cellular beam.

P U Y LT U
M H P A M = (2.3)

Where
LT
A is the cross sectional area of lower tee,
Y
P is the design strength of
steel and
U
H is distance between centrals of upper tee and lower tee.

2.2.2 Beam Shear Capacity

It is necessary to check two shear failure modes in cellular beams. The first one
is the vertical shear capacity check in the beam. The sum of the shear
capacities of the upper and lower tees gives the vertical shear capacity of the
beam. The factored shear force in the beam should not exceed
VY
P :

35
( )
WUL Y VY
A P P 9 . 0 6 . 0 = (2.4)

Where
WUL
A is the total cross sectional areas of webs of tees. The other check
is for the horizontal shear failure. The horizontal shear is developed in the web
post due the change in axial forces in the tee as shown in Figure 2.7. The
horizontal shear capacity in the web post of beam should not exceed
VH
P
where:

( )
WP Y VH
A P P 9 . 0 6 . 0 = (2.5)

S-D0
S
Vi
Ti
Vi+1
Ti+1
WL
Vh
(HS-D0)/2
x0
A A
Mi
Mi+1
i i+1

Figure 2.7 Horizontal shear in the web post of cellular beam

Where
WP
A is the minimum area of the web-post. Neglecting the effect of the
applied load and considering the vertical equilibrium and the rate of the

36
variation of bending moment as shown in Figure 2.7, then the following
equations can be written for cellular beams.

i i
V V =
+1
(2.6)

) 2 (
0
x H T M
S i i
= (2.7)

S
x H
T T
S
M M
dx
dM
V
S
i i
i i
i
) 2 (
) (
0
1
1
1
= =
+
+
+
(2.8)

For horizontal equilibrium:

0
1 1
2x H
S
V T T V
S
i i i h
= =
+ +
(2.9)

Where V is shear force, T is axial force and M is bending moment at the
cross section of the cellular beam, S is distance between circular opening
centers,
0
x is the distance between the axial force to flange.

2.2.3 Flexural and Buckling Strength of Web-Post

In this dissertation study the compression flange of the cellular beam is
assumed to be sufficiently restrained by the floor system it is attached to.
Hence the overall buckling strength of non-composite cellular beam is omitted
from the design consideration. Instead the web post flexural and buckling
capacity is checked using equation 2.10.

37

(
(
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
=
3
2
0
2
0
1
C
D
S
C
D
S
C
M
M
E
MAX
(2.10)

Where
MAX
M is the maximum allowable web post moment and
E
M is the web
post capacity at section A-A of Figure 3 which is computed as elastic section
capacity of design strength
Y
P of the steel. S is the spacing between the centers
of circular openings and
0
D is the circular opening diameter. Both should be
substituted in the equation in mm unit.
3 2 1
, C and C C are constants evaluated
from the following expressions where
w
t is the web thickness.

2
0 0
1
00174 . 0 1464 . 0 097 . 5
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
+ =
w w
t
D
t
D
C (2.11)

2
0 0
2
000683 . 0 0625 . 0 441 . 1
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
+ =
w w
t
D
t
D
C (2.12)

2
0 0
3
00108 . 0 0853 . 0 645 . 3
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
+ =
w w
t
D
t
D
C (2.13)

2.2.4 Vierendeel bending of upper and lower tees

The flexural capacity of the upper and lower tees under Vierendeel bending is
critical. The transfer of shear forces across a single web opening causes
secondary bending stresses. The Vierendeel bending stresses around the hole
may be calculated using Olanders approach [22]. Olander utilizes a circular
section for the position of the critical section and the ultimate resistance of the
tees shown in Figure 2.8.

38
S-D0
V
T
P0
M
xS0
x0

Figure 2.8 Olanders curved beam approach

For asymmetrical sections, the shear force is resisted by the upper and lower
web sections in proportion to their depth squared. For symmetrical sections, the
shear force is divided equally between upper and lower web sections. The
interaction between Vierendeel bending moment and axial force for the critical
section in the tee should be checked as follows:

0 . 1 +
P U
O
M
M
P
P
(2.14)

sin
2
cos
V
T P
O
= (2.15)

( ) )
2
(
2
0 0 0 S
S
S
x
H V
x x T M + = (2.16)

Where
O
P and M are the force and the moment on the section respectively.
U
P is equal to area of critical section
Y
P ,
P
M is calculated as the plastic

39
modulus of critical section
Y
P in plastic sections or elastic section modulus of
critical section
Y
P for other sections.

2.2.5 Classification of Cellular Beams

The computation of the nominal moment strength
P
M of a laterally supported
beam necessitates first the classification of the cellular beam. The beam can be
plastic, compact, non-compact or slender according to BS5950 provisions [14].
In compact sections, local buckling of the compression flange and the web
does not occur before the plastic hinge develops in the cross section. On the
other hand in compact sections, the local buckling of compression flange or
web may occur after the first yield is reacted at the outer fiber of the flanges.
Classification of I-shaped sections is carried out according to Table 2.1 of
BS5950 which is repeated below.

Type of Element Plastic Compact Semi-compact
Outstand Element
of Compression
Flange
5 . 8
2
f
f
t
b
5 . 9
2
f
f
t
b
15
2
f
f
t
b

For web, with
neutral axis at
mid-depth

79
2
w
f S
t
t H

98
2
w
f S
t
t H

120
2
w
f S
t
t H

Table 2.1 Limiting width to thickness ratios

40

x Y plastic P
S P M =
) (
(2.17)

x Y elastic p
Z P M =
) (
(2.18)

2 / 1
275
|
|
\
|
=
Y
P
(2.19)

=
F
F
F
t
b
2
(2.20)

W
W
t
H
= (2.21)

F
t d H 2 = (2.22)

The moment capacity of beams for plastic or compact sections and semi-
compact sections is calculated respectively in 2.17 and 2.18. In these equations;
y
P is the design strength of steel,
x
S is the plastic modulus and
x
Z is the
elastic modulus of section about relevant axis. In equation 2.19, defines a
constant in connection with limiting with to thickness ratios.
F
given in
equation 2.20 is slenderness ratio for I-shaped member flanges and the
thickness in which
F
b and
F
t are the width and the thickness of the flange.
Equation 2.21 describes,
W
, slenderness ratio for beam web, in which H plus
allowance for undersize inside fillet at compression flange for rolled I-shaped
sections shown in equation 2.22, where d is the overall depth of the section
and
W
t

is the web thickness.
W
t H / is readily available in UB-section
properties table.

41
2.2.6 Deflection of Cellular Beams

The limiting values for deflection of a beam under applied load combinations
are given in BS5950, Part 1. According to these limitations the maximum
deflection of a cellular beam should not exceed span/360. The deflection of
cellular beam is computed using the virtual work method which is explained in
detail in [14]. Figure 2.7 shows points of inflection at sections i and 1 + i .
Shear force under applied load combinations is distributed equally to upper and
lower tees. The axial and horizontal forces in these tees are given by;

h
M
T
i
i
=

(2.23)

h
V V S
V
i i
h
2
) (
1 +
+
= (2.24)

Where; h is the distance between the centroids of upper and lower tees and S
is distance between centrals of holes. The deflection at each point is found by
applying a unit load at that point.

Internal forces under a unit load are given by

h i
i
V N
V
, ,
2
(2.25)

Deflection due to bending moment in tee;

) (
3
) 2 / ( 091 . 0
3
0
i i
T
mt
V V
EI
D
y = (2.26)

42
Deflection due to bending moment in web post of beam;

h h e
w
wp
V V
D S
D S
D S
D S
D S
D S
Et
y
(
(
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
=
2
3
) 2 / ( 9 . 0
) 2 / ( 0 . 2
2
1
) 2 / ( 9 . 0
) 2 / ( 0 . 2
2
) 2 / ( 0 . 2
) 2 / ( 9 . 0
log
15 . 13
2
0
0
0
0
0
0 (2.27)

Deflection due to axial force in tee;

) (
2
i i
T
at
T T
EA
S
y = (2.28)

Deflection due to shear in tee;

) (
) 2 / ( 45 . 0
0
i i
TWEB
t
V V
GA
D
y = (2.29)

Deflection due to shear in web post;

|
|
\
|
=
) 2 / ( 0 . 2
) 2 / ( 9 . 0
log
636 . 1
0
0
D S
D S
X
Gt
y
e
w
w h h
V V (2.30)

Where E

is the elasticity modulus of steel cellular beam,
T
I is total moment
of inertia of cell beam, G is shear modulus of steel and X is the web post form
factor. The total deflection of a single opening under applied load conditions is
obtained by summing the deflections computed above in Eq. 2.26-2.30.

43

w t at wp mt T
y y y y y y + + + + = (2.31)

On the other hand the deflection of the cellular beam is calculated by
multiplying the deflection of each opening by the total number of openings in
the beam as given in [14].

44

CHAPTER 3

THE DESIGN OPTIMIZATION OF CELLULAR BEAMS USING
META-HEURISTIC SEARCH TECHNIQUES

3.1 Optimum Design Problem of Cellular Beams

The design of a cellular beam requires the choice of an original rolled beam
from which the cellular beam is to be produced, circular opening diameter and
the spacing between the centers of these circular holes or the total number of
holes in the beam. Hence, the sequence number of the rolled beam sections in
the standard steel section tables, hole diameter and the total number of holes
are taken as design variables in the optimum design problem considered. For
this purpose, a design pool is prepared consisting of list of standard rolled
beam sections, a list of various diameter sizes and a list of integer number
starting from 2 to 40 (this number can be increased or decreased according to
length of span) for the total number of holes in a cellular beam. The optimum
design problem formulated considering the design constraints explained in the
previous sections yields the following mathematical model.

Find an integer design vector { } { }
T
I I I I
3 2 1
, , = where
1
I is the sequence
number for the rolled beam section in the standard steel sections list,
2
I is the
sequence number for the hole diameter in the discrete set which contains
various diameter values and
3
I is the total number of holes for the cellular

45
beam. Once
1
I is selected, then the rolled steel beam designation becomes
known and all cross sectional properties of the beam become available for the
design. The corresponding values to
2
I and
3
I in the design sets make the hole
diameter and the total number of holes also available for the cellular beam.

Therefore, the design problem for the minimization of the weight of the
cellular beam turns out to be:

|
|
\
|
|
\
|
=
hole CB CB s CB
N
D
L A W
2
0
2
(3.1)

Where;
CB
W denotes the weight of the cellular beam,
s
is the density of steel.
A
CB
, L
CB
, D
0
, and N
hole
represent the total cross-sectional area of a steel profile,
span of the cellular beam, diameter of the web holes and the total number of
holes in the beam, respectively.

Design of a cellular beam requires the satisfaction of some geometrical and
behavioral restrictions that are formulated through Eqns. (3.2-3.13). Depending
on the values of diameter of holes, distance between the hole centers and the
final depth of the beam determined, following geometrical constraints must be
satisfied;

0 08 . 1
0 1
= S D g (3.2)

0 60 . 1
0 2
= D S g (3.3)

0 25 . 1
0 3
=
S
H D g (3.4)

46
0 75 . 1
0 4
= D H g
S
(3.5)

In Eqns. (3.2-3.5), S denotes the distance between centers of circular openings
and
S
H is the overall depth of cellular beam.

The maximum moment,
U
M , under applied load combinations should not
exceed the plastic moment capacity
P
M of the cellular beam for a sufficient
flexural capacity.

0
5
=
P U
M M g (3.6)

It is also required that the shear stresses ) (
MAXSUP
V computed at the supports are
smaller than allowable shear stresses ) (
V
P , the ones at the web openings
) (
MAX O
V are smaller than allowable vertical shear stresses ) (
VY
P and finally,
the horizontal shear stresses ) (
MAX H
V are smaller than the upper limit ) (
VH
P of
the same; as formulated in Eqns. (3.7-3.9).

0
6
=
V MAXSUP
P V g (3.7)

0
7
=
VY MAX O
P V g (3.8)

0
8
=
VH MAX H
P V g (3.9)

The web post flexural and buckling capacity of cellular beam is checked in the
Eqn.3.10. In this expression, the maximum moment determined at A-A section
) (
AMAX A
M

should be smaller than the maximum allowable web post
moment ) (
MAX W
M .

47
0
9
=
MAX W AMAX A
M M g (3.10)

Eqns. 3.11 and 3.12 check the interaction between the secondary bending stress
and the axial force for the critical section in the tee.

0 5 . 0
10
=
VY TEE
P V g (3.11)

0 1
0
11
=
P U
M
M
P
P
g (3.12)

Where;
TEE
V is referred to as the vertical shear on the tee at 0 = of web
opening,
0
P and M are the internal forces on the web section as shown in Fig
4. The deflection constraint is imposed such that the maximum displacement is
restricted to L/360, where
MAX
y denotes the maximum deflection.

0
360
12
=
L
y g
MAX
(3.13)

3.2 Stochastic Search Techniques in Optimization

The solution of the optimum design problem described in previous section
necessitates the selection of appropriate steel beam section from a standard list,
an opening diameter and the total number of openings to be used in the cellular
beam such that with these selected parameters, the response of the cellular
beam remains within the limitations imposed in expressions (3.2)-(3.13) and its
weight given in expression (3.1) is the minimum. This is clearly a discrete
programming design problem. The solution methods available among the
mathematical programming techniques to obtain solutions to discrete

48
programming problems are somewhat cumbersome and not very efficient for
practical use. Fortunately, the emergence of stochastic search techniques that
are based upon the simulation of paradigms found in nature has changed this
situation altogether. The basic idea behind these search techniques is to
simulate the natural phenomena, such as survival of the fittest in genetic
algorithms, flock migration in swarm intelligence, shortest path to food source
in ant colony optimization, best harmony of instruments in harmony search
algorithm, the cooling process of molten metals through annealing into a
numerical algorithm and staying alive of the fittest and most experienced in
memetic algorithm [23-31]. These innovative stochastic search and
optimization methods, simulated annealing [32], evolution strategies [33],
particle swarm optimizer [34], tabu search method [35], ant colony
optimization [36], harmony search method [37], genetic algorithms [38] and
etc., are very suitable and effective in finding the solution of combinatorial
optimization problems. They do not require the gradient information of the
objective function and constraints and they use the probabilistic transition rules
not the deterministic ones. The optimum structural design algorithms that are
based on these techniques are robust and quite effective in finding the solution
to discrete programming problems. There are large numbers of such
metaheuristic techniques available in the literature nowadays. A detailed
review of these algorithms as well as their applications in the optimum
structural design is carried out in Saka [39] and Hasancebi et al [40].

In the present dissertation research, the solution of the discrete non-composite
cellular beam design problem given by Eqns. (3.2-3.13) is investigated using
two meta-heuristic search techniques; namely harmony search algorithm and
particle swarm optimizer.

49
3.2.1 Harmony Search Method

One of the recent additions to the meta-heuristic search techniques of
combinatorial optimization problems is the harmony search method initiated by
Geem and Kim [37]. This presented stochastic technique is based on the
musical performance process that takes place when a musician searches for a
better state of harmony [41]. In the process of musical production, a musician
chooses and brings together number of different notes from the whole notes
and then plays these with a musical instrument to find out whether it gives a
pleasing harmony. The musician then tunes some of these notes to achieve a
better harmony. Similarly, a candidate solution is generated in the optimum
design process by modifying some of the decision variables to find optimum
solution. Structural designer in a design of a steel structure selects steel profiles
for the members of a structure randomly or using her/his previous experience.
This selection constitutes a potential design for the structure under
consideration. The candidate solution obtained is then checked to see whether
it improves the objective function or not, as it is in the case of finding out
whether euphonic music is obtained or not. Like the other meta-heuristic
techniques, harmony search algorithm uses stochastic random search instead of
gradient search.

HS algorithm was used in structural optimization and computational structural
mechanics immediately after its emergence. The recent applications have
shown that this method is an efficient and robust numerical optimization
technique that can be utilized in finding the optimum solution of structural
optimization problems. Amongst these studies, Lee and Geem [37, 41] used the
technique for optimum design of space truss structures. The minimum weight
design of planar frames formulated according to both BS5950 [21] and LRFD-
AISC [42] design codes were carried out using HS algorithm in [43] and [44],
respectively. In Ref. [43], a harmony search based solution algorithm for

50
optimum design of geodesic domes was developed by Saka, where in addition
to size variables; a single shape variable is used to modify the height of the
dome under consideration. Then, the success of the method in optimum W-
sections for the transverse and longitudinal beams of grillage systems was
examined in Erdal and Saka [45-46]. Besides, in [40] harmony search method
is used in the optimum design of real size trusses where the design problem is
formulated according to ASD-AISC [47] and its performance is compared to
other metaheuristic techniques. Finally, Hasanebi et al. developed an adaptive
harmony search algorithm for the optimum design of structures. In adaptive
harmony search method, unlike the standart application of the technique,
algorithm parameters adjust automatically during the optimization process. The
efficiency of the proposed algorithm is numerically investigated using two
large-scale steel frames that are designed for minimum weight according to the
provisions of ASD-AISC specification [48]. The solutions obtained from this
proposed method are compared with those of the standard algorithm as well as
of the other metaheuristic search techniques. In all these applications, it was
concluded that harmony search was a very effective technique to obtain the
optimum solution to various structural design problems.

51
The basic components of the harmony search algorithm can now be outlined in
five steps as follows.

Step 1 Initialization of a Parameter Set: A harmony search optimization
parameter sets are initialized first. These parameters consists of four
entities called as a harmony memory size ( hms ), a harmony memory
considering rate ( hmcr ), a pitch adjusting rate ( par ) and a maximum
search number (
cyc
N ). It is worthwhile to mention that in the standard
harmony search algorithm these parameters are treated as static
quantities, suitable values are chosen within their recommended ranges
of ( ) 95 . 0 ~ 70 . 0 hmcr and ( ) 50 . 0 ~ 20 . 0 par [37, 41]. It should be
mentioned that the selection of these values are problem dependent and
it requires number of trials to identify the appropriate ones.

Step 2 Initialization and Evaluation of Harmony Memory Matrix: A
harmony memory matrix H is generated and randomly initialized next.
This matrix incorporates ( hms ) number of feasible solutions. Each
solution (harmony vector,
i
I ) consists of nv integer numbers between
1 to ns selected randomly each of which corresponds sequence number
of design variables in the design pool, and is represented in a separate
row of the matrix; consequently the size of H is ( nv hms ).

) (
...
) (
) (
...
... ... ... ...
...
...
2
1
2 1
2 2
2
2
1
1 1
2
1
1
hms hms
nv
hms hms
nv
nv
I I I
I I I
I I I
I
I
I
H
(
(
(
(
(
=
(3.14)

j
i
I is the sequence number of the
th
i design variable in the
th
j randomly
selected feasible solution. ( hms ) solutions shown in Eqn. (3.14) are

52
then analyzed, and their objective function values are calculated. The
solutions evaluated are sorted in the harmony memory matrix in the
increasing order of objective function values, that is ) (
1
I ) (
2
I
) (
hms
I .

Step 3 Generating a New Harmony: A new harmony solution vector
[ ]
nv
I I I = ,.., ,
2 1
'
I is improvised by selecting each design variable from
either harmony memory or the entire discrete set. The probability that a
design variable is selected from the harmony memory is controlled by a
parameter called harmony memory considering rate ( hmcr ). To execute
this probability, a random number
i
r is generated between 0 and 1 for
each variable
i
I . If
i
r is smaller than or equal to hmcr , the variable is
chosen from harmony memory in which case it is assigned any value
from the i-th column of the H, representing the value set of variable in
hms solutions of the matrix (Eqn. 3.15). Otherwise ( hmcr r if
i
> ), a
random value is assigned to the variable from the entire discrete set.

{ }
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
1,..............,
hms
i i i i i
i
i
i
I I I I if r hmcr
I
if r hmcr
I ns
=

>

(3.15)

If a design variable attains its value from harmony memory, it is
checked whether this value should be pitch-adjusted or not. Pith
adjustment simply means sampling the variables one of the
neighboring values, obtained by adding or subtracting one from its
current value. Similar to hmcr parameter, it is operated with a
probability known as pitch adjustment rate ( par ), (Eqn. 3.16). If not
activated by par ; the value of the variable does not change.

53

par r if
par r if
I
I
I
i
i
i
i
i
>

=
1
(3.16)

Constraint handling: The new harmony solution vector obtained using
above-mentioned rules is checked whether it violates design constraints.
If this vector is severely infeasible it is discarded and another harmony
vector is sought. However, if it is slightly infeasible, it is included in the
harmony matrix. In this way the slightly infeasible harmony vector is
used as a base in the pitch adjustment operation to provide a new vector
that may be feasible. This is achieved by using large error values
initially for the acceptability of the new design vectors. The error value
is then gradually reduced during the design cycles until it reaches to its
final value. This value is then kept the same until the end of iterations.
This adaptive error strategy is found quite effective in handling the
design constraints in large design problems.

Step 4 Update of Harmony Matrix: After selecting new values generating the
harmony solution vector, its objective function value is calculated.
After selecting the new values for each design variable the objective
function value is calculated for the newest harmony vector. If this value
is better than the worst harmony vector in the harmony matrix, it is then
included in the matrix while the worst one is taken out of the matrix.
The harmony memory matrix is then sorted in descending order by the
objective function value.

Step 5 Termination: The steps 3 and 4 are repeated until a pre-assigned
maximum number of cycles
cyc
N is reached. This number is selected
large enough such that within this number no further improvement is
possible in the objective function.

54
3.2.2 Particle Swarm Optimization Method

Particle swarm optimization (PSO) method is a population based stochastic
search technique inspired by social behavior of bird flocking or fish schooling.
This behaviour is concerned with grouping by social forces that depend on both
the memory of each individual as well as the knowledge gained by the swarm
[49-51]. As a meta-heuristic search and optimization technique, PSO algorithm
has gained a worldwide popularity and found important applications in many
disciplines of science and engineering. In the field of structural optimization,
the method is successfully utilized to determine the optimum solutions of
different design problems. Amongst recent studies, Perez and Behdinan [52]
have extended the algorithm to cover the optimum design of space structures.
They carried out the effect of different setting parameters and functionality on
truss structures. He, Prempain and Wu [53] proposed an improved PSO
algorithm to solve mechanical design problems involving problem-specific
constraints and mixed variables. In Ref. [54], Fourie and Groenwold developed
a particle swarm based solution algorithm for simultaneous optimum design of
small scale pin-jointed structures, where optimum size and shape of a structure
were sought concurrently to minimize its structural weight. Later, Hasanebi et
al. [40] have compared the performance of PSO method with other six
stochastic search techniques including harmony search algorithm in the
optimum design of real size pin-jointed structures formulated according to
ASD-AISC [47].

The particle swarm optimization procedure involves a number of particles
which represents the swarm initialized randomly in the search space of an
objective function. Each particle in the swarm represents a candidate solution
of the optimum design problem. Originally particle swarm optimizer is
developed for continuous design variables. To be able to use the method for
discrete design variables, some adjustments are required.

55
The basic steps of the particle swarm optimization for a general discrete
optimization problem can be outlined as follows.

Step 1 Swarm of particles is initialized randomly with sequence numbers
i
I
0

which corresponds positions
0
i
I and initial velocities
i
v
0
that are
randomly distributed throughout the design space. Here
i
I
0
represents
the sequence number of values in the discrete set. These are obtained
from the following expressions.

( ) [ ]
min max min
0
I I r I INT I
i
+ = (3.17)

( ) ( ) [ ] t I I r I v
i
+ = /
min max min
0
(3.18)

Where the term r represents a random number between 0 and 1,
min
I is
equal to 1 and
max
I is the total number of values in the discrete set
respectively. Once
i
I
0
is computed, the corresponding
i
x
0
value is taken
from the discrete set.

Step 2 The objective function values ) (
i
k
x f are evaluated using the design
space positions
i
k
x .

56
Step 3 The optimum particle position
i
k
p at the current iteration k and the
global optimum particle position
g
k
p are updated by equating
i
k
p to
) (
i
k
x f and
g
k
p to the best ) (
i
k
x f .

Step 4 The velocity vector of each particle is updated considering the particles
current velocity and position, the particles best position and global best
position, as follows:

( )
( )
t
x p
r c
t
x p
r c wv v
i
k
g
k
i
k
i
k i
k
i
k
+ =
+ 2 2 1 1 1
(3.19)

where
1
r and
2
r are random numbers between 0 and 1,
i
k
p is the best
position found by particle i so far, and
g
k
p is the best position in the
swarm at time k. w is the inertia of the particle which controls the
exploration properties of the algorithm.
1
c and
2
c are trust parameters
that indicate how much confidence the particle has in itself and in the
swarm respectively.

Step 5 The sequence number for the position of each particle is updated from

) (
1 1
t v I INT I
i
k
i
k
i
k
+ =
+ +
(3.20)

Where
i
k
I
1 +
is the sequence number in the discrete set for
i
k
x
1 +
which
is the position of particle i at iteration 1 + k ,
i
k
v
1 +
is the corresponding
velocity vector and t is the time step value.

57

Step 6 Steps 2-5 are repeated until pre-determined maximum number of cycles
is reached.

In the particle swarm method algorithm parameters are treated as static
quantities, and hence they are assigned to suitable values selected within their
recommended ranges of following values ( ) 50 . 0 ~ 05 . 0 w , ( ) 50 ~ 10 ,
( ) 0 . 2 ~ 0 . 1
2 1
c and c and ) 0 . 1 ( t [55-58].

3.2.3 The Comparison of HS and PSO Algorithms with An Example

Harmony search method and particle swarm based optimum design algorithm
presented in the previous subsections are used to design a cellular beam to
compare which method is better while finding the optimum solution. Due to
unavailability of UB sections in Turkey, the tests are performed using NPI
sections. However, UB sections are used in two comparative optimization
analyses. This is because, availability of larger variety of UB sections to be
selected leads to more precise results to be used for comparison of two
methods. Among the steel sections list 64 UB sections starting from
25410228 UB to 914419388 UB are selected to constitute the discrete set
of steel profiles from which the design algorithm selects the sectional
designations for the cellular beams [59]. For the hole diameters discrete set that
has 421 values ranging from 180 mm to 600 mm with the increment of 1mm is
prepared. Another discrete set is arranged for the number of holes that contains
numbers ranging from 2 to 40 with the increment of 1.

58
3.2.3.1 Cellular Beam with 4-m Span

A simply supported beam shown in Figure 3.1 is selected as first design
example to demonstrate the steps of optimum design algorithms developed for
cellular beams that are based on harmony search and particle swarm methods.
The beam has a span of 4 m and is subjected to 5 kN/m dead load including its
own weight. A concentrated live load of 50 kN also acts at mid-span of the
beam as shown in the same figure.

4 m
5 kN/m
50 kN

Figure 3.1 Loading of 4-m simply supported beam

The maximum displacement of the beam under these point and distributed
loads is restricted to 12 mm while other design constraints are implemented
from BS5950 as explained in Section 3.1. The modulus of elasticity is taken as
205 kN/mm
2
and Grade 50 steel is adopted for the beam which has the design
strength of 355 MPa. The size of harmony memory matrix and number of
particles ( hms and ) is taken as 10 and maximum number of generations is
kept the same for both harmony search and particle swarm methods.

59
In the use of the harmony search method, the other parameters hmcr and par
are taken as 0.8 and 0.35 respectively. It took 17 cycles for the harmony search
method to fill the harmony memory matrix. This matrix is given in Table 3.1

Table 3.1 The initial feasible designs selected by PSO and HS algorithms

PSO Algorithm (Initial)
HS Algorithm (After 17 iterations)
Particle
No
Section
(UB)
Number
of Holes
Hole Dia.
(mm)
Weight
(kg)
Row
Number
Section
(UB)
Number
of Holes
Hole Dia.
(mm)
Weight
(kg)
1 356x127x33 8 386 120,53 1 356x127x39 10 316 144,80
2 406x140x39 8 429 137,71 2 406x178x60 6 412 231,48
3 406x140x39 7 366 148,20 3 406x178x74 7 538 255,95
4 305x102x33 8 342 124,06 4 406x178x74 7 396 284,50
5 406x178x74 8 380 280,79 5 457x191x74 7 352 287,56
6 356x171x57 10 291 217,60 6 457x191x98 5 581 371,18
7 305x127x37 9 371 132,54 7 533x210x109 6 558 398,71
8 356x171x45 8 324 172,20 8 533x210x122 5 560 464,99
9 406x178x67 8 365 255,68 9 610x229x125 6 499 476,21
10 305x127x37 8 349 139,32 10 686x254x140 4 590 543,51

60
algorithms

PSO Algorithm HS Algorithm
Particle
No
Section
(UB)
Number
of Holes
Hole Dia.
(mm)
Weight
(kg)
Memory
No
Section
(UB)
Number
of Holes
Hole Dia.
(mm)
Weight
(kg)
1 305x165x54 9 387 195,79 1 356x127x39 10 316 144,80
2 406x140x39 8 429 137,71 2 356x171x45 9 359 163,44
3 356x171x67 9 391 243,97 3 406x178x60 6 412 231,48
4 305x102x33 8 342 124,06 4 406x178x74 7 538 255,95
5 406x140x46 9 386 166,00 5 406x178x74 7 396 284,50
6 356x171x57 10 291 217,60 6 457x191x74 7 352 287,56
7 356x171x45 9 374 163,44 7 457x191x98 5 581 371,18
8 356x127x33 9 359 119,66 8 533x210x109 6 558 398,71
9 305x165x54 9 389 195,39 9 533x210x122 5 560 464,99
10 305x127x37 8 349 139,32 10 610x229x125 6 499 476,21

The first row of this matrix has the least weight and corresponds to
35612739 UB section which is selected from the 64 UB-sections list. The
cellular beam should be produced such that it should have 10 circular holes
each having 402mm diameter in this cycle. HS algorithm can not find better
sections between 18
th
and 31
th
cycles than the ones shown in Table 3.1.
However, 32
th
cycle gives a better harmony memory matrix as shown in Table
3.2.

The new objective function value 163.44 kg is better than the worst harmony in
the memory matrix 543.51 kg. Hence this new design is placed in the 2
th
row of

61
the harmony memory matrix and the worst design with the largest objective
function value is discarded from the harmony memory matrix. The new design
does not affect the first row of the harmony memory matrix in this search.
However later, when the harmony search algorithm continues to seek better
designs another vector that is obtained in later cycles changes the harmony
memory matrix.

algorithms

PSO Algorithm HS Algorithm
Particle
No
Section
(UB)
Number
of Holes
Hole Dia.
(mm)
Weight
(kg)
Memory
No
Section
No (UB)
Number
of Holes
Hole Dia.
(mm)
Weight
(kg)
1 305102x25 9 374 86,27 1 305x102x25 9 402 82,19
2 305x102x25 10 365 83,19 2 305x102x25 10 345 82,50
3 254x146x43 10 336 157,78 3 305x102x25 10 342 82,80
4 305x102x25 9 351 89,10 4 305x102x25 10 315 82,90
5 305x102x25 10 348 85,81 5 305x102x25 10 312 83,11
6 305x102x25 11 334 84,15 6 305x102x25 9 335 83,52
7 305x102x25 11 330 84,80 7 305x102x25 10 305 83,72
8 254x146x37 12 303 133,65 8 305x102x25 9 328 83,82
9 305x102x25 11 333 84,32 9 305x102x25 9 313 84,33
10 305x102x25 10 368 82,71 10 305x102x25 9 310 84,43

The optimum result presented in Table 3.3 is obtained after 780 iterations. It is
noticed that this design vector remained the same even though the design
cycles are continued to reach 5000 which was the pre-selected maximum
number of iterations.

62
Table 3.4 Comparison of optimum designs for 4-m simply supported beam

Search
Method
Optimum Section
Designations (UB)
Diameter of
Hole (mm)
Total Number
of Holes
Minimum
Weight (kg)
HS
Algorithm
30510225 402 9 82.19
PSO
Algorithm
30510225 368 10 82.71

It is apparent from the Table 3.4 that the optimum design has the minimum
weight of 82.19 kg. In the optimum design the harmony search algorithm
selects 30510225 UB section for the root beam. Furthermore it decides that
the cellular beam should have 9 circular holes each having 402mm diameter.

Similar to harmony search algorithm the particle swarm optimizer also starts
initializing the parameters. The values
1
c and
2
c are selected as 1, 2 is adopted
for w and the values of t
and max
V
are chosen as 2
.
The total number of
particles is selected as 10. At the initial runs the particle swarm algorithm
generates ten feasible design vectors each of which is assigned to each particle
and the search for the optimum solution starts with this set of particles. The
initial set of feasible designs assigned to each particle is listed in Table 3.1. In
this table, the first particle has the feasible design with minimum weight. This
design has the minimum weight of 120.53 kg where the universal beam section
of 35612733 UB is selected for the root beam. The beam should be
produced such that it should have 8 circular holes each having 386mm
diameter at this weight. Design cycles are started with these values of the
particles and the positions and the objective function values of particles keep
on changing iteration after iterations. The best among these positions is kept as

63
the optimum design attained in the current iteration. If this one is better than
the global one then it is assumed as the optimum design obtained up to the
present iteration. After 32 iterations the designs obtained are listed in Table
3.2. It is apparent from the table that 8
th
particle has a design with the least
weight of 119.66. Table 3.3 contains the designs obtained after 430 iterations.
It is noticed that the optimum design obtained in this table does not improve
even though the iterations are continued until 5000. Comparing to harmony
search method, the optimum design is obtained after 430 iterations in particle
swarm algorithm. It is apparent from Table 3.4 that the optimum design has the
minimum weight of 82.71 kg which selects 30510225 UB section for the
root beam, total of 10 holes in the beam each having 368mm diameter. In
addition, the design history curve for both techniques is shown in Figure 3.2.

60
90
120
150
180
210
240
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Number of Iterations
M
i
n
m
u
m

W
e
i
g
h
t

(
k
g
)
Harmony Search Algorithm
Particle Swarm Optimizer

Figure 3.2 The design history graph for 4-m cellular beam

64
In this particular problem, these results demonstrate that while both the
strength and geometric constraints are dominant in HS algorithm, in PSO
algorithm, only the strength constraints are severe. To sum up, the optimum
result of harmony search technique is compared with particle swarm
optimization method to show accuracy and performance of methods on cellular
beams. Although the algorithms of HS and PSO are mathematically quite
simple, they are quite robust in finding the solutions of combinatorial optimum
design problems as it is demonstrated in the example considered. Comparison
of the optimum designs attained by particle swarm optimizer and harmony
search algorithm clearly demonstrates that the harmony search algorithm yields
better solution than the particle swarm optimizer for this design example at the
same number of structural analyses. This result also demonstrates that harmony
search algorithm is a very rapid and effective method for optimum design of
small-scale problems that consist of a small number of decision variables.
Consequently, the technique is recommended for its application to optimization
of the three different cellular beam problems, presented in the next subsection,
which in fact led to its adoption in our experimental study. The ultimate load
capacities of these optimally designed cellular beams are tested under the
action of same concentrated loadings in experimental work.

3.3 Design Examples

HS method based design algorithm presented in the previous sections is used to
design of three different cellular beams. The selected method, harmony search
algorithm, will now be applied for optimization of cellular NPI beams, on
which the tests are performed. Among the steel sections list 24 NPI sections
starting from NPI-80 to NPI-600 to constitute the discrete set steel sections
from which the design algorithm selects the sectional designations for the
cellular beams [58]. There are 431 hole diameter of cellular beams which

65
varies between 70 and 500mm with increment of 1mm. The discrete set for the
number of holes starts with 2 and goes up to 40 with increment of 1.

3.3.1 Cellular Beam with NPI-240 Section

Simply supported cellular beams with a span of 3 m are subjected to a
concentrated load; live load of 260 kN, as shown in Figure 3.3. The allowable
displacement of the beam space under live-load is limited to 9 mm. The
modulus of elasticity is taken as 205 kN/mm
2
and the design strength for Grade
50 of steel is 355 kN/mm
2
. For this simply supported beam, harmony memory
matrix size (hms) is taken as 20. Harmony memory considering rate (hmcr) is
selected as 0.7 while pitch-adjusting rate (par) is considered as 0.3 on the basis
of the empirical findings by Geem and Lee [37, 41]. The maximum number of
searches was set to 10,000 for this example.

260 kN
3.0 m
1.5 m 1.5 m

Figure 3.3 Typical cross section of beam with 3-m for NPI-240

66
The feasible designs presented in Table 3.5 are obtained after 650 iterations. It
is noticed that this design vector remained the same even though the design
cycles are continued to reach 10,000 which was the pre-selected maximum
number of iterations. The optimum design of the cellular beam is carried out
by the algorithm presented and the optimum results obtained are given in Table
3.6. This design is determined after 10,000 cycles and the minimum weight of
the cellular beam is 99.46 kg. Harmony search algorithm selects NPI-240
profile, 8 circular holes and 251mm for the hole diameter. Design history graph
obtained with harmony search algorithm in the optimum design of NPI_240
cellular beam is shown in Figure 3.4. The optimum shape of the cellular beam
for the loading considered is shown in Figure 3.5.

Table 3.5 Feasible designs obtained after 650 iterations by HS algorithms

hms SSQ (kN) Section Des. Diameter (cm) N. of Holes
1 0.98 9 251 8.
2 1.22 11 331 7
3 1.26 11 306 7
4 1.26 11 329 6
5 1.28 11 246 9
6 1.31 11 244 7
7 1.31 11 239 7
8 1.31 11 230 8
9 1.44 12 298 5
10 1.45 12 315 5
11 1.45 12 247 9
12 1.48 12 248 7
13 1.48 12 233 7
14 1.50 12 205 9
15 1.58 13 359 6
16 1.59 13 352 4
17 1.60 13 381 5
18 1.68 13 216 9
19 1.68 13 212 8
20 1.79 14 387 4 .

67
Table 3.6 Optimum Design of NPI_240 Cellular beam with 3-m span

Optimum NPI-Section Designations
Hole
Diameter
(mm)

Total
Number
of Holes
Maximum
Strength
Related
Ratio
Minimum
Weight
(kg)
NPI-240
251 8 0.98 99.46

NPI_240_CB
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 500 1000 1500 2000
W
e
i
g
h
t

(
k
g
)

Figure 3.4 The design history graph for NPI_240 cellular beam

68
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

H
o
l
e
s

:

8
D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

o
f

H
o
l
e
s

:

2
5
1

m
m
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

H
o
l
e
s

:

9
4

m
m
T
h
e

F
i
r
s
t

L
e
n
g
t
h

o
f

B
e
a
m

:

3
0
0
0

m
m
T
h
e

F
i
n
a
l

L
e
n
g
t
h

o
f

B
e
a
m

:

2
8
4
6

m
m
N
P
I

2
4
0

C
e
l
l
u
l
a
r

B
e
a
m
2
8
4
6

m
m
3
5
5
.
6

m
m
3
0
0
0

m
m
T
h
e

F
i
n
a
l

D
e
p
t
h

o
f

B
e
a
m

:

3
5
5
.
6

m
m
2
5
1

m
m

Figure 3.5 Optimum Shape of NPI-240 after 10,000 Iterations

69
3.3.2 Cellular Beam with NPI-260 Section

2
2

200 kN
3.0 m
1.5 m 1.5 m

Figure 3.6 Typical cross section of beam with 3-m for NPI-260

number of iterations. The optimum design of the cellular beam is carried out by
the algorithm presented and the optimum results obtained are given in Table

70
the cellular beam is 113.95 kg. Harmony search algorithm selects NPI-260
profile, 7 circular holes and 286mm for the hole diameter. Figure 3.7
demonstrates the design history graph obtained with harmony search algorithm
in the optimum design of NPI_240. The optimum shape of the cellular beam
for the loading considered is shown in Figure 3.8.


hms SSQ (kN) Section Des. Diameter (cm) N. of Holes
1 1.12 10 286 7
2 1.24 11 321 7
3 1.29 11 289 6
4 1.44 12 276 8
5 1.46 12 293 6
6 1.47 12 255 8
7 1.49 12 221 8
8 1.60 13 381 5
9 1.84 14 280 7
10 1.87 14 213 10
11 2.01 15 315 7
12 2.01 15 398 4
13 2.03 15 353 5
14 2.04 15 329 5
15 2.08 15 220 10
16 2.20 16 323 7
17 2.21 16 349 6
18 2.25 16 259 9
19 2.30 16 219 10
20 2.51 17 233 10
21 2.52 17 229 10
22 2.67 18 380 6
23 2.79 18 328 5
24 2.80 18 313 6
25 3.11 19 322 5
26 3.28 20 390 6
27 3.36 20 331 7
28 3.38 20 300 8
29 3.45 20 325 5
30 4.45 22 372 5

71

Hole
Diameter
(mm)

Total
Number
of Holes
Maximum
Strength
Related
Ratio
Minimum
Weight
(kg)
NPI-260
286 7 0.95 113.95

NPI_260_CB
100
120
140
160
180
0 500 1000 1500 2000
W
e
i
g
h
t

(
k
g
)


72
N
P
I

2
6
0

C
e
l
l
u
l
a
r

B
e
a
m
2
8
3
1

m
m
2
8
6

m
m
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

H
o
l
e
s

:

7
D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

o
f

H
o
l
e
s

:

2
8
6

m
m
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

H
o
l
e
s

:

1
0
3

m
m
T
h
e

F
i
r
s
t

L
e
n
g
t
h

o
f

B
e
a
m

:

3
0
0
0

m
m
T
h
e

F
i
n
a
l

L
e
n
g
t
h

o
f

B
e
a
m

:

2
8
3
1

m
m
3
0
0
0

m
m
T
h
e

F
i
n
a
l

D
e
p
t
h

o
f

B
e
a
m

:

3
9
4
.
9

m
m
3
9
4
.
9

m
m


73
3.3.3 Cellular Beam with NPI-280

2
2

340 kN
3.0 m
1.5 m 1.5 m

Figure 3.9 Typical cross section of beam with 3-m for NPI-280 .

number of iterations. The optimum design of the cellular beam is carried out by
the algorithm presented and the optimum results obtained are given in Table
the cellular beam is 132.11 kg. HS algorithm selects NPI-280 profile, 6 circular

74
holes and 251mm for the hole diameter. Design history graph obtained with
harmony search algorithm in the optimum design of NPI_240 cellular beam
and optimum shape of the cellular beam for the loading considered is
respectively shown in Figure 3.10 and Figure 3.11.


HMS SSQ (kN) Section Des. Diameter (cm) N. of Holes
1 1.30 11 277 6
2 1.48 12 250 7
3 1.48 12 248 7
4 1.60 13 346 6
5 1.60 13 343 6
6 1.61 13 306 7
7 1.64 13 302 6
8 1.79 14 342 6
9 1.80 14 335 6
10 1.82 14 319 6
11 1.84 14 297 6
12 1.84 14 280 7
13 1.88 14 226 8
14 2.01 15 398 4
15 2.07 15 271 6
16 2.10 16 399 6
17 2.10 15 209 10
18 2.13 16 385 6
19 2.17 16 368 6
20 2.22 16 400 4
21 2.22 16 393 4
22 2.43 17 324 7
23 2.44 17 344 6
24 2.47 17 356 5
25 2.47 17 329 6
26 2.51 17 246 9
27 2.53 17 247 8
28 2.65 18 389 6
29 2.78 18 349 5
30 3.03 19 395 5
31 3.05 19 323 7
32 3.11 19 314 5
33 3.11 19 318 6
34 3.24 20 400 6
35 3.71 21 361 6
36 3.73 21 301 8
37 3.74 21 383 4
38 3.74 21 349 6
39 3.75 21 372 5
40 4.30 22 393 6

75

Hole
Diameter
(mm)

Total
Number
of Holes
Maximum
Strength
Related
Ratio
Minimum
Weight
(kg)
NPI-280
277 6 0.97 132.11

NPI_280_CB
100
140
180
220
260
300
0 500 1000 1500 2000
W
e
i
g
h
t

(
k
g
)


76
N
P
I

2
8
0

C
e
l
l
u
l
a
r

B
e
a
m
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

H
o
l
e
s

:

6
D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

o
f

H
o
l
e
s

:

2
7
7

m
m
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

H
o
l
e
s

:

1
6
3

m
m
T
h
e

F
i
r
s
t

L
e
n
g
t
h

o
f

B
e
a
m

:

3
0
0
0

m
m
T
h
e

F
i
n
a
l

L
e
n
g
t
h

o
f

B
e
a
m

:

2
8
2
0

m
m
3
0
0
0

m
m
T
h
e

F
i
n
a
l

D
e
p
t
h

o
f

B
e
a
m

:

4
0
6
.
9

m
m
2
7
7

m
m
4
0
6
.
9

m
m
2
8
2
0

m
m


77

CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL TESTS ON OPTIMALLY DESIGNED
STEEL CELLULAR BEAMS

4.1 Experimental Studies on Steel Cellular Beams

In the experimental part of this dissertation, the ultimate load carrying
capacities of optimally designed steel cellular beams are tested in a self
reacting frame. The tested cellular beam specimens are designed by using
harmony search optimization method as explained in the previous chapter. The
tests have been carried out on twelve full-scale non-composite cellular steel
beams. There are three different types of NPI_CB_240, NPI_CB_260 and
NPI_CB_280 I-section beams, and four tests have been conducted for each
specimen. These optimally designed beams which have preliminary span
lengths of 3000 mm are subjected to point load acting at the mid-span.

An illustration of test set up and one of these specimen cellular beams is given
in Figure 4.1. Finite element models of each tested specimens are then
generated in ANSYS program to perform elastic buckling analysis, predict
critical loads and compare FEM results with experimental test results for each
tested cellular beam.

78
.

Figure 4.1 Cellular Beam in Test Frame

(a) Symmetrical non-composite NPI_CB_240 cellular beams: This
cellular beam has been produced on the basis of original NPI_240 beam
as a top tee and bottom tee section. Final depth and span of the beam
has been established as 355.6 mm and 2846 mm after optimization,
respectively.

(b) Symmetrical non-composite NPI_CB_260 cellular beams: This
beam has been produced on the basis of hot rolled NPI_260 steel beam
as an upper and lower tee section. Final depth and span of beam has
been established as 394.9 mm and 2831 mm after optimization,
respectively.

(c) Symmetrical non-composite NPI_CB_280 cellular beams: This
beam has been produced on the basis of NPI_280 steel beam as a top
tee and bottom tee section. Final depth and span of beam has been
established as 406.9 mm and 2820 mm after optimization process,
respectively.

79
All steel cellular beam specimens are placed on simple supports at both ends. A
pair of lateral supports is provided at the end of each beam end for preventing
lateral torsional buckling. The consequence of lateral stability for web
expanded beams is defined by Chen and Lui in 1987 [60] as if sufficient
lateral bracing is not provided to the compression flange, out of plane bending
and twisting of the cross section will occur when the applied loads reach a
certain limit.

The simply supported steel cellular beams are tested under the action of a
concentrated load. The load is provided by hydraulic jack reacting on the
laboratory floor and aligned equally on each side of the beam. The canister
type load cell used for the experiments is calibrated before testing procedure
took place. To record overall displacements of the cellular beams, three
transducers are mounted. Figure 4.2 is a picture showing the test setup and the
equipment used to record the experimental data for the flexural loading of steel
cellular beams.

Figure 4.2 Experimental set up and load introduction
LVDT
Hyraulic
Plunge
Lateral
Supporter
Fixed Roller
Lateral
Supporter

80
4.2 Fabrication of Optimally Designed Cellular Test Beams

Using web-expanded beams together with cellular beams is founded on special
use of original hot rolled I-section beams. These web-expanded beams are
formed by double cutting two semi-circular sections along their centerline in
the web of steel I-beam section along the length of the span. The first cut of the
original beam shown in Figure 4.4 generates the top circle of the cell and the
second one shown in Figure 4.5 creates the opposite of the top circle. When the
cutting processes are completed, two parts of original solid I-beam are then
separated, shifted and welded together to obtain a beam of greater depth with
halves of circular holes in the steel section. These circular web holes made up
of the original rolled I-section beam raise the overall beam depth, moment of
inertia and section modulus.

Figure 4.3 The appearance of the computer drawing of the cellular beam

81
The cutting process is done with CNC (Computer Numerical Control) plasma
method to obtain smooth and perfect matching of the holes, shown in Figure
4.3. Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5 show the first and second flame cutting process
of beams, respectively.

Figure 4.4 The first flame cutting process of original I-section beam

Figure 4.5 The second flame cutting process of original I-section beam
First Cutting
of beam
First Cutting
of beam
Second Cutting
of beam
Cutting
Head

82
After flame cutting process, the top and bottom tee sections are then separated
and welded back together to increase the height of the beam. The separation
and assembling of the upper and lower sections are respectively shown in
Figure 4.6 and Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.6 The separation of tee sections of the beam

Figure 4.7 The assembling of the tee sections

It can clearly be seen from the Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.8 that the weld line of
the cellular beam is limited and weld seams of beam are inspected visually.
Upper Part of
Beam
Lower Part of
Beam
Waste

83
During the welding process, to prevent bending of the cellular beam as shown
in Figure 4.7 the upper and lower portions are attached to each other. Under the
applied load conditions, the cellular beam consists of areas to be welded, as
shown below to prevent the break with both the front and the back of the
welding operation in the location of the junction

Figure 4.8 The welding of upper and lower tees of the cellular beam

After cutting, separating and re-welding processes, the resulting cellular beam
shown in Figure 4.9 becomes much deeper which has larger moment of inertia
and sectional modulus than the original I-beam.

Figure 4.9 The appearance of cellular beam after cutting and re-weld process

84
4.3 Load Cell Calibration

Load cells convert applied force into a recordable signal that comes out of an
electronic system as a strain gage based transducer. They are calibrated before
starting the testing procedure. On the basis of generated output signal type,
load cell designs can be separated to the way they sense weight such as shear,
bending, tension and compression. In this study, canister type load cells shown
in Figure 4.10 are used for single and multi-weighting applications.

Figure 4.10 Canister Load Cell for heavy duty design

Load cells offer accuracies from within 0.03% to 0.6% full scale and are
suitable for almost all industrial applications. Canister type load cell design is
ideal for axial compression applications. NT-501A shown in Figure 4.11 is
used for the experiments was calibrated in seven steps from CAL1 to CAL7 in
order before the testing procedure took place [61].

Figure 4.11 NT-501A Indicator for calibration

85
Calibration Menu:

CAL 1 : Maximum Capacity Set (range : 1-99.999)
(Maximum capacity means maximum weight that the scale can be measured)

CAL 2 : Minimum Division Set (range : 0.001-500)
(The minimum division means the value of one division)

CAL 3 : Setting Weight in Span Calibration
(The setting weight must be within %10 to %100 of maximum weight)

CAL 4 : Zero Calibration
(If zero calibration is done without any error, Success message is displayed)

CAL 5 : Span Calibration
(If span calibration is done without any error, Success message is displayed)

CAL 6 : Check if the calibration is done properly
(If the displayed weight is equal to the setting weight you entered in CAL3 )

CAL 7 : Input weight constant calibration after selecting national code

86
If the minimum division is taken as 100, the variation of setting weight is
shown in Table 4.1 and Figure 4.12.

Table 4.1 The variation of setting weight with minimum division set 100

Calibration
Number
Applying Load
(kg)
Setting Weight
(kg)
Accuracies within
(%)
1 5000 5000 0,0
2 10000 10000 0,0
3 15000 15100 0,6
4 20000 20100 0,5
5 25000 25100 0,4

25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
25100
20100
15100
10000
5000
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
1 2 3 4 5
Number of Calibration
S
e
t
t
i
n
g

W
e
i
g
h
t

(
k
g
)
Applied Load
Gauge Load

Figure 4.12 The variation of setting weight for minimum division set 100

87
If the minimum division value is taken as 50, the variation of setting weight is
shown in Table 4.2 and Figure 4.13.


Calibration
Number
Applying Load
(kg)
Setting Weight
(kg)
Accuracies within
(%)
1 5000 5000 0.0
2 10000 10050 0.5
3 15000 15050 0.3
4 20000 20050 0.2
5 25000 25100 0.4

25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
25100
20050
15050
10050
5000
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
1 2 3 4 5
S
e
t
t
i
n
g

W
e
i
g
h
t

(
k
g
)
Applied Load
Gauge Load


88
If the minimum division value is taken as 20, the variation of setting weight is
shown in Table 4.3 and Figure 4.14. Table 4.3 also shows that accuracies of
load cell is sufficient for this division value and the difference between applied
load and setting weight is acceptable to justify for these experimental studies.


Calibration
Number
Applied Load
(kg)
Setting Weight
(kg)
Accuracies
within
1 5000 5000 0.0
2 10000 10040 0.4
3 15000 15060 0.4
4 20000 20060 0.3
5 25000 25080 0.3

25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
25080
20060
15060
10040
5000
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
1 2 3 4 5
S
e
t
t
i
n
g

W
e
i
g
h
t

(
k
g
)
Applied Load
Gauge Load


89
90 mm
8.5 mm
11.3 mm
200 mm
4.4 Flexural Bending Testing with Hydraulic Power Unit

Before initiating the experimental studies on cellular beams, the simply
supported NPI-200 steel beam whose cross sectional properties are given
below was tested under the action of a point load in a self-reacting frame in
order to verify the accuracies of load and displacement values detected by
compression cylinder and transducers.

b
f
= 90 mm, t
w
= 7.5 mm,
I
x
= 2140 x 10
4
mm
4

Z
x
= 214 x 10
3
mm
3

Unit Weight = 26.2 kg/m,
l = 1700 mm, E = 205000 N/mm
2

h = 200 mm, t
f
= 11.3 mm,

The load is provided by hydraulic pump at least a rate of approximately 1
kN/sec. The capacity of compression cylinder is 1000 kN. Load, vertical
displacement and strain values are measured by transducers for each beam in
the experimental studies which are transferred to computer automatically.
Transducers offer accuracies from within 0.15% full scale axial loading. The
details of NPI-200 steel beam section are given in below.

90
L/2 L/2
L
P
+
-
V(kN)
+
P/2
PxL/4
P/2
M(kN.m)

4
l P
M

= ,
EI
l P
c
48
3
= and
x
y
Z
l P 1
4

=

882 , 125
1700
4 000 , 125 355
=

=
cr
P N 882 . 125 = kN

937 . 2
10 2140 205000 48
1700 882 , 125
48
4
3 3
=

=
EI
l P
c
mm 2937 . 0 = cm

Figure 4.15 shows applying concentrated load to NPI-200 beam with a span of
1700 mm. When the 125.882 kN concentrated load was applied this beam,
transducer recorded a 2.821mm deflection at mid-span of the beam.

91

Figure 4.15 NPI-200 beams under point loading in the self-reaction frame

Relative error = 94 . 3 % 100
937 . 2
821 . 2 937 . 2
100
exp
=
theory
erimental theory

If we compare the theoretical displacement with the experimental result;
relative error has been found as 94 . 3 % . This error is an acceptable interval for
starting the real tests.

4.5 Experimental Test Program of Optimally Designed Cellular Beams

The experimental tests are carried out in the Mechanics Laboratory of
Engineering Sciences Department at Middle East Technical University
(METU). Three different beam sections are tested under point loading to
investigate buckling of web posts and their flexural behaviour. All cellular
beams are fabricated by Karatepe Metal Products from NPI sections produced

92
by Kardemir Steel Company. The dimensions used in manufacturing steel
cellular beams are based upon optimization results of the first part of the thesis
study.

4.5.1 Test Specimens

The details of the steel cellular beams used from specimen 1 till to specimen 12
are given following subsections. The dimensions of test beams are also
demonstrated in the same figures. The main parameters worked in each test are
summarized in Table 4.4, Table 4.6 and Table 4.8. All beams used in the tests
are fabricated from NPI (N-normal, P-parallel flanges, I-section) beam sections
NPI_240, NPI_260 and NPI_280.

4.5.2 Test Arrangement

All cellular beams are provided with simple supports. Lateral supports are
provided at the end of each beam to prevent lateral torsional buckling of
beams. The simply supported steel cellular beams are to be tested under the
action of a concentrated loading. The load is provided by hydraulic jack
reacting on the laboratory floor. The load cells used for the experiments are
calibrated before the testing procedure took place. To record displacements of
the cellular beams, three transducers are mounted to test specimens.

4.5.3 Instrumentation of Tests

Instrumentation consisted of linear variable displacement transducers (LVDT)
and load cell. Applied load values are recorded on an AI8B data acquisition

93
system. The linear variable displacement transducers are manufactured by
Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo Co. The locations of these transducers are
demonstrated in Figure 4.16.

Figure 4.16 Demonstration of transducers on beam

The linear displacement transducers are placed vertically on upper flange and
bottom flange of middle of the beams. Besides, one more transducer is placed
laterally at upper flange of middle of the beams.

4.5.4 Test Procedure

For each cellular beam, the adjustment of loading rod positions has been
applied carefully. The purpose of this action is to prevent the eccentric loading.
In all tests, load is applied in order until the beam failed. Increments of load are
used initially.

LVDT bounded to
upper flange

LVDT bounded to
lower flange

LVDT bounded
laterally
Cellular Beam
Specimen
Applied Load

94
4.5.5 Material Properties of Specimens

All steel beams are fabricated from sections from the same heat. A short length
of the NPI section profile is provided for material tensile testing. Three tension
test coupons from web of the every NPI beams are tested. Results of the tensile
testing are given in Chapter 5 with more detail. The steel material conformed to
average yield stress for NPI_240 is 390 MPa, for NPI_260 is 290 MPa, for
NPI_280 is 295 MPa.

4.5.6 Flexural Bending Tests of Cellular Beams

The main focus of the experiment is to investigate ultimate carrying load
capacity of cellular beams and to observe what type of failure would take place
after compression tests on the cellular beams. In the following step,
experimental results are compared with numerical calculations.

4.5.6.1 NPI_240 Section Cellular Beam

Four optimally designed cellular beams with eight openings fabricated from
NPI_240 sections are tested to find out ultimate load carrying capacities of
such beams. These four simply supported test beams which have the same
dimensions are subjected to central single concentrated loading shown in the
Figure 4.17 below.

95

Figure 4.17 NPI-240 Cellular Beams with Eight Openings

Dimensional properties of NPI_240 section expanded steel cellular beams and
test loads, which are the ultimate carrying loads obtained during experiments,
were reported in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 Dimensional Properties an Ultimate Load of NPI_240

Beam
NPI-240
TEST1
NPI-240
TEST2
NPI-240
TEST3
NPI-240
TEST4
d
g
355.6 mm 355.6 mm 355.6 mm 355.6 mm
b
f
106 mm 106 mm 106 mm 106 mm
t
f
13.1 mm 13.1 mm 13.1 mm 13.1 mm
t
w
8.7 mm 8.7 mm 8.7 mm 8.7 mm
D
0
251 mm 251 mm 251 mm 251 mm
S 94 mm 94 mm 94 mm 94 mm
L 2846 mm 2846 mm 2846 mm 2846 mm
F
u
270.5 kN 273.7 kN 284.1 kN 286.2 kN

96

Figure 4.18 Lateral torsional buckling on NPI-240_TEST1

NPI_240_TEST1
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
-5 0 5 10 15 20
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Lat_Def
L_F_Def
U_F_Def

Figure 4.19 Load-Deflection Graphic for NPI-240_TEST1

Lateral
Displacement at
Upper Flange

97

Figure 4.20 Laterally torsional buckling on NPI-240_TEST2

NPI_240_TEST2
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 4 8 12 16 20
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Lat_Def
U_F_Def
L_F_Def


Lateral
Displacement at
Upper Flange

98
The results obtained from experimental tests on NPI_240 section beams
demonstrate that the first two beams failed from lateral torsional buckling due
to a lack of lateral support. These results are illustrated in Figure 4.18 and
Figure 4.20. Figure 4.19 and Figure 4.21 evidently show that lateral
movements on the middle part of the upper flange of beams are very high in
comparison with the vertical displacements on the beams. In Figure 4.19, the
vertical deflections for the lower and upper flanges were measured 3.358 mm
and 4.286 mm respectively. The horizontally mounted LVDT measured the
lateral deflection as 11.375 mm for the first test beam. In Figure 4.21, On the
other hand, the vertical deflections for the lower and upper flanges were
measured 3.787 mm and 3.386 mm respectively. The horizontally mounted
LVDT measured the lateral deflection as 12.512 mm for the second test beam.
These results occurred owing to lateral instability of cellular test beams. It was
also observed that these two laterally torsional buckled beams have failed
respectively under the applied values of 270.5 kN and 273.7 kN. During the
optimization process of steel cellular beams according to BS5950
specifications, lateral movement is completely assumed to be blocked. For this
purpose, lateral bracing is integrated to the middle part of the test beams to
prevent lateral movement along the span on these beams in an experimental
study (shown in Figure 4.22).

99

Figure 4.22 Web-post buckling on NPI-240_TEST3

NPI_240_TEST3
0
70
140
210
280
350
0 4 8 12 16 20
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
U_F_Def
L_F_Def


Web
Buckling
Lateral
Bracing

100

Figure 4.24 Web-post buckling on NPI-240_TEST4

NPI_240_TEST4
0
70
140
210
280
350
0 4 8 12 16 20
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
U_F_Def
L_F_Def


Web
Buckling

101
demonstrate that NPI-240_ TEST3 and NPI-240_ TEST4 beams failed from
web buckling. This is illustrated in Figure 4.22 and Figure 4.24. When the
beam was laterally supported in the middle with a system, ultimate load
capacity has been increased. Vertical displacements on the middle part of the
upper and lower flange of beams are respectively shown in Figure 4.23 and
Figure 4.25. Upper and lower deflection values of cellular beams are shown in
Table 4.5 with more detail. Lateral displacement is not shown in the load-
deflection graph for the reason that lateral movement values can be neglected
as they are very small. The reason for web buckling is web thickness, the ratio
of pitch opening and hole diameter. These two web buckled beams have failed
respectively with 284.1 kN and 286.2 kN applied load values shown in Table
4.5. These results demonstrate that the strength of cellular beams increase
approximately of 13-14 kN after the lateral supports are placed in the middle
part of the beams.

Table 4.5 Ultimate Load Capacities and Failure Modes of NPI_240 Sections

SPECIMENS
NPI-240
TEST1
NPI-240
TEST2
NPI-240
TEST3
NPI-240
TEST4
Upper Flange
Deflection (U_F_Def)
4.286 mm 3.787 mm 13.892 mm 14.146 mm
Lower Flange
Deflection (L_F_Def)
3.358 mm 3.386 mm 12.986 mm 13.195 mm
Lateral Deflection
(Lat_Def)
11.375 mm 12.512 mm 2.468 mm 2.131 mm
Failure Type
Lateral
Torsional
Buckling
Lateral
Torsional
Buckling
Web-Post
Buckling
Web-Post
Buckling

102
4.5.6.2 NPI_260 Section Cellular Beams

In the second experimental tests of this section, four cellular beams with seven
openings fabricated from NPI_260 beam sections were tested to determine
their ultimate load carrying capacity. Simple supports and a central single point
load were used for all four specimens. Dimensional properties of NPI_260
profile sections and the ultimate loads at which beams lost their load carrying
ability during experiments are illustrated in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6 Dimensional Properties and Ultimate Load of NPI_260

Beam
NPI-260
TEST1
NPI-260
TEST2
NPI-260
TEST3
NPI-260
TEST4
d
g
394.5 mm 394.5 mm 394.5 mm 394.5 mm
b
f
113 mm 113 mm 113 mm 113 mm
t
f
14.1 mm 14.1 mm 14.1 mm 14.1 mm
t
w
9.4 mm 9.4 mm 9.4 mm 9.4 mm
D
0
286 mm 286 mm 286 mm 286 mm
S 103 mm 103 mm 103 mm 103 mm
L 2831 mm 2831 mm 2831 mm 2831 mm
F
u
216.9 kN 214.9 kN 211.7 kN 224.4 kN

103

Figure 4.26 Vierendeel Bending and Web Buckling on NPI-260_TEST1

NPI_260_TEST1
0
55
110
165
220
275
330
0 7 14 21 28
Displacement (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Lat_Def
U_F_Def
L_F_Def

Figure 4.27 Load-Deflection Diagrams for NPI-260_TEST1
Vierendeel
Bending
Web
Buckling

104

Figure 4.28 Vierendeel Bending and Web Buckling on NPI-260_ TEST2

NPI_260_TEST2
0
55
110
165
220
275
330
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Lat_Def
L_F_Def
U_F_Def

Web
Buckling
Vierendeel
Bending

105

Figure 4.30 Vierendeel Bending and Web Buckling on NPI-260_TEST3

NPI_260_TEST3
0
55
110
165
220
275
330
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Lat_Def
L_F_Def
U_F_Def

Web
Buckling
Vierendeel
Bending

106

Figure 4.32 Vierendeel Bending and Web Buckling on NPI-26 0_TEST4

NPI_260_TEST4
0
55
110
165
220
275
330
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Lat_Def
L_F_Def
U_F_Def


Buckled
Web

107
demonstrate that all of the beams failed from web buckling and Vierendeel
bending as revealed in Figures 4.26, 4.28, 4.30 and 4.32. The flexural capacity
of the upper and lower tees under bending is critical. Because the load applies
above the holes similar to this NPI_260 beams case, Vierendeel bending has
occurred on the beams in addition to web buckling. Vertical displacements in
the middle part of the upper and lower flange of beams and lateral movements
are respectively shown in Figures 4.27, 4.29, 4.31 and 4.33. It was also
observed that these four buckled steel cellular beams have failed respectively
under the applied values 216.1 kN, 214.9 kN, 211.7 kN and 224.4 kN. Besides
the measured ultimate loads, deflection values and failure types are illustrated
in Table 4.7.


SPECIMENS
NPI-260
TEST1
NPI-260
TEST2
NPI-260
TEST3
NPI-260
TEST4
Upper Flange
20.976 mm 20.863 mm 20.494 mm 21.238 mm
Lower Flange
14.181 mm 13.846 mm 13.663 mm 14.429 mm
Lateral Deflection
(Lat_Def)
1.576 mm 1.405 mm 1.223 mm 1.281 mm
Failure Type
Vierendeel
Bending and
Web buckling
Vierendeel
Bending and
Web buckling
Vierendeel
Bending and
Web buckling
Vierendeel
Bending and
Web buckling

108
4.5.6.3 NPI_280 Section Cellular Beams

In the last part of the experimental study, four cellular beams with six openings
fabricated from NPI_280 sections were tested to detect ultimate load carrying
capacity of these beams. Simple supports and a central single point load were
used for all four specimens as with other tests. Dimensional properties and
values of NPI_280 profile section beams and ultimate test loads were reported
as the ultimate loads obtained during experiments demonstrated in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8 Dimensional Properties an Ultimate Load of NPI_280

Beam NPI-280_A NPI-280_B NPI-280_C NPI-280_D
d
g
406.9 mm 406.9 mm 406.9 mm 406.9 mm
b
f
119 mm 119 mm 119 mm 119 mm
t
f
15.2 mm 15.2 mm 15.2 mm 15.2 mm
t
w
10.1 mm 10.1 mm 10.1 mm 10.1 mm
D
0
271 mm 271 mm 271 mm 271 mm
S 163 mm 163 mm 163 mm 163 mm
L 2820 mm 2820 mm 2820 mm 2820 mm
F
u
377.6 kN 384.2 kN 372.4 kN 368.9 kN

109

Figure 4.34 Web buckling on NPI-280_TEST1

NPI_280_TEST1
0
95
190
285
380
475
570
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
U_F_Def
L_F_Def
Lat_Def

Figure 4.35 Load-Deflection Graphs for NPI-280_TEST1
Web
Buckling

110


NPI_280_TEST2
0
95
190
285
380
475
570
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
U_F_Def
L_F_Def
Lat_Def

Web
Buckling

111


NPI_280_TEST3
0
95
190
285
380
475
570
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
U_F_Def
L_F_Def
Lat_Def

Web
Buckling

112


NPI_280_TEST4
0
95
190
285
380
475
570
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
U_F_Def
L_F_Def
Lat_Def


Web
Buckling

113
demonstrate that all of the beams failed from web-post buckling as exposed in
Figures 4.34, 4.36, 4.38 and 4.40. The failure of these NPI_280 steel cellular
beams under directly applied concentrated loading over a web-post is defined
as web-post buckling. One of the reasons for this type of failure to happen is
web geometries of these expanded beams. Another reason of web buckling is
horizontal shear in the web-post of these tested beams due to double curvature
bending over the depth of the web-post. The first inclined edge of the opening
is stressed in tension and the other edge of the hole in compression, all of
which results in a twisting effect of the web post along their depth. Vertical
displacements on the middle part of the upper and lower flange of beams and
lateral movements are respectively shown in Figures 4.35, 4.37, 4.39 and 4.41.
Ultimate loads and measured deflection values under these loads are
respectively shown in Table 4.9.


SPECIMENS
NPI-280
TEST1
NPI-280
TEST2
NPI-280
TEST3
NPI-280
TEST4
Upper Flange
20.181 mm 20.694 mm 19.805 mm 19.891 mm
Lower Flange
17.878 mm 18.363 mm 17.384 mm 17.105 mm
Lateral Deflection
(Lat_Def)
1.308 mm 0.903 mm 1.129 mm 0.997 mm
Failure Type
Web-post
buckling
Web-post
buckling
Web-post
buckling
Web-post
buckling

114

CHAPTER 5

TENSILE TESTS ON OPTIMALLY DESIGNED
STEEL CELLULAR BEAM SPECIMENS

Tensile tests were performed to define the material characteristics of steel
profiles from which cellular beam are produced. The material characteristics
cover the yield strength, ultimate strength and modulus of elasticity of the steel.
For this purpose coupons are cut from steel beam sections and tensile test are
applied these coupons in the testing machine to find their strength values and
the amount of elongation. Although all mechanical properties of beam
specimens can be defined from tensile coupon tests, the main purpose of this
device is to find out the relationship between the average normal stress and
strain values.

5.1 Sample Requirements

Tensile tests on steel sections are conducted on standard shaped test specimens.
These specially prepared beam coupons can be cut both in the form of cylinder
or flat samples. In order to produce repeatable results and observe with
standard test method requirements, steel beam coupons cut from cellular beams
should have a specific ratio of length to width or diameter in the test area.

115

Figure 5.1 Standard dimensions for tensile test specimen

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E 8M-04 is applied in
the standard tensile test of rectangular test specimen [62]. This process is called
Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials. The
notations for rectangular specimens and their dimensions are demonstrated
respectively in Figure 5.1 and Table 5.1.

According to ASTM standard; recommended dimensions for rectangular test
specimens are presented in the table next page. In some cases, specified in the
NOTE-5 of ASTM standard, there should be a parallelism between the sections
in terms of width. That is to say, the width of the reduced section should not be
smaller than the width of tested material. If the width of the standard or sub
size coupon specimens (W) is less than values given in the Table 5.1, the sides
can be taken as parallel throughout the length of the specimen.

R
B
A B
W
G
C
L

116
Table 5.1 Dimensions for standart tension test specimens

Standard Specimens Sub Size Specimen
Plate Type, 40-mm Wide

200-mm
Gauge Length
50-mm
Gauge Length
12.5-mm
Wide
6-mm
Wide
G
Gauge Length

200 0.25

50 0.10 - -
W
Width

40+3

40+3

12.5 0.25

6.25 0.05

R
Radius of fillet
13 13 13 6
L
Overall length
450 200 200 100
A
Length of
reduced section
225 60 60 32
B
Length of grip
section
75 50 50 32
C
Width of grip
section
50 50 20 10

In this dissertation study, test specimens are cut from NPI-240, NPI-260 and
NPI-280 steel cellular beams. Due to web geometry of these profiles,
rectangular test specimens have taken according to ASTM international
standards organization NOTE-5.

117
Rectangular test specimens cut from within the NPI profiles using computer
numerical control method (CNC). This method is usually used for complex and
intricately shaped part fabrication can be performed with greater accuracy and
faster turnover rates. Cutting process of test specimens from cellular beams
using CNC method are shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2 Cutting process of standart test specimen with CNC method
Rectangular
Holes
Cutting Process
with CNC

118
Test specimens shown in Figure 5.3 are rectangular sections of 200 mm total
length, 20 mm width and a gage length of 100 mm of steel profiles.

Figure 5.3 Standart tension test specimen from NPI profiles

The notations for rectangular specimens and their dimensions are demonstrated
respectively in Figure 5.4.

5 cm 10 cm 5 cm
20 cm
2 cm
Length of Grip Section Gauage Length Length of Grip Section

Figure 5.4 Dimensions for rectangular coupon cut from cellular beam
specimen

Grip
Section
Grip
Section
Gauge Length

119
5.2 Test Setup and Equipment

The universal hydraulic servo-controlled machine shown in Figure 2.4 is used
to test the tension capacities of coupons. This machine can also perform
compression and bending tests as well as tension to examine steel specimen in
all mechanical properties. TF-H1000 test frame with computerized control
system, shown in the Figure 5.5 below, which has a testing capacity of 1000
kN, a crosshead speed range of 5 to 40 mm/min with an accuracy of 0.1%, is
used for tension tests.

Figure 5.5 Universal testing machine

120
5.3 The Objective of Tension Test

The objective of this tensile experiment is to determine the following
properties of three different steel profiles (NPI-240, NPI-260, and NPI-280)
from standard test specimen. The properties to be investigated include;

Yield stress
Ultimate stress
Modulus of elasticity
Ductility
Proportional limit

5.4 The Procedure of Tensile Testing

The tensile test procedure of cellular beam coupons is carried on as following
in accordance with ASTM E 8M-04 as shown in Figure 5.6 and Figure 5.7.

The dimensions and properties for each beam specimen were defined.
10-cm gage length on each test specimen was marked off.
The initial dimensions of each specimen were determined.
The specimen was fixed in the tensile testing machine using standard
mechanical pneumatic clamps, then attaching the linear extensometer,
Novotechnik-LWH300, recorded applied load and resulting deflection
and load values at failure.
The speed of test was set to a constant speed of 5 mm/min. and then the
tension test was started.
Load, stress and strain data for each test was recorded to plot of the
stress-strain curve.

121

Figure 5.6 Rectangular test specimens under tension

Figure 5.7 View of test specimens after rupture
Pneumatic
Clamp

Pneumatic
Clamp
Rectangular
Test Specimen

122
5.5 Test Results

The load and strain data are taken until the failure of the steel beam specimens.
After failure of these test specimens, it was measured final length of the
specimens, final gage lengths and was observed the character of the fracture.
Figure 5.8 illustrates the geometric configurations of broken piece specimen at
the end of the tension test.

Figure 5.8 One of test specimens after tension test

Observed data from tensile tests were used to calculate the ultimate tensile
strength of the specimens, and at the same time, converted and plotted a stress-
strain curve for each specimen and determine the values indicated above and to
compare test results with published values for these materials. These stress-
strain graphs are then used in determination of the modulus of elasticity of the
specimens. For this purpose, the slope of the elastic region of these curves is
determined by fitting a straight line, with the least-square method. Stress-strain
graphs for each specimen (NPI-240, NPI-260, and NPI-280) plotted in MS
Excel Software are demonstrated respectively in Figure 5.9-5.11.

123

a) NPI_240, Specimen-1 b) NPI_240, Specimen-2

c) NPI_240, Specimen-3 d) NPI_240, All Specimens

Figure 5.9 Stress-Strain graph of tensile test of NPI_240 profiles

Using the stress-strain graphs in Figure 5.9, in this study, average values of
elasticity modulus and elongation are determined 1.9x10
5
Mpa and 25.65%.
After tension tests, the average values of tensile yield strength and ultimate
strength are respectively determined 390 MPa and 495 MPa for NPI_240 steel
beam profile sections.

124




Using the stress-strain graphs in Figure 5.10, average values of elasticity
modulus and elongation are determined 1.95x10
5
MPa and 39.21%. After
tension tests, the average values of tensile yield strength and ultimate strength
are respectively determined 285 MPa and 400 MPa for NPI_260 steel beam
profile section.

125




Using the stress-strain graphs in Figure 5.11, average values of elasticity
modulus and elongation are determined 1.85x10
5
MPa and 36.82%. After
tension tests, the average values of tensile yield strength and ultimate strength
are respectively determined 290 Mpa and 405 Mpa for NPI_280 steel profile
section. In addition to these values, poisson ratio is taken as 0.3 for each NPI
steel sections. Modulus of elasticity, poission ratio, yield strength and ultimate
stregth values found at tensile test section are used in finite element analysis of
celluar beams at the next chapter.

126

CHAPTER 6

NONLINEAR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF
OPTIMALLY DESIGNED STEEL CELLULAR BEAMS

6.1 Introduction to Finite Element Modeling

The objective of this chapter is to carry out non-linear finite element analysis
of the cellular beams that were considered in the experimental study in order to
determine their ultimate load capacity for comparison. The finite element
method has been used to predict their entire response to increasing values of
external loading until they lose their load carrying capacity. Finite element
model of each specimen that is utilized in the experimental studies is carried
out as illustrated in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1 Finite element model of non-composite cellular beam

127
These finite element models are used to simulate the experimental work in
order to verify of test results and to investigate the non-linear behaviour of
failure modes such as web-post buckling, shear buckling and vierendeel
bending of NPI_240, NPI_260 and NPI_280 section steel cellular beams.

ANSYS-workbench finite element modeling program is used to develop a three
dimensional finite element beam model in this study. Nonlinear finite element
models of these NPI steel cellular beam specimens are built to determine
maximum values and locations of stress, strain and displacement
concentrations under point loading. The non-linear analyses results of NPI
profile steel cellular beams have been compared with results obtained from
experimental studies.

128
6.2 Finite Element Modeling on Cellular Beams

Before starting the process of analysis, geometric dimensions of cellular beams
are drawn with SOLIDWORKS program shown in Figure 5.2 below.

Figure 6.2 The geometry of Cellular Beam with SOLIDWORKS

After applying inputs related with prepared models of steel cellular beams,
analysis process is initiated by using the software ANSYS. Material properties
of steel cellular beams are extracted from material library; the library which
covers standard concrete, steel and has the ability to create user defined custom
materials for non-standard applications.

129
Nonlinear elastic material model is used for NPI_240, NPI_260 and NPI_280
steel NPI sections with Youngs modulus of 1.9x10
5
, 1.95x10
5
and 1.85x10
5

MPa with average values found from tension tests and Poissons ratio taken as
0.3 and the density of steel taken as 7.85E-006 kg/mm. Tensile yield stress
values obtained are respectively 390, 285 and 290 MPa for NPI_240, NPI_260
and NPI_280 steel profiles according to tensile testing results. In the same way,
tensile ultimate stress values obtained are respectively 495, 400 and 405 MPa
for NPI_240, NPI_260 and NPI_280 steel beam profiles. The material
properties and their values for NPI_240 steel profile are shown in figure 6.3
below.

Figure 6.3 Structural properties of NPI_240 steel beam

130
The alternating stress curve and strain-life parameter graphics for NPI_240
steel profile according to structural definition values of steel beam are
demonstrated respectively in Figures 6.4 and 6.5.

Figure 6.4 Alternating stress curve of NPI_240 steel beam

Figure 6.5 Strain-life parameter graph of NPI_240 steel beam

131
6.2.1 Element and Material Modeling on ANSYS Program

During FEA process, structure is divided into small and simple elements to
calculate individual deformation easily. Tetrahedron volume finite elements are
selected in the modeling of cellular beams. These elements are composed of 4-
node or 10-node high-order element types and every node of this volume has
three degrees of freedom. Tetrahedron volume elements with 4-node or 10-
node patterns are shown in Figure 6.6. In this study, 10-node high-order which
is known as SOLID-187 has been selected as this element has a quadratic
displacement behavior and is well suited to model irregular meshes comparing
with other types.

Figure 6.6 Tetrahedron volume element node patterns

For 3-D analysis of beams, the contact surface elements CONTA-173 and
CONTA-174, can be associated with the 3-D target segment elements. In this
study, CONTA-174 is selected to represent contact and sliding between 3-D

132
target surfaces and a deformable surface given that it is defined as a higher-
order element. The element is applicable to 3-D structural and coupled field
contact analyses. This element is defined by eight nodes and is located on the
surfaces of 3-D solid or shell elements with midside of nodes.

It has the same geometric characteristic and node locations as the solid or shell
element face to which it is connected as shown in Figure 6.7. When the
element surface penetrates one of the target segment elements on a specific
target surface, contact is easily completed.

Figure 6.7 3-D Contact Element Geometry

For the target segment, TARGE-170 is selected to represent various 3-D
target surfaces for the CONTA-174 contact surface elements shown in
Figure 6.8. The contact elements which are potentially in contact with the
target surface overlay the solid or shell elements with the boundary of a
deformable body. This target surface is discritized by a set of target
segment elements and is paired with its linked contact surface by the use of
shared real constant set.

133

Figure 6.8 TARGE -170 element geometry

6.2.2 Mesh Generations on Cellular Beams with ANSYS Program

There are four types of meshing generations in ANSYS program. These
methods are called Sweep, Automatically Generated, Tetrahedrons and Hex-
Dominant. Since non-sweepable bodies force sweep method controlling,
cellular beams can not be swept. Other meshing generation types,
automatically generated, tetrahedrons and hex-dominant, are tested for finite
element model of cellular beams to compare their created nodes and elements
for the same mesh sizing. In this purpose, NPI_240 cellular beam is used to
mesh with these generation types. Mesh size is taken as 100 mm for each
method.

Table 6.1 Numbers of Nodes and Elements for Mesh Types

Mesh Type Number of Nodes Number of Elements
Automatically Generated
8847 3724
Hex Dominant
6968 1877
Tetrahedrons
9413 4019

134
It is observed from Table 6.1 that when automatically generated, tetrahedrons
and hex-dominant meshing methods give different values for nodes and
elements. When the mesh type is taken as hexdominant for 100 m mesh size,
beam consists of 1877 elements and 6968 nodes. For the same mesh size,
automatically-generated mesh consists of 3724 elements and 8847 nodes. In
comparison with other mesh types, tetrahedron meshing provides better size
distribution for the beam across the model with 4019 elements and 9413 nodes.
Therefore, tetrahedron meshing option is selected for solving the cellular beam
model. Consequently, an accurate simulation of the nonlinear behavior is
obtained. Figure 6.9 illustrates different types of meshing for NPI_240
cellular beam.

(a) Automatically Generated Meshing

135

(b) Hex-Dominant Meshing

(c) Tetrahedron Meshing

Figure 6.9 Different Types Mesh Generations

136
25
50
100
200
300
400
Von Mises
440
460
480
500
520
E
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
Mesh Size (mm)
Von Mises 501.21 500.67 494.74 485.38 472.95 455.88
25 50 100 200 300 400

Figure 6.10 Different Mesh Sizes and Stress Values

Mesh sizing is important for accurate stress and displacement values. For this
purpose, selected meshing type, the tetrahedron mesh divides various sizing
mesh starting with 400 mm. When the stress and displacement values are
stable, this mesh sizing can be applicable for FEM analysis. Figure 6.10 above
illustrates that mesh sizing is important to find exact stress values. Figure 6.10
also demonstrates that maximum stress values (respectively 501.27 MPa and
500.67 MPa) on the steel cellular beam are nearly the same as the taken mesh
sizes of 50 mm and 25 mm. It means 25 mm mesh size can be used for FEM
analysis of these beams shown in Figure 6.11.

137

Figure 6.11 Tetrahedron Mesh Model with 25-mm Size

6.2.3 Setting Contact Analysis Parameters

Contact surfaces in ANSYS program allow representing a wide range of
different types of interaction between components in a finite element model. In
the present cellular beam model, there exists contact between NPI steel section
and connection plates attached to beam as supports. Therefore, it is important
to investigate the nature of interaction between NPI profile section and
supporting connection plates. In this part of the research, numerical solution of
the contact problem of cellular beams is presented with the help of ANSYS
program.

6.2.4 Identification of Contact and Target Surface

The type of contact between the NPI steel cellular beams and the supporting
connection plates represents one from contact surface to target surface. This

138
contact type is established when a surface of one body comes in contact with
the surface of another body. This specific type of contact is commonly used for
arbitrary bodies that have large contact areas. In addition, it is very efficient for
bodies that experience large amounts of relative sliding with friction. The
selected contact and target surfaces are shown in Figure 6.12.

Figure 6.12 Contacts and Target Surface

6.2.4.1 Types of Contact

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 6.13 Contact Types

139
Contact surface has different types of behavior according to different
characteristics of contact and there are several kinds of contact used in ANSYS
program: frictional, frictionless, rough, contact without separation and bonded.

6.2.4.1.1 Frictional Contact

Two contacting faces can carry shear stresses up to a certain magnitude across
their interface before they start sliding relative to each other as shown in Figure
6.13 (a).

6.2.4.1.2 Frictionless Contact

This type contact is a standard unilateral contact (shown in Figure 6.13 (c));
that is, normal pressure equals zero if separation occurs. So depending on the
loading, gaps between bodies can emerge. This solution is nonlinear because
the area of the contact may change when the load is applied. A zero coefficient
of friction is assumed, thus allowing free sliding.

6.2.4.1.3 Rough contact

Similar to the frictionless contact type, as shown in Figure 6.13 (c), this contact
type is perfectly rough frictional contact where there is no sliding. By default,
no automatic closing of gaps is performed.

140
6.2.4.1.4 Contact without separation

This contact type is similar to bonded case. It only applies to regions of faces.
Separation of faces in contact is not allowed, but small amounts of frictionless
sliding can occur along contact faces, which means (a) is possible but (b) is not
possible in Figure 6.13.

6.2.4.1.5 Bonded contact

In bonded type contact, no sliding or separation between faces or edges is
allowed. In Figure 6.13, neither (a) nor (b) can occur. This type of contact
allows for a nonlinear solution since the contact length/area does not change
during the application of load. In this study, bonded contact is chosen between
the NPI profile section parts and supporting connection plates.

6.2.4.2 Behavior of Contact

Several types of contact behavior are available in ANSYS program. These are
symmetric, asymmetric and auto-asymmetric. Symmetric contact exists when
there are both contact and target elements on the same surface. In asymmetric
contact one face is chosen as contact and the other face as target, creating a
contact pair. However, asymmetric contact is usually the most efficient way to
model face-to-face contact for solid bodies. Lastly, auto asymmetric contact
option allows the program to automatically identify and generate an
asymmetric contact pair. When auto-asymmetric option is selected, during the
solution phase the solver automatically chooses the more appropriate contact

141
face designation. In this study, symmetric contact is chosen between two
contact surfaces of the steel cellular beam model.

6.2.4.3 Contact Analysis Algorithm

Major analysis algorithms available in ANSYS program are: Penalty Method,
Multipoint Constraint, Pure Lagrangian and Augmented Lagrangian.
Characteristics of each algorithm are presented below.

6.2.4.3.1 Penalty method

The penalty method uses a contact spring to establish a relationship between
the two contact surfaces. The penalty method has short computation time and is
the fastest among all the algorithms. Furthermore, large penetration may be
produced.

6.2.4.3.2 Multipoint Constraint Method

Multipoint constraint algorithm is used in conjunction with bonded contact and
contact without separation to model several types of contact assemblies and
kinematic constraints.

6.2.4.3.3 Pure Lagrangian Method

The Pure Lagrangian Method does not require contact stiffness. Instead, it
requires penetration control factor and maximum allowable tensile contact
pressure. However, this method has long computational time.

142
6.2.4.3.4 Augmented Lagrangian Method

The Augmented Lagrangian Method is an iterative series of penalty methods.
Compared to the Penalty method, the augmented lagrangian method usually
leads to better conditioning and is less sensitive to the magnitude of contact
stiffness. Yet, the augmented lagrangian method needs additional iterations
when mesh becomes too distorted. In this study, the augmented-lagrangian
method is used because it is possible to specify the maximum penetration
tolerance.

6.3 Nonlinear Finite Element Model of Cellular Beams

The main objective of the nonlinear finite element analyses is to determine
stress, strain and displacements in the NPI profile sections and to compare
experimental results with the results of observed nonlinear analyses. Nonlinear
static analyses produce more accurate stress results than linear static analyses
for models where the loading results in concentrated stress values beyond the
material yield point and also nonlinear analyze give more real behavior when
compared with the linear ones. Based on these analyses, proper locations for
the installment of transducers in the NPI beam sections are determined.

6.3.1 Definition of Static Structural Analysis Settings

Before proceeding to the solution, analysis options should be defined including
boundary conditions, analysis type and stepping controls. Analysis setting is
about the load to be applied to the structure, including load steps, load
magnitude and load direction. For a static structure analysis, there can be one
or several load steps. Furthermore, for each load step, several sub steps might
be required to make the solution converge better and to obtain more accurate

143
results. Figure 6.14 illustrates the details of analysis settings for one sample in
ANSYS-workbench program.

Figure 6.14 Analysis Settings for Cellular Beam

The total number of steps, number of sub steps for the initial step and
maximum allowable number of sub steps are set to 10, 10 and 100 sub steps,
respectively. When the load is applied to a particular point, the force stays
inside meshes and sinks; however, ANSYS-workbench program does not
analyze the beam model. Therefore, a maximum force with a pressure of 528
MPa is applied to the cellular beam model. The load is applied at 10 steps and
at each step a 52.8 MPa incremental pressure load is applied to the NPI_240
beam. The software uses the Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm for the
solution of equations.

144
Correct definition of boundary conditions is very important in the finite
element analysis and it can greatly affect the behavior of steel cellular beam.
Now that all the existing definitions about the steel cellular beam have been
given, the finite element model is ready for FEM solution.

a) Tabular Data Pressure Steps

b) Time - Pressure Diagram

Figure 6.15 Load Diagram and Steps for NPI_240 section

145
According to structural definition values of steel NPI cellular beam, unlike
linear analysis, plasticity properties of structural steel are also defined as
bilinear isotropic hardening in nonlinear analysis in addition to alternating
stress curve and strain-life parameters graphics as demonstrated in Figure 6.16.

Figure 6.16 Plasticity Properties of Steel

146
6.3.2 Nonlinear Solution of NPI_240 Cellular Beam

Figure 6.17 demonstrates the details of analysis settings for NPI_240 beam in
ANSYS Workbench. 280 kN force, the average value obtained from
experimental tests of steel cellular beams, is applied to the middle of the beam
as 528 MPa pressure. As explained in the previous sub section, when the load
is applied to a particular point, the force stays inside meshes and sinks;
however, ANSYS-workbench program does not analyze the cellular beam
model. For that reason, the load is applied to the cellular beam as pressure as
shown in the figure below. A bilinear isotropic material model (elastic
modulus, E = 1.9x10
5
MPa, tangent modulus, ET = 390 MPa) with Von-Mises
yield criterion (yield strength, Fy = 390 MPa) was used for the steel to cellular
beam model the nonlinear material behavior of the beam. The material
properties used in the all NPI section beam models were determined through
tensile tests of coupons taken from the test beams. Since the main objective of
this finite element analysis was to determine beam failure behavior in web post
regions, significant attention was paid on properly modeling the connection of
the beam to the loading frame.

Figure 6.17 Applying Pressure to NPI_240 Cellular Beam

147
Different from linear solution, the material effects of cellular beam in the
program are defined as nonlinear in the analysis of cellular beams. The mid-
span displacement values obtained in linear and non-linear analysis of NPI-240
cellular beam is tabulated in Table 6.2 for the load increment of 28kN starting
from 28kN. It is apparent from the table that when the load reaches 280 kN,
which is the average value obtained from experiments, the nonlinear
displacement value is 42.58% more than the linear displacement value. It is
clear that after the load is increased, the axial forces increase in the beam and
their effect on the flexural bending of the beam become more emphasized. As a
result nonlinear displacement becomes larger. The results obtained are plotted
in Figure 6.18. The effect of the geometrical nonlinearity on the values of
vertical displacement at the middle of the NPI-240 steel cellular beam is also
clearly seen in the same figure. Figure 6.18 clearly reveals the fact that when
the vertical loads become larger in structure, the displacements also become
larger and inclusion of nonlinearity in the analysis of such structures becomes a
necessity.

Table 6.2 Displacement values at the mid-span of NPI-240 cellular beam

Displacements at middle
part of cellular beam (mm)
Load
(kN)
Number of
Steps Nonlinear Analysis Linear Analysis
28
1 0.8789 0.8078
56
2 1.7612 1.6157
84
3 2.6513 2.4236
112
4 3.5509 3.2314
140
5 4.5058 3.9781
168
6 5.6325 4.7859
196
7 6.6245 5.5937
224
8 7.8997 6.4017
252
9 9.8004 7.2095
280
10 14.0709 8.0785

148

14.071; 280.000
8.079; 280.000
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 4 8 12 16 20
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Linear_NPI_240
Nonlinear_NPI_240

Figure 6.18 Linear and nonlinear load-deflection diagram for NPI-240 beam
When the ultimate load, 280 kN, is applied to the middle part of the beam as
pressure, maximum equivalent stress which is 501.21 MPa, shown in Figure
6.19, occur around the holes. Figure 6.20 shows the maximum displacement
that occurred in the middle of the beam as expected. It was measured as 15.458
mm at upper flange and 14.071 mm at lower flange.

149

Figure 6.19 Equivalent Stress Values on NPI_240 Cellular Beam

Figure 6.20 Deformation Values on NPI_240 Cellular Beam

When the same ultimate value, 280 kN, is applied to the middle part of the
NPI-240 cellular beam, maximum normal stress which is 431.66 MPa, shown
in Figure 6.21, occurred at web-post and maximum shear stress which is 352.0
MPa, shown in Figure 6.22, occurred around the area of support.

150

Figure 6.21 Normal Stress Values on NPI_240 Cellular Beam

Figure 6.22 Shear Stress Values on NPI_240 Cellular Beam

When the experimental results are compared with those of nonlinear solution
values, the deflection values obtained from NPI_240_TEST_3 are 10.13%
lower than the nonlinear displacement value for upper flange and 7.78% lower

151
than the nonlinear displacement one for lower flange. Load-deflection
diagrams, comparing finite element model with the curve of corresponding
experimental NPI_240_TEST_3 cellular beam specimen are illustrated in
Figure 6.23 and Figure 6.24, respectively.

NPI_240_CB_III
0
80
160
240
320
400
0 4 8 12 16 20
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_U_F
Test_3_U_F

Figure 6.23 Load-deflection-curve for upper flange of NPI_240_TEST3

NPI_240_CB_III
0
80
160
240
320
400
0 4 8 12 16 20
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_U_F
Test_3_L_F

Figure 6.24 Load-deflection-curve for lower flange of NPI_240_TEST3

152
When the experimental results obtained are compared with those of nonlinear
finite analysis values, the deflection values obtained from NPI_240_TEST_4
are 8.48% lower than the nonlinear displacement value for upper flange and
6.22% lower than the nonlinear displacement one for lower flange. Load-
deflection diagram, comparing finite element model with the curve of
corresponding experimental NPI_240_TEST_4 cellular beam specimen are
illustrated in Figure 6.25 and Figure 6.26, respectively.

NPI_240_CB_IV
0
80
160
240
320
400
0 4 8 12 16 20
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_U_F
Test _4_U_F


NPI_240_CB_IV
0
80
160
240
320
400
0 4 8 12 16 20
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_L_F
Test_4_L_F


153

Figure 6.27 demonstrates the details of analysis settings for NPI_260 steel
cellular beam in ANSYS workbench program. 220 kN force, the average value
obtained from experimental tests of these steel cellular beams, is applied at the
middle of the upper flange as 425 MPa pressure in 10 steps.


When 220 kN load which is obtained from experimental tests was applied to
the middle of the beam as shown above, maximum equivalent stress occurred
at the middle part of upper flange. It was determined as 494.42 MPa after the
application of load in 10 steps as illustrated in Figure 6.28. Figure 6.29 shows
the maximum displacement occurred in the middle of the beam as expected
with an 18.969 mm for upper flange and 12.612 mm for lower flange. The
reason for the load applied the top of web hole is that there was a 6.357 mm
difference in displacement which was found between the upper flange and the
lower one.

154



155
When the same ultimate load, 220 kN, is applied to the middle part of the NPI-
260 cellular beam, maximum normal stress which is 303.40 MPa, shown in
Figure 6.30, occurred at web-post and maximum shear stress which is 269.06
MPa, shown in Figure 6.31, occurred around the area of support respectively.



156
values, it is found that the deflection values obtained in NPI_260_TEST_1 are
9.56% more than the nonlinear displacement value for upper flange and
11.06% more than the nonlinear displacement one for lower flange. Load-
deflection diagrams that are obtained by the finite element model and the
experimentally for NPI_260_TEST_1 cellular beam specimen are illustrated in
Figures 6.32 and 6.33, respectively.

NPI_260_CB_I
0
60
120
180
240
300
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_U_F
Test_1_U_F


NPI_260_CB_I
0
60
120
180
240
300
0 5 10 15 20
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_L_F
Test_1_L_F


157
When the obtained experimental results are compared with those of nonlinear
solution values, the deflection values obtained NPI_260_TEST_2 are 9.08%
more than the nonlinear displacement value for upper flange and 8.91% more
than the nonlinear displacement one for lower flange. Load-deflection
diagrams that are obtained by the finite element model and the experimentally
for NPI_260_TEST_2 cellular beam specimen are illustrated in Figures 6.34
and 6.35, respectively.

NPI_260_CB_II
0
60
120
180
240
300
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_U_F
Test_2_U_F


NPI_260_CB_II
0
60
120
180
240
300
0 5 10 15 20
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_L_F
Test_2_L_F


158
values, it is noticed that the deflection values obtained experimentally in
NPI_260_TEST_3 are 7.44% more than the nonlinear displacement value for
upper flange and 7.69% more than the nonlinear displacement one for lower
flange. Load-deflection diagrams that are obtained by the finite element model
and the experimentally for NPI_260_TEST_3 cellular beam specimen are
illustrated in Figures 6.36 and 6.37, respectively.

NPI_260_CB_III
0
60
120
180
240
300
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_U_F
Test_3_U_F


NPI_260_CB_III
0
60
120
180
240
300
0 5 10 15 20
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_L_F
Test_3_L_F


159
values, it is found that the deflection values obtained experimentally in
NPI_260_TEST_4 are 10.68% more than the nonlinear displacement value for
upper flange and 12.59% more than the nonlinear displacement one for lower
flange. Load-deflection diagrams that are obtained by the finite element model
and the experimentally for NPI_260_TEST_4 cellular beam specimen are
illustrated in Figures 6.38 and 6.39, respectively .

NPI_260_CB_IV
0
60
120
180
240
300
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_U_F
Test_4_U_F


NPI_260_CB_IV
0
60
120
180
240
300
0 5 10 15 20
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_L_F
Test_4_L_F


160

Figure 6.40 demonstrates details of analysis settings for NPI_280 beam in
ANSYS Workbench. 375 kN force, obtained from experimental tests of these
beams, is applied to midfield of the beam as 570 MPa pressure.


When 375 kN load which is obtained from experimental tests was applied to
the middle of the beam as shown above, maximum equivalent stress occurred
at the middle part of upper flange. It was determined as 430.82 MPa after the
application of load in 10 steps as illustrated in Figure 6.41. Figure 6.42 shows
the maximum displacement occurred in the middle of the beam as expected
with a 17.829 mm for upper flange and 16.012 mm for lower flange.

161



When the same ultimate load, 375 kN, is applied to the middle part of the NPI-
280 cellular beam, maximum normal stress which is 399.13 MPa, shown in

162
Figure 6.43, occurred at web-post and maximum shear stress which is 356.0
MPa, shown in Figure 6.44, occurred around again at web-post respectively.



163
TEST_1 are 11.65% more than the nonlinear displacement value for upper
flange and 13.84% more than the nonlinear displacement one for lower flange.
Load-deflection diagrams that are obtained by the finite element model and the

NPI_280_CB_I
0
100
200
300
400
500
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_U_F
Test_1_U_F


NPI_280_CB_I
0
100
200
300
400
500
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_L_F
Test_1_L_F


164

NPI_280_CB_II
0
100
200
300
400
500
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_U_F
Test_2_U_F


NPI_280_CB_II
0
100
200
300
400
500
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_L_F
Test_2_L_F


165

NPI_280_CB_III
0
100
200
300
400
500
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_U_F
Test_3_U_F


NPI_280_CB_III
0
100
200
300
400
500
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_L_F
Test_3_L_F


166

NPI_280_CB_IV
0
100
200
300
400
500
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_U_F
Test_4_U_F


NPI_280_CB_IV
0
100
200
300
400
500
0 7 14 21 28
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Nonlinear_L_F
Test_4_L_F


167

CHAPTER 7

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

7.1 Overview and summary of the thesis

The goal of this research presented is to investigate the ultimate load carrying
capacity of optimally designed non-composite cellular beams. The study
consists of three main parts: optimum design of steel cellular beams,
experimental study on these beams and finite element analysis of these web-
expanded beams. The results obtained in these parts are discussed in this study.

In the first part of the present study, the harmony search (HS) algorithm based
optimization method and particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm are
applied to the optimum design problems of steel cellular beams where the
design constraints are implemented from BS5950 provisions. In this
formulation, the sequence number of Universal Beam (UB) section, hole
diameter and the total number of holes in the cellular beam are treated as
design variables. The optimization problem of cellular beam with 4-m span has
been solved with HS and PSO methods to illustrate accuracy and performance
of methods on cellular beams. In the harmony search technique, algorithm
parameters, hms, hmcr and par affect the value of minimum weight. For the
harmony search algorithm, high hmcr, especially from 0.70 to 0.95 and the
values of par ranging from 0.20 to 0.50 contribute excellently to FORTRAN

168
programming outputs, while hms demonstrates little correlation with
improvement in performance. Geems sensitivity analysis of hmcr and par is
also confirmed in the optimization part of this study. In the particle swarm
method, however, algorithm parameters are treated as static quantities, and thus
they are assigned to appropriate values chosen within their suggested ranges of
following values: Inertia of particles ( ) 50 . 0 ~ 05 . 0 w , number of
particles ( ) 50 ~ 10 , trust parameters in swarm ( ) 0 . 2 ~ 0 . 1
2 1
c and c and
time step value ) 0 . 1 ( t . While solving the design problem, PSO parameters
are analyzed so that the most appropriate ones are identified. These
observations point out that the variations in the parameter set have effect on the
performance of the algorithm.

Secondly, the ultimate load carrying capacities of optimally designed steel
cellular beams are tested in a self reacting frame. The tested cellular beam
specimens are designed by using harmony search optimization method. The
tests have been carried out on twelve full-scale non-composite cellular beams.
There are three different types of NPI_CB_240, NPI_CB_260 and
NPI_CB_280 I-section beams, and four tests have been conducted for each
specimen. These optimally designed beams which have beginning span lengths
of 3000 mm are subjected to point load acting in the middle of upper flange.

The last part of the study focuses on performing a numerical study on steel
cellular beams by utilizing finite element analysis. The finite element method
has been used to simulate the experimental work by using finite element
modeling to verify the test results and to investigate the non-linear behaviour of
failure modes such as web-post buckling and vierendeel bending of NPI_240,
NPI_260 and NPI_280 section steel cellular beams. For this purpose, ANSYS-
workbench finite element modeling program is used to develop a three
dimensional finite element beam model. Nonlinear finite element models of
these NPI section steel cellular beam specimens are built to determine and

169
investigate the maximum stress and displacement concentrations. While the
non-linear buckling analysis of cellular beams with ANSYS software is done,
the following assumptions are taken into account:

10-node high-order element with quadratic displacement behaviour is
defined
Geometrically as well as materially non-linear calculation is used
Tetrahedron meshing option is selected
Bonded contact is selected between NPI profile section parts and
supporting connection plates
Newton-Raphson iterative algorithm is used for the solution of
equations
The material properties used in all NPI section beams are determined
through tensile tests of coupons taken from the test beams
The beam geometry is based on the measured dimensions of the tested
beams.
The load is applied as pressure on the area described in the middle of
the upper flange.

7.2 Conclusions

In this dissertation study, the optimum design of cellular beams turns out to be
discrete nonlinear programming problem when formulated according to the
constraints specified in SCI. The design optimization techniques developed are
based on the harmony search and particle swarm optimization algorithms. As it
is demonstrated in the cellular beam with 4-m span example, although the
algorithms of HS and PSO are mathematically relatively simple, they are quite
robust in finding the solutions of combinatorial optimum design problems. This
design example illustrates that, in both methods, the minimum weight of the

170
cellular beam is obtained in relatively little number of iterations. Comparison
of the optimum designs attained by harmony search algorithm and particle
swarm optimizer clearly demonstrates that both techniques find almost same
results but the harmony search algorithm yields a slightly better solution than
the particle swarm optimizer for cellular beam with 4-m span example at the
same number of structural analyses. Indeed, the minimum weight obtained with
HS algorithm is 0.6% lighter than PSO algorithm. It is noticed that both the
strength and geometric constraints are dominant in HS algorithm while only
the strength constraints are severe in PSO algorithm in this design problem.
This result also demonstrates that harmony search algorithm is a quite rapid
and effective method for obtaining the optimum design of small-scale problems
that consist of a small number of decision variables. Consequently, the selected
method, HS algorithm, is recommended for application of the optimization of
the three different NPI section cellular beams.

In the experimental part of this dissertation, the ultimate load carrying
capacities of optimally designed steel cellular beams are then performed under
the action of same concentrated loadings in a self reacting frame. The tests
have been carried out on twelve full-scale non-composite cellular beams. The
first two experiments on NPI_240 section beams have failed because of lateral
torsional buckling due to a lack of lateral support. This means, even though the
members relatively short spans, lateral supports are governing factor for the
analysis of beams. When the lateral movement is prevented, web buckling
failure mode has been described for the other two specimens on NPI_240
section beams. The results obtained from experimental tests on NPI_260
section beams, on the other hand, demonstrate that since the load is applied on
the holes, in addition to web buckling, vierendeel bending has occurred on all
of the four beams. This means that, when load is applied directly over the
circular openings, the failure behaviour controlled by vierendeel bending
mechanism. Lastly, the results obtained from experimental tests on NPI_280

171
section beams reveal that the failure of all four NPI_280 steel cellular beams
under directly-applied concentrated loading over a web-post is defined as web-
post buckling.

In the last part of the study the experimental work is simulated by using
ANSYS-workbench finite element integrated software program to verify the
test results and to a good degree with the non-linear behaviour of failure modes
such as web-post buckling and vierendeel bending of NPI_240, NPI_260 and
NPI_280 section steel cellular beams. Failure loads obtained from experimental
tests are compared with finite element analysis values for these three cellular
beams. Load-deflection diagrams shown in the study reveal that average
deflection values obtained from experimental tests for upper and lower flange
of NPI_240 section beams under 280 kN load are respectively 9.31% and
%7.01 lower than finite element analyze results which is the closest value
obtained between them. Moreover, the failure loads obtained from
experimental tests are compared with finite element analysis values for
NPI_260 cellular beam. The load-deflection diagrams shown in the study also
reveal that average deflection values obtained from experimental tests for
upper and lower flange of NPI_260 cellular beams under 220 kN load are
respectively 9.19% and 10.06% more than from FEA results which is again
within the reasonable range. Finally, obtained failure loads from experimental
tests are also compared with FEA values for NPI_280 cellular beam. The load-
deflection diagrams related with NPI_280 cellular beam illustrated in the study
reveal that average deflection values obtained from experimental tests for
upper and lower flange of NPI_280 cellular beams under 375 kN load are
respectively 11.45% and 9.38% more than from FEA results which is within
the acceptable range. These results demonstrate that the nonlinear analysis
results correlate well with experimental ones and the discrepancie is within
10%.

172
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Computation, Vol.7 (1), pp.19-44, 2000

[58] Venter, G. and Sobieszczanski-Sobieski, J., Multidisciplinary
Optimization of a Transport Aircraft Wing Using Particle Swarm
Optimization, Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, Vol.26,
pp.121-131, 2004.

[59] Steelwork design Guide to BS 5950: Part 1, Section Properties, Member
Capacities, Vol.1, 4
th
edition, The Steel Construction Institute, U.K.,
1990.

[60] W.F. Chen and E.M. Lui. Structural stability: theory and
implementation, Elsevier, New York, 1987

[61] Standart Test Methods and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel
Products, Designation A 370-07a, ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor
Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States

180
VITA

Ferhat Erdal

Middle East Technical University
Department of Engineering Sciences
Ankara, 06531, Turkey, Phone: +90-312-2104459
Email: eferhat@metu.edu.tr

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL PAPER

Erdal F., Saka M.P. and Doan E. Optimum Design of Cellular Beams
Using Harmony Search and Particle Swarm Optimizers Journal of
Constructional Steel Research Vol. 67, No: 2, Pp: 237-247, February, 2011

Hasanebi, O., arba, S., Doan, E., Erdal, F. and Saka, M.P.,
Comparison of non-deterministic search techniques in the optimum design
of real size steel frames, Computers and Structures, Vol. 88 No: (17-18),
Pp: 1033-1048, September, 2010.

Hasanebi, O., Erdal, F., and Saka, M.P., An Adaptive Harmony Search
Method for Structural Optimization, Journal of Structural Engineering
ASCE, Vol. 136, No. 4, Pp: 419-431, April 2010.

Hasanebi, O., Erdal, F., and Saka, M.P., Optimum Design of Geodesic
Steel Domes under Code Provisions using Metaheuristic Techniques
Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Vol.2 Issue 2, Pp: 88-103,
2009

181
Saka M.P. and Erdal F. Harmony Search Algorithm Based Optimum
Design of Grillage Systems. Strucutural and Multidisciplinary
Optimization, Vol. 38, No: 1, Pp: 25-41, 2009.
O. Hasanebi , S. arba, E. Doan, F. Erdal, M. P. Saka, Performance
evaluation of metaheuristic search techniques in the optimum design of real
size pin jointed structures, Computers and Structures, Vol. 87 No: (5-6),
Pp: 284-302, 2009.
F. Erdal and M. P. Saka, Effect of Beam Spacing in the Harmony search
based optimum design of grillages, Asian Journal of Civil Engineering,
Vol. 9, No: 3, Pp: 215-228, 2008.
E. Doan, F. Erdal, and M. P. Saka, Optimum Design of Grillage Systems
using Improved Particle Swarm Optimization Method, Automation in
Construction, An International Journal, (under review)

NATIONAL JOURNAL PAPER
F. Erdal and M. P. Saka, Petek Kirilerin Yaplarda Kullanlmas Yap
Dnyas
F. Erdal and M. P. Saka, Dairesel Gzenekli Petek Kirilerin BS
artnamesi kullanlarak Boyutlandrlmas Yap Dnyas

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PAPER

F. Erdal and O. Hasanebi, Optimum Design of Geodesic Steel Domes
under Code Provisions using Metaheuristic Techniques, 9
th
International
Congress on Advances in Civil Engineering, September 27-30, 2010,
Trabzon, Turkey

182
E. Doan, F. Erdal, and M. P. Saka Optimum Design of Grillage Systems
under Code Provisions using Particle Swarm Optimization GECCO10,
July 711, 2010, Portland, Oregon, USA. ACM 978-1-4503-0072-8/10/07
F. Erdal and M. P. Saka, Optimum Design of Castellated Beams Using
Harmony Search Method, Proceedings of The Eight International
Conference on Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, 1-5 June,
2009, Lisbon, Portugal.
F. Erdal and M. P. Saka, Optimum Design of Cellular Beams Using
Harmony Search Method, Proceedings of The Ninth International
Conference on Computational Structures Technology, 2-5 September,
2008, Athens, Greece.
F. Erdal and M. P. Saka, Optimum Design of Grillage Systems Using the
Harmony Search Algorithm, The Eighth International Conference on
Computational Structures Technology, CST 2006, Las Palmas de Gran de
Canarias, Spain, 12-15 September 2006

NATIONAL CONFERENCE PAPER

F. Erdal ve M.P. Saka Dairesel Gzenekli Petek Kirilerin Harmoni
Arama Yntemi Kullanlarak Optimum Boyutlandrlmas XVI. Ulusal
Mekanik Kongresi, UMK-2009, Kayseri, 22-26 Haziran 2009

RESEARCH PROJECTS

O. Hasanebi, M. P. Saka, F. Erdal, S. arba, E. Doan, and . Kur,
Optimum Design of Three Dimensional Steel Skeleton Structures Using
Stochastic Search Techniques and its National Structural Engineering
Applications, Turkish Scientific and Technical Research Council

183
(TUBITAK), Ankara, Turkey, Project No: 108M070, (75000 US$), started
on: 1
st
June 2008, To be Completed on: 1
st
December 2010.
O. Hasanebi, M. P. Saka, F. Erdal, S. arba ve E. Doan, Stokastik
Optimizasyon Yntemleri Kullanlarak Boyutlu elik Tayc
Sistemlerin Optimum tasarm ve lkemiz Yap mhendisliine
Uygulanmas Thesis Project BAP Project Code: BAP-2008-03-03-02

COURSE SERTIFICATES
High Performance Computations for Engineering, A Five Day Course
for Engineering PhD Students, 17th May - 22nd May 2009 , Pollack
Mihly Faculty of Engineering, University of Pcs, Hungary.
RC Structures under Extreme Loading Course Certificate, TMMOB
Civil Engineering Organization 19-20 February 2009, METU, Ankara,
Turkey.
EDUCATIONAL BACKROUND
2007-
2011
Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
Department of Engineering Sciences, PhD.
Thesis Title : Ultimate Load Capacity of Optimally Designed Cellular
Beams

2005-
2007
Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
Department of Engineering Sciences, Msc.
Thesis Title : Optimum Design of Grillage Systems Using Harmony
Search Algorithm

184
1999-2003
Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey
Department of Civil Engineering
EMPLOYMENT RECORD
Research Assistant - METU, Engineering Sciences mechanical laboratory.

TEACHING EXPERIENCE

ES 202 - Mathematics for Engineers
ES 221 - Engineering Mechanics
ES 223 - Statics and Strength of Materials
ES 224 - Strength of Materials
ES 361 - Computing Methods in Engineering

COMPUTER SKIILS

Application Development-Engineering: MATLAB, MathCAD, FORTRAN
Package Software: AutoCAD, Solidwork, SAP2000, ANSYS-Workbench,
ABAQUS, STA4CAD

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