COVER COMMENT

THE LEGACY OF POMPEII AND ITS VOLCANO

Enrico de Divitiis, M.D.
Department of Neurological
Sciences, Division of
Neurosurgery, Università degli
Studi di Napoli Federico II,
Naples, Italy
Paolo Cappabianca, M.D.
Department of Neurological
Sciences, Division of
Neurosurgery, Università degli
Studi di Napoli Federico II,
Naples, Italy
Felice Esposito, M.D.
Department of Neurological
Sciences, Division of
Neurosurgery, Università degli
Studi di Napoli Federico II,
Naples, Italy
Luigi M. Cavallo, M.D.
Department of Neurological
Sciences, Division of
Neurosurgery, Università degli
Studi di Napoli Federico II,
Naples, Italy
Reprint requests:
Enrico de Divitiis, M.D.,
Department of Neurological
ON AUGUST 24, AD 79, a terrible eruption of Mount Vesuvius deranged life in
beautiful Pompeii and killed thousands of men, women, and children. They were
restored to us by the fact that Mount Vesuvius, with its rain of ashes, proved to be a
skilled sculptor, preserving the shape and even the wrinkles in the clothes the Pom-
peians wore while trying to escape during the day of the tragedy. The detailed
description of Plinius the Younger and modern static studies of the eruptive residues
have made it possible to reconstruct with great accuracy the various phases of the
eruption that took place 2000 years ago, including the hours and days during which
the phenomena first became obvious. Today, almost 2000 years later, Pompeii has
reawakened and risen from its sepulcher of ashes thanks to the excavations initiated
under King Charles III of Bourbon in 1748. Excavations proceeded slowly under the
Bourbons, with the aim of enriching the Bourbon Museum of Naples rather than of
classifying the ruins and placing them into a historical context. Under Joachim Murat,
interest in the town planning and architecture of the uncovered cities reemerged,
especially with respect to Pompeii. In 1860, however, with the establishment of the
Kingdom of Italy, the excavations, now under the direction of archaeologist Giuseppe
Fiorelli, were provided new impetus and, finally, a scientific basis. Today, the exca-
vations are giving us back extraordinary evidence concerning the culture, the everyday
life, the habits, the architecture, and the wonderful frescoes of the Roman cities of
southern Italy, making possible the statement that Pompeii is “the most alive of the
dead cities.”
KEY WORDS: Antiquity, Archaeology, Excavations, Pompeii, Vesuvius, Volcanology
Neurosurgery 55:989-1006, 2004 DOI: 10.1227/01.NEU.0000142521.78944.3A www.neurosurgery-online.com

Sciences, Division of
Neurosurgery,
Via Sergio Pansini, 5,
80131 Napoli, Italy.
Email: dediviti@unina.it
Received, July 30, 2004.
Accepted, August 6, 2004.
“N
onum Kal. Septembres hora fere sep-
tima mater mea indicat ei apparire
nubem inusitata et magnitudine et
specie” (On the ninth day prior to the Kalends
of September [i.e., August 24th], at approxi-
mately the seventh hour [i.e., one hour after
noon], my mother pointed out to him [i.e., to
his brother, Plinius the Elder] an extraordi-
nary cloud, huge and strange, that had ap-
peared) (Fig. 1). In a letter that later became
famous (25), Plinius the Younger (AD 61–112),
nephew of his illustrious ancestor of the same
name, only 17 years of age at the time but
destined to become a brilliant lawyer and pol-
itician, wrote to Tacitus, providing him with a
detailed description of those dramatic hours;
thus, this exceptional event was handed down
to posterity. It was the year AD 79: Plinius the
Elder (AD 23–79), naturalist and man of sci-
ence, author of the 37-volume encyclopedia
Naturalis Historia, and also commander of the
imperial fleet home ported in Misenum at the
time, was called to the terrace of his house by
his sister to note the enormous plume hover-
ing above the top of Mount Vesuvius to the
northeast. Plinius reassured her: “It is simply
brushwood being burned by the shepherds
and farmers.” Because they were 15 miles
away from the column of smoke, he did not
realize that the smoke already rose 6500 or
10,000 ft into the sky. A few hours later, the
column had taken on the shape of a giant pine
tree, formed by the falling vapor and ashes. It
was only then that he understood what an
exceptional event was taking place, a natural
event so extraordinary that it had to be wit-
nessed and recounted de visu. He then com-
manded a slave to prepare a liburna, an agile
ship with two rows of oars that was ideal for
short trips. As he was about to leave the villa,
a messenger, greatly troubled, arrived from
the site of the event, sent to him to seek help
by Rectina, the wife of Guascus, an important
personage and friend who owned a villa at the

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DE DIVITIIS ET AL.

clothes he had been wearing: more like a man asleep than

dead) (25).
During the next centuries, another 51 eruptions occurred,
some of them devastating, like the one of 1631 described by
the abbot Braccini (4) and that of 1779, which occurred in the
presence of Sir William Hamilton, member of the Royal Soci-
ety and His Britannic Majesty’s envoy extraordinary and
plenipotentiary at the court of Naples. In a letter from him
dated October 1, 1779, sent to Sir Joseph Banks, President of
the Royal Society in London (12), he described among other
things the proverbial coexistence of religion and superstition

FIGURE 1. Painting showing Plinius the Younger and his Mother at Mise-
num. Angelica Kauhffmann (1741–1807), Princeton University Museum.

foot of Mount Vesuvius. The messenger told of terrible scenes

of earthquakes and showers of rocks and fire and said that
there was no escape but the sea. Plinius hastily ordered that all
available quadriremes be made ready, and he directed this fleet
toward the scene of the event to provide help (without ne-
glecting his scientific interests, however, because he annotated
all that he saw). The shower of ashes and flaming lapilli, a
landslide along the coast, and an anomalous lifting of the
seabed with sea cliffs appearing on the surface forced him to
halt his approach before reaching the house of Guascus and to
detour toward the port of Stabiae, southeast of Pompeii, where
he found Pomponianus, another friend, readying to embark
and flee. Plinius reassured him, pleading with him to remain
calm, saying there was no real risk as long as he remained in
his house. He then went to sleep but was awaked by his
servants during the night because of the violence of the defla-
grations, the telluric quakes, and the shower of ashes and
lapilli that made it difficult even to open the doors of the
house. He attempted a hasty but useless flight, protecting his
head with pillows, on a morning darkened by clouds of smoke
and rent by lightening. He continued to reassure others, heart-
ening them for having escaped the earthquake and trusting
that the calm would quickly follow the storm, while the toxic
vapors from the hydrochloric acid and sulfur dioxide, initially
flung thousands of feet high, now began to plummet to the
ground. This poisonous mixture caused him to have difficulty
in breathing, and he mistakenly believed that he was having
one of his asthma attacks. He lay down on the ground to rest
awhile, but when he attempted to rise, he again fell to the
ground. The slaves abandoned him and ran off. He was found
on the beach where he had been left: “Ubi dies redditus, corpus
inventum integrum, inlaesum opertumque, ut fuerat indutus: abitus
corporis quiescenti quam defunto similior” (When daylight re- FIGURE 2. Painting showing eruption of August 9, 1779, taken from an
turned, his body was found intact and whole, covered by the original drawing done from nature at Pausilipo by Pietro Fabris.

990 | VOLUME 55 | NUMBER 4 | OCTOBER 2004 www.neurosurgery-online.com


among Neapolitan people: “Monday August the 9th about 9
o’clock in the morning the mountain began to manifest itself
by violent explosion of inflamed matter from the crater [Fig. 2].
During this day’s eruption the relicts of St. Januarius [St.
Gennaro], protector of Naples, were carried in procession and
exposed to the furious mountain, amidst a prodigious con-
course of people who are convinced that to this ceremony
alone Naples may attribute its happy escape. But it is very
reasonable. Tuesday August the 10th Vesuvius was quiet.”
The latest eruption took place in March 1944. Since then, the
volcano appears to have been extinguished, its plume of
smoke, made famous in thousands of gouaches, finally vanish-
ing (Fig. 3). The mountain still preserves its charm as well as
its threatening appearance, although the people living near
Mount Vesuvius even now seem to have difficulty accepting
the fact that a terrible menace looms over the area. Many small
towns have grown up along the foothills of Mount Vesuvius,
including all the cities originally destroyed in AD 79. Today,
as in the past, there are vineyards that produce the same wine
as 2000 years ago, the Lacrima Christi. Orchards also provide
extraordinary fruit because the soil, also a product of the
volcano, is particularly fertile and soft, divided into small
plots that can produce at least three bountiful crops per year.
Mount Vesuvius was considered a golden mountain because
of the abundance of its products: it destroyed and created as
well as taking away and giving back. During the eruption of
1794, all the vineyards were destroyed, but 2 years later, the
grapes were so abundant that most of them were not har-
vested because of the lack of vats (22).
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 had a unique
cultural impact, because it completely buried several Roman
cities located along the foot of the mountain (i.e., Pompeii,
Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Oplontis), preserving them under-
neath the ashes. It was also a highly important event for
science, because this was the first time volcanic activity had
been described in such great detail; after the letter of Plinius
FIGURE 3. Photograph showing aerial view of the crater of mount Vesu-
vius as it appears today.
NEUROSURGERY
POMPEII AND ITS VOLCANO
the Younger, each successive eruption was defined as “Plin-
ian.” The destruction of the cities was the subject of numerous
studies undertaken during archaeological excavations from
the 18th century on, providing a unique opportunity to study
eruptions by observing the effects of volcanic residue on man,
flora and fauna, houses, objects used in daily life, and, finally,
mosaics and paintings. What remains of Pompeii provides us
with a complete picture of daily life in Campania at the time
of the eruption. Visiting Pompeii, one has the feeling of actu-
ally visiting the living city, learning its customs and the dis-
tribution and type of public buildings, shops and businesses,
houses, and gardens. For this reason, Pompeii has been de-
fined as “the most alive of the dead cities.” It is a city in which
life stopped in a split second, interrupted but not destroyed.
This catastrophic event, a circumstance that is probably
unique in the history of archaeology, has returned to human-
ity an entire city and its varied forms of life, which may be
observed and studied, even after almost 2000 years, by more
than a million people a year, all thrilled and excited by the
opportunity.
Mount Vesuvius was the absolute protagonist of the trag-
edy that invested the cities nestled at its base, creating an
indissoluble and rare bond between mountain and city, be-
cause, for many, Pompeii and Mount Vesuvius represent the
antipodes of a single entity. Mount Vesuvius proved to be a
skilled sculptor, with its rain of ashes preserving the shape
and even the wrinkles in the clothes the Pompeians were
wearing while they tried to escape during the day of the
tragedy. The Italian poet Giacomo Leopardi calls Vesuvius the
sterminator Vesevo (16), towering over an enchanting gulf and
sites of unparalleled amenity, highlighting the contrast be-
tween beauty and danger. René de Chateaubriand, Secretary
of the French Legation to the Holy See, describes his excursion
to the volcano in his Voyage au Mont-Vésuve in July 1806 (7),
where he defines the coast along the gulf of Naples, sur-
rounded by orange groves and vineyards, as Paradise viewed
from Hell.
HISTORY
Located at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, dominating the
entire valley of the Sarno River and providing a unique nat-
ural harbor for the nearby cities of the hinterland, ancient
Pompeii was an ideal site for an urban settlement. The name
probably comes from Pompe, which means “five” in the Oscan
language and refers to five villages that were joined together,
or it could come from the Greek word ⌹⑀´ ␮␲␱, meaning “to
send” and referring to the fact that Pompeii was an important
commercial port. Thanks to its strategic geographical position,
it had always enjoyed wealth and prosperity; however, for this
same reason, it was also a highly desirable land to conquer.
Thus, it soon it became the site of a great and rapid succession
of highly developed civilizations: first, the Oscans; then, the
Etruscans; then, the Greeks; and, finally, the Romans, who
seized it from the Samnites, a population coming from the
mountain regions of the hinterland. The Samnites perhaps
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DE DIVITIIS ET AL.
contributed more to the economic development of Pompeii
than any other civilization, increasing the splendor and wealth
of the city. During the period from the 3rd to the 1st century
BC, the Samnites made an enormous contribution to economic
development, based predominantly on agriculture, and to
town planning and the development of creative arts. Their
fortifications were enormous, as were those works intended to
improve the quality of life of the celebrated center (6).
In 80 BC, Lucius Cornelius Sulla laid siege to and conquered
Pompeii, which then became a Roman city with a new consti-
tution. Latin became the official language and Venus Pompei-
ana the tutelary goddess of the city. The name of the colony
became Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeiorum, from the name of
its conqueror Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the goddess Venus,
who was greatly venerated. The conquered lands were
awarded to the veterans of Sulla who had fought with him.
Publius Cornelius Sulla, the nephew of Lucius Cornelius Sulla,
was made deductor of the colony. A politician and personage
of many qualities, he was responsible for the initial transfor-
mations within the Pompeian administration. It was at this
time that the Samnite magistrates, or meddices, were sup-
pressed. The city was governed by a senate of approximately
100 members, the ordo centurionum centurioni; two aediles, mag-
istrates responsible for the monuments and the roads; and two
duumviri, high magistrates empowered with executive author-
ity, of whom the first were two of Sulla’s legates, Gaius
Quinctius Valgus and Marcus Portius. Under the vigilant and
wise guidance of Rome, now abounding in culture and art as
well as splendor and magnificence, the Campanian colony
developed, growing at the same pace as the capital (21). In-
dustry and commerce progressed, and a renewed extraordi-
nary undertaking was begun to construct stores, shops, tem-
ples, and houses; comfort and decor permeated the city as
frescoes and mosaics, gardens, and splendid atriums embel-
lished the houses of the people of Pompeii.
In AD 62, an unexpected event destabilized the socioeco-
nomic equilibrium of this now well-established colony (1). A
terrible earthquake caused serious damage to a large part of
Campania and, with it, Pompeii. D. Cassius Cocceianus said:
“. . . in that occasion giants were seen wandering in the area
. . .” (in mythology, the vision of giants was associated with
catastrophic natural events). At the time, Campania was al-
ready known as a volcanic region, a characteristic it continues
to demonstrate to this day. The volcanic activity of the Campi
Phlegraei (␾␭⑀␥␯␳␱´ ␵), burning a region west of Mount Vesu-
vius, was already evident and is still today the site of numer-
ous small eruptions, soffiones of boiling steam and fumaroles.
Not long after, in AD 64, there was another telluric phenom-
enon. Suetonius, a Latin historian of the 2nd century AD and
author of the biographies of 12 Roman emperors, narrates that,
during that year, because of the earthquake, the Emperor Nero
had to suspend some theatrical performances that were to take
place in Naples in which he was to sing, but that he did so
only after he had finished his performance in the play already
in progress (26). The cities that suffered serious damage were
aided by the Roman Senate, but recovery was slow and diffi-
992 | VOLUME 55 | NUMBER 4 | OCTOBER 2004
cult. The onus of repairing public structures was too heavy a
burden; thus, reconstruction was concentrated principally on
rebuilding houses and business establishments.
THE ERUPTION
The incredible efforts of the people of Pompeii to rebuild
their city turned out to be futile, because on the morning of
August 24, AD 79, a cloud shaped like a pine tree was ob-
served hovering over Mount Vesuvius. The detailed descrip-
tion of Plinius the Younger and modern-day static studies of
the eruptive residues have made it possible to reconstruct (3)
the various phases of the eruption that took place 2000 years
ago with great accuracy, including the hours and days during
which the phenomena first became obvious. The eruption was
characterized by three principal phases: 1) the explosive and
sudden rupture of the crater, with the outpouring of white ash
toward the southeast to a distance of up to 43 miles; 2) the
emergence of a tall column of thick material (Plinian phase),
frequently hurtling back to the ground and gushing along the
sides of the volcano; and 3) the entrance of water into the
magmatic system, forming turbulent pyroclastic flows that
spread out radially around the volcano over more than 9 miles
(Fig. 4).
The hill that the inhabitants were accustomed to seeing as a
peaceful and serene mountain, cloaked in vineyards and
woodland, so loved for its lushness and fruitfulness, suddenly
awoke, burying seven centuries of history and, in one brief
instant, forever stopping time in Pompeii. Within the space of
48 hours from the beginning of the eruption, Pompeii, Hercu-
laneum, Stabiae, Oplontis, Leucopetra, Boscoreale, and other
minor centers of the area surrounding Sarno and Nocera
ceased to exist. Pompeii and Stabiae were buried under more
than 23 ft of lapilli, lava, and fiery cinders, and Herculaneum
was inundated by a torrent of lava (40,000 m3/s) mixed with
sand and ashes that buried this city under a layer almost 65 ft
high, which, once solidified, assumed the appearance of a
compact tuffaceous mass. Herculaneum disappeared com-
pletely, and all that remained in Pompeii were the tops of
some buildings emerging from a desolate landscape.
In the city of Pompeii, located southeast of the volcano, the
pyroclastic material rapidly began to accumulate in the streets
and courtyards as well as on the rooftops. Many inhabitants
sought refuge under roofs and balconies and inside houses
and buildings, whereas others fled toward the area of Nola,
away from Vesuvius. The ensuing accumulation of pyroclastic
material, especially the layers of pumice, trapped many, suf-
focating them during their attempt to escape. There was prob-
ably a brief pause between the eruptions of the Plinian phase
and the pyroclastic flow, and this may have deceived many
people, who probably returned to their homes to collect per-
sonal belongings and furnishings, leading to even more
deaths.
The first shower of pumice barely grazed the city of Hercu-
laneum, located 4.3 miles west of Mount Vesuvius. The ma-
jority of its inhabitants, frightened by the enormous cloud, the
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FIGURE 4. Topographical map showing aerial perspective of the pyroclastic
flow deposits (red area) and the pyroclastic fall deposits (blue area). Eruption
of AD 79 (from, Barberi F, Macedonio G, Pareschi MT, Santacroce R: Mapping
the tephra fallout risk: An example from Vesuvius, Italy. Nature 344:142–144,
1990 [3], modified).
rumbling, and the telluric shock waves, took flight, although
calmly, along the coastal road or tried to board boats from the
port, but the prohibitive conditions of the sea forced most to
seek refuge in chambers on the waterfront of Herculaneum.
The city of Pompeii was covered by ashes and lapilli up to a
height of approximately 23 ft, whereas Herculaneum was
invaded by pyroclastic flows (a thick eruptive mixture) gush-
ing down the sides of the volcano, burying the city under 65 ft
of residue and reaching out to the sea, extending the former
coastline by approximately 1300 ft.
The population was destroyed by the initial surge of activity
(a mixture of gas and solid particles, in which the gaseous
phase is prevalent) when the top of the pine tree-shaped mass
that had materialized in the air above the eruptive column
suddenly precipitated from a height of 65,000 to 98,000 ft,
crashing down on people, homes, and objects at a speed of 93
to 124 miles per hour and a temperature of 500°C (20). These
deadly clouds were described as glowing avalanches, or nuées
ardentes, by Lacroix (15) because of the transport of incandes-
cent fragments. The majority of deaths were caused by this
incandescent surge, later confirmed by paleopathological
studies, even though the people desperately sought shelter
from direct impacts. The victims did not experience a mechan-
NEUROSURGERY
POMPEII AND ITS VOLCANO
ical impact; thus, they display no signs of attempts to protect
themselves or contortions. They died by means of thermally
induced fulminant shock and not suffocation, without even
having the time to realize what was happening. This is obvi-
ous from the positions in which some of the victims were
found, indicating sudden death in less than a fraction of a
second, with no possibility of any defensive reaction. Other
victims, however, were found huddled or embracing, almost
all with their arms and hands covering their face. In one of the
houses, the House of the Golden Bracelet, researchers found
imprints, later used to make casts, of a woman with a child.
The woman was wearing jewels and holding a case containing
gold coins, evidently caught in a final attempt to save herself,
her child, and her valuables. The boxer stance in which several
of the bodies were found is typical of the victims of fire and
pyroclastic flows and is caused by instantaneous shortening of
the muscles and tendons after death.
There is a distinct difference in the condition of the victims’
remains between Pompeii and Herculaneum, with the latter
being buried under a river of lava much thicker than the layer
of ashes that covered Pompeii. In Pompeii, the ashes blanketed
persons, animals, and objects, solidifying around them. This
thin layer of ashes, which was the residue of the surge, quickly
hardened around the body before the soft tissues could de-
compose, creating a perfect mold of the body, with the layer of
pumice draining the fluids and keeping the body dry. Once
putrefaction was complete, the cavity remained. These cavities
were filled with liquid plaster, a process known as “Fiorelli’s
invention” (Fig. 5), or, more recently, with a transparent ep-
oxide resin that allowed the bones and other parts inside the
cavity to remain visible, bringing back to light the inhabitants
of that city as in the case of the Garden of the Fugitives (Fig. 6).
In Herculaneum, however, the skeletons are situated in a
relatively thin layer of dry ashes; there are no remains of soft
tissues, because the thick blanket of lava kept the tissues
humid during the phase of decomposition, leaving only the
skeletons intact (Fig. 7).
Recent paleopathological studies on the few remaining tis-
sues available, on teeth, and on bones have made it possible to
study the living conditions that existed in the area of Mount
Vesuvius. According to an examination of more than 1000
teeth, the dental systems of the victims seemed to be in excel-
lent condition, with a percentage of cavities of only 3.9%, in
spite of the fact that the diet of the period was rich in cario-
genic substances such as sugar, honey, dried fruit, and nuxam
cum duplice ficu (nut between two figs) (13). This apparent
incongruence may be explained by the high fluoride content
found in the enamel, a sign that the water in the area was rich
in fluoride. The effect of the high temperature to which many
of the victims were exposed is also confirmed by the pattern of
cracks found on the tooth enamel. A study of the skeletons,
whose bones rarely revealed signs of fracture, confirms that
most deaths were caused by exposure to heat or by suffoca-
tion. The bones also indicate that the population benefited
from the abundant resources of the soil: the sun, moderate
climate, and flourishing agriculture provided adequate nour-
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DE DIVITIIS ET AL.

FIGURE 6. Photograph showing the Garden of the Fugitives. In the fore-

ground is the cast of a child.

FIGURE 5. Photograph showing cast of a victim found near the Palestra

Grande.

ishment to the majority of the people. The charred remains of

food provide clues about the type of food preferred by the
Pompeians, consisting mainly of vegetables, fruit, and bread.
Their diet was rich in fiber and vegetable protein. The signif-
icant use of vegetables grown, for the most part, in domestic
vegetable gardens confirms the nickname given the Pom-
peians by Plautus, who called them “eaters of grass.” The
cabbage of Pompeii, also known as cauliflower, was famous:
“If you wish to drink much and eat heartily, take it raw before
and after the meal. It will seem that you have eaten nothing
and can drink as much as you wish.” In fact, bibemus et edemus
(let’s drink and eat) was the Epicurean rule religiously fol-
lowed by Pompeians (5). Sophisticated systems were used to
preserve fruit and vegetables. Fruit was first dried and then
immersed in honey, and vegetables were placed in vinegar or
brine, also used to preserve bluefish, tuna, and fish innards,
the latter of which was used to make garum, a sauce commonly
used in the daily preparation of food. The best of these sauces
were the garum excellens and the gari flos flos, which were made
from the innards of tuna, mackerel, and eel, the flos murae. The
FIGURE 7. Photograph showing a group of skeletons of the fugitives who
took shelter in chambers on the waterfront of Hercolaneum.
prices for these specialties were extremely high, such that it
was said they were as expensive as perfume (24).
Numerous historians, poets, and writers became interested
in the catastrophe that struck these areas and people. Among
them was Marcus Valerius Martialis (AD 40–104), a Latin poet
considered to be one of the greatest epigrammatists of the
ancient world, who dedicated an epigram to the salubrious
climate of Mount Vesuvius, the beauty of the countryside, the
fertility of the fields, and the deliciousness of the wines found
in the sites that were destroyed: “And here lies Vesuvius, till

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yesterday verdant in the shade of the vine leaves: here the
renowned grapes flowed from the press and filled casks to the
brim. This the mountain Bacchus loved more than Nisa: until
yesterday upon this mount the Satyrs danced. Here was the
city of Venus [Pompeii], whom she loved more than Sparta;
here the city whose name recalled the glory of Hercules [Her-
culaneum]. All is engulfed by flames and leaden ashes: the
gods would have preferred not to be permitted to wreak such
havoc” (19).
History of the Excavations
In 1594, the architect Domenico Fontana slashed into the hill
of modern Pompeii to excavate a canal to bring water from the
Sarno River to Torre Annunziata, known as Oplontis at the
time of the original eruption. On that occasion, the ruins of
buildings and epigraphs were discovered, but the city itself
was not recognized.
Excavations in Herculaneum were begun in 1709 by the
Austrian prince Emmanuel Maurice D’Elboeuf. He came
across the stage wall of a theater as his workers were excavat-
ing a well in the woods of the Alcantrine friars. The prince
ordered the removal of the statues and the precious marble
that covered the walls of the stage, and these subsequently
found their way to the great museums of Europe.
In 1748, as a result of some fortuitous discoveries, King
Charles III of Bourbon ordered the first explorations of Pom-
peii, similar to those that were already in progress in Hercu-
laneum. The often bitter controversies that accompanied these
excavations from the beginning later led to the irrefutable
accusations made by the famous archaeologist Winkelmann
regarding the “excavators,” among whom was the Spanish
military architect Roque Joaquim de Alcubierre, who “had as
much to do with antiquity as the moon has with shrimps” and
who directed the excavations together with two other engi-
neers, Jacob Karl Weber and Francisco La Vega (30). The goal
of the excavation, assigned to engineers often in conflict with
each other and lacking an actual program of research, was to
extract from the ground and assemble the objects found in
archaeological sites; the sites were then covered up once again.
The objects were to enrich the Bourbon Museum of Naples,
now the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, built by Charles of
Bourbon. Horace Walpole, son of the Whig English Prime
Minister, in Naples as part of his Grand Tour, remarked: “The
work is unhappily under the direction of Spaniards, people of
no taste or erudition, so that the workmen dig as chance
directs them.” Notwithstanding, the sovereign deluded him-
self into believing that he was supervising the works from the
palace and continued to use Alcubierre, who was justly cen-
sured by more cultured and farsighted persons. The king was
also a jealous custodian of anything that was extracted and
claimed as exclusive privilege not only any fragment of antiq-
uity but the right of reproduction and design. The extreme
harshness of the royal penalty fell on five inhabitants of Res-
ina, who confessed under torture to the crime of having stolen
three clay lanterns and one of bronze. The misdeed was pun-
NEUROSURGERY
POMPEII AND ITS VOLCANO
ished in an exemplary manner by public whipping with igno-
miny, imprisonment, and 3 years of exile.
In 1750, a fragment of an inscription extracted from the well
that had been excavated 41 years before by D’Elboeuf was
examined by Marcello Venuti, director of the Royal Library,
who said he discerned the word theatrum (31). Venuti had
himself lowered to the bottom of the well by a rope; there, by
the light of a torch, he discovered the layout of steps and the
curve of a semicircular structure. Recalling a tale of D. Cassius
Cocceianus, according to which the people of Herculaneum
had been surprised by the eruption while they were in a
theater, he reported to the sovereign that this was actually the
city that had been buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius
in AD 79, an observation soon confirmed by other epigraphic
proof. This was the period that brought to light the villa of
Cicero (later recovered), the villa of Diomedes, the theater, and
the path of the Sepulchre.
Even J.W. Goethe, in Italy for his own Grand Tour in 1786
and attracted by the beauties of Naples, went to Mount Vesu-
vius and to some of the archaeological sites; however, perhaps
because the excavations had not yet achieved the extraordi-
nary results we are familiar with today, he did not formulate
any complimentary judgments of Pompeii (“Pompeii is a sur-
prise to all visitors for the modesty of its proportions, roads
that are narrow though straight and with sidewalks on both
sides. Small houses without windows, rooms connected to
courtyards and to porticoes whose only light comes from the
doors. Even the public buildings, such as the Bank at the
entrance to the city and the Temple and even a nearby villa
seem to resemble toy models and doll displays rather than
buildings”). In March 1787, however, he was stunned by the
magnificence of the Greek temples of Paestum, where he
tasted mozzarella, a typical cheese produced using the milk of
the buffalos native to the area and described by the writer as
animals “resembling hippopotami and with wild and bloody
eyes” (11).
Excavations proceeded slowly under the Bourbons, with the
aim of enriching the Bourbon Museum of Naples rather than
of classifying the ruins and placing them into a historical
context. Many men of culture who were involved in the po-
litical debate of the period, including the Neapolitan followers
of the Enlightenment, clearly disapproved of this method of
conducting the excavations. This was the result of harsh and
continuous confrontations between the conservatives and the
supporters of renewal, as exemplified by the statement: “Vous
êtes des charlatains, messieurs les antiquaires!” Thus, Charles
Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, reproached a dear
friend in the antique business in a letter dated November 9,
1751. The irony of the writer of L’esprit des lois was directed not
only to the manias of antiquarians in general but also referred
to their methods, aimed at the discovery of individual objects
rather than a faithful reconstruction of the complex historical
experience that those objects represented. The esprit philos-
ophique of that period condemned any cultural undertaking
that was not socially useful. It also expressed the concept that
the cult of ancient objects conceived the human condition to
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DE DIVITIIS ET AL.
always be the same, codified in the beginning per aeternum.
This philosophy would lead to the negation of any novelty
and the passive acceptance of a static world; thus, enthusiasm
for the ancient was a means to conceal nostalgia for the past
and to doubt the future. It was natural, therefore, for the
Neapolitan and European culture of the time, critical of the
Old World, to be against rather than for any great archaeo-
logical undertaking.
Under Joachim Murat, King of Naples at the order of
Napoleon (1808–1815), interest in the town planning and ar-
chitecture of the uncovered cities re-emerged, especially with
respect to Pompeii, with a special focus on domestic construc-
tion and its increased importance in light of the culture now
based on the principles of the Enlightenment. Activity re-
sumed with greater fervor, especially in the area of Porta
Ercolano and the forum. In September 1812, Queen Caroline
Murat Bonaparte, sister of Napoleon, wrote a letter to the
people in charge of the excavations, asking them to define the
complete perimeter of the city, (“avoir le tour de la ville”), to
give a name to the districts and the roads (“donner le noms à
chaque quartier et aux rues”), and to make a precise inventory as
the items were excavated (“à mesure qu’on fouille faire un in-
ventaire exact”). There followed a temporary interruption of
the excavations, but work was resumed from 1851 to 1859.
In 1860, with the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy, the
excavations, now under the direction of the archaeologist
Giuseppe Fiorelli, were provided new impetus and, finally, a
scientific basis. First of all, perhaps to respect the wishes of
Queen Caroline Murat, he subdivided the city into regiones
(regions) and insulae (blocks), each with a number. He also
conceived the expedient of making casts of the victims of the
eruption, using liquid plaster poured into the cavities found in
the solidified ashes. This system was later applied to the
wooden parts of the houses (doors, windows, architraves, and
household furnishings), thus expanding our knowledge of
even the smallest objects (9). Fiorelli was succeeded by others
up to our own time, including Amedeo Maiuri and Alfonso de
Francisciis, who have undertaken to complete and restore the
excavations so that visitors and scientists may have as com-
plete and faithful a view as possible of the architectural ele-
ments, the decorations, and all the minute objects contained
therein (18) (Fig. 8).
THE CITY
The planimetry of the city was influenced by the Greek
architect and urban specialist of the 5th century BC,
⌱␲␲␱´ ␦␣␮␱␵ ⑀␬ M␫␭␩´ ␶␱␯, who is thought to have originally
conceived the layout of the city according to orthogonal road-
ways. Although it is located in Naples, the old Greek town has
a strict Hippodamean texture, set at right angles and with
uniform dimensions of the blocks; in Pompeii, it is possible to
find only the partial layout of such an arrangement. The city
stretched out over two straight roads that crossed at the center
of the city, with two decumani running from east to west (via
della Fortuna and via dell’Abbondanza), and three cardines
996 | VOLUME 55 | NUMBER 4 | OCTOBER 2004
FIGURE 8. Photograph showing panoramic view of the excavation area of
Pompeii.
running north to south (via di Mercurio, via Stabia, and via
Nocera). Because the roads were essential for transportation,
commerce, and exchange, they were constructed of enor-
mously large and thick polygonal blocks to ensure solidity
and durability. To make it easier for pedestrians to cross the
streets when it rained and, at the same time, avoid obstructing
the passage of vehicles, raised quoins were placed from one
sidewalk to the other (Fig. 9). The majority of the roads of that
era now seem to us to be narrow: in Pompeii, they were 7.9,
11.8, or 14.7 ft wide, and the widest of all measured little more
than 23 ft. Often, fountains decorated with sculptures, sitting
above rectangular basins of stone, were placed at the
crossroads.
Ancient Pompeii, with a population of approximately
20,000, covered an area of approximately 66 hectares and was
surrounded by a fortified retaining wall 10,500 ft long. Like
many Roman cities, its urban design was similar to that of the
castra, fortified military encampments. The wall had seven
gates (Porta Marina, Porta Stabia, Porta Nola, Porta Ercolano,
Porta Nocera, and the now semidestroyed Porta Vesuvio and
Porta Sarno), whose names indicated the destination of the
road intersecting the gate. The gates were further reinforced
by 12 square towers.
Near the city gates were located the hospitia, or hotels, as
well as the stabula, or barns for the animals, whereas the
principal roads were filled with cauponae, or inns, and ther-
mopolia, or snack bars. The center of life in the city was con-
centrated in Via dell’Abbondanza, where one could find the
latest and most interesting news on elections, shows, and
finance, for example, disseminated by writings and drawings
executed by scriptores. The walls of the homes along this road
contained numerous graffiti writings, rather like notebooks in
which everyone could write: shopkeepers, students, lovers,
and even slave dealers and procurers to publicize their wares.
The discoveries unearthed to date in the city of Pompeii
have allowed us to reconstruct daily life in that city with a
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FIGURE 9. Photograph showing the Via dell’Abbondanza connecting the
area of the forum with the Porta Sarno (3rd century BC).
certain degree of accuracy: what the people of Pompeii did in
their leisure time in the thermae, the theatrum, and the amphi-
theatrum. Life there was lived at a frenetic pace, with constant
bustle in streets filled with persons going about their business,
buying and selling, or working in the numerous craft shops of
the city, whereas many others would be found eating in the
numerous thermopolia. Frescoes, mosaics, and statues recon-
struct even the sexual habits of its people with naturalness and
simplicity. Customs were free of any prejudices, and there
were absolutely no taboos regarding sexual proclivity (28).
The people of Pompeii were open-minded on the subject of
sex, considering it an important part of daily life and an
activity to be carried out with extreme lack of constraint.
Sexual habits that we may today view as perversions were
practiced openly because they were considered as fulfilling
practical and earthly needs, granted through the benevolence
of Venus, the protectress of the city. There are sexual symbols
and scenes everywhere: graffiti or paintings on the walls of the
thermae and in the lupanar depict the most varied of sexual
positions and services, and phalluses of varying size and
shape are found at the entrance of many homes and business
establishments because they were symbols of plenty as well as
being useful as doorbells. Inside many houses, frescoes or
statues representing Priapus, the god of fecundity and abun-
dance, always with extraordinary attributes, welcomed every-
one who entered. There is even a phallus sculpted into a
NEUROSURGERY
POMPEII AND ITS VOLCANO
paving stone on a street near the forum, indicating the way to
the alley of the nearby lupanar, or brothel.
Public Buildings
At the intersection of the two main roads or its immediate
vicinity was the Forum Civile, a long rectangular square paved
in travertine and enclosed on two sides by columned porticoes
on two levels. Dominated on the north by the Temple of
Jupiter, the forum was the center of religious, political, and
commercial life, with the most important public buildings
located around it according to a repetitive scheme similar to
the layout of many Roman cities throughout the world. The
forum was the Greek 〈␷␱␳␱´ ␣´ , the fulcrum of the urban system
and of city life (Fig. 10). This vast porticoed rectangular area,
with public buildings along three sides, set the scene for most
political and religious activities, business meetings, and lei-
sure time. Carts were forbidden from entering the area, and
the square was surrounded by more than 100 blocks contain-
ing buildings in which all the urban, public, religious, lay,
residential, and commercial functions took place. At the back
of the square, to the north, was the Temple of Jupiter, built in
the 2nd century BC; after the founding of the Roman colony in
the year 80 BC, it was transformed into the Capitolium and
dedicated to the cult of the Capitoline triad (Jupiter, Juno, and
Minerva). Along the western side were located the horreum
(public granary), the treasury, and the mensa ponderaria (i.e.,
weighing tables that made use of standard-capacity measures
and were supervised by special magistrates to prevent any
fraud by shopkeepers; a total of 12 units of measurement were
used). To the south were the buildings used by the public
administration: the buildings of the duumviri, the aediles, and
the curia (municipal council). On the eastern side was the
eumachia, headquarters of the fullones guild (manufacturers
and washers of woolen fabrics), and the macellum (Fig. 11), the
food market. The basilica, also located along the square, was
used for business dealings and for the administration of jus-
tice. This was the meetingplace for businessmen and was used
by lawyers to meet with their clients. The graffiti in the Oscan
language found written along the walls and the seal Ni Pupie
(Numerius Pupidius, Samnite magistrate) place this building
among the oldest examples of this style. Next to the forum is
the Temple of Isis (Fig. 12), a cult imported from Egypt,
containing a small subterranean cavity used to preserve the
sacred water of the River Nile and a large room in the back of
the temple that served as a meeting place for the numerous
worshippers of this cult.
At the crossroad of the main roads were located the thermae
suburbanae (Fig. 13), the suburban thermal baths, arranged on
two levels and connected by an internal stairway (14). The
steam issuing from the water heated in huge tanks circulated
through the classical premises by means of cavities in the
walls and in the floors. The lower level was the actual thermal
area and contained the apodyterium (dressing rooms) (Fig. 14),
the frigidarium (cold baths), the tepidarium (premises with a
moderate temperature), the laconicum (a small room for steam
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DE DIVITIIS ET AL.
FIGURE 10. Photograph showing the Forum Civile.
baths) and, finally, the calidarium (a room containing the hot
water). In such suburban baths, no distinction was made
between premises for men and women, in contrast to the other
two thermae that served the city: the thermae stabianae and the
thermae forenses, where men and women were separated.
The city was served by an aqueduct for public use and for
the private residences of the rich. The castellum aquae was the
city outlet for the aqueduct built by Augustus to supply the
imperial fleet at Misenum. Fed by the sources of the Serino,
near modern-day Avellino, it was built on the highest point of
the city, behind the Porta Vesuvio, to exploit the pressure of
the falling water. It consisted of a watershed that branched out
998 | VOLUME 55 | NUMBER 4 | OCTOBER 2004
FIGURE 11. Photograph showing the macellum.
FIGURE 12. Photograph showing the Temple of Isis.
in three directions, bringing water to the different areas of the
city. Distribution was regulated by metal floodgates.
In the section of the city where there was a small hill, a
building used for theatrical performances already existed as
early as the 5th century BC. This had been constructed “in the
Greek style,” by excavating steps along the flank of the hill.
The Greeks were not familiar with the arch, but the Romans,
modifying it from the Etruscans, used it to create arched and
vaulted structures capable of supporting any type of masonry
structure. In ancient times, performances were delivered dur-
ing the day in theaters and arenas that the public entered free
of charge, because these were part of the religious rites in
honor of Dionysus. The current theatrum, which also had an
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FIGURE 13. Photograph showing the thermae suburbanae. The thermal
complex was built in the early imperial age and is found outside the city
walls.
FIGURE 14. Photograph showing the thermae suburbanae with apo-
dyterium (wooden boards for clothing). On the top floor were some erotic
paintings without any decorative function (perhaps sexual performances
by the slaves).
area covered with porticoes to shelter the public when it
rained, could contain up to 5000 persons. The steps, or cavea,
in the shape of a horseshoe, were divided into three zones: the
lower or ima cavea, in marble, was reserved for the decurions
and citizens who had served their country; a balustrade dec-
orated with the claws of the winged griffin separated the ima
from the media and the summa cavea, reserved for the general
public. Usually, the performances consisted of the plays of
Plautus or Terentius; popular farces in Oscan, the Atellanae;
and mimes and pantomimes accompanied by dances and
music. The duumviri Gaius Quinctius Valgus and Marcus Por-
tius, both lieutenants of Sulla, built the amphitheatrum (Fig. 15)
around the year 80 BC at their own expense. Partially embed-
NEUROSURGERY
POMPEII AND ITS VOLCANO
FIGURE 15. Photograph showing the amphitheatrum. In the back-
ground is Mount Vesuvius.
ded in the mountain, this is the oldest Roman amphitheater in
existence. Although it did not have the structural and con-
struction complexity of the later imperial amphitheaters, it
was sufficiently large to accommodate 20,000 spectators. In
AD 59, this amphitheater became the site of a terrible fight
between the Pompeians and Nocerians (27) that took place
during the course of an exhibition of gladiators organized by
Livinius Regulus. The citizens of Nocera and Pompeii began
to trade insults, which led to rock throwing and then sword
thrusts, finally ending up with a great number of wounded
and dead. The Emperor delegated the Roman Senate to inves-
tigate, which, in turn, delegated the Consuls, who suspended
all performances in Pompeii for 10 years and condemned
Livinius and the instigators of the riot to exile. Next to the
great amphitheater is the gymnasium, surrounded by a portico,
with a swimming pool at its center. According to the plentiful
graffiti found there, this is where the gladiators trained for
their performances.
Commercial Establishments
All along the streets of the city, stores and shops occupied
the premises on the ground floor of the buildings, many
transformed to this use only during the final years of Pompeii
when the mercantile class became more fully developed. In
their single ground floor premises, some of the shops also had
a mezzanine, usually made of wood, used as a residence for
the shopkeepers. This functional scheme is still visible in many
of the shops in southern Italy to this day. At times, the shops
opened onto the sidewalk, with a small wooden portico pro-
viding shelter from the sun and used to display merchandise.
At the entrance to the shops was a long stone counter covered
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DE DIVITIIS ET AL.

in marble and containing rounded amphorae filled with oil,

wine, or grain. A study of the wall graffiti and the painted
plaster on the walls provides an idea of the social and religious
customs of the city at the time and has allowed us to identify
the different types of shops and public services available (8).
Various tools and objects, such as stone grinders to produce
flour in bakery shops, and the discovery of numerous carbon-
ized loaves of bread found in ovens later revealed the use of
these premises.
The fullonica, purportedly of Stephanus, is one of 4 large
laundries of a total of 18 that existed in Pompeii. This was
constructed by restructuring an existing house in which the
ground floor was reserved for work activities and the upper
floor was used as a residence. The restructuring of the house
into a fullonica required the transformation of the impluvium
into a basin to be used to wash and rinse the clothes and the
modification of an inclined roof to a flat roof to be used as a
terrace to dry the various items. Clothes were washed using
water, soda, and urine (the most prized of which was camel
urine imported from the East), because soap was not known at
the time in Pompeii and was only subsequently discovered in
Gallia. Urine, later taxed by the Emperor Vespasianus (26),
was collected daily in the gastrum urinarum, a urinary am-
phora of terra cotta without a neck, located at the corner of
roads and alleys or near the entrance to the fullonica to be used FIGURE 16. Fresco showing the pistrinum, one of the most ancient bak-
by those who passed by. The fullones, or washermen, then eries managed by a freedman of P. Priscus, one of the oldest and impor-
collected the urine, which was much prized for its cleaning tant families in Pompeii.
and disinfecting properties. At the back of the shop was a
kitchen used to prepare meals for the workers. At the time of tombstones in memory of dead women also describe the de-
the excavations, the door to the shop was found closed with a ceased as lanifica assidua (a steady weaver).
lock, and inside was a skeleton with the sum of 1089.5 ces- The thermopolium (Fig. 17), similar to our modern-day snack
terces in gold, silver, and bronze coins (the income of the day bar, was popular, given the habit of the time to eat the pran-
or perhaps the savings of a fugitive in search of shelter).
The macellum (Fig. 11), a Greek word meaning market, was
used principally for the sale of meat and fish, which were
weighed using the classic lever scales; one of these scales was
unearthed along with the weight, which was in the shape of a
bust of Mercurius. Inside was a porticoed courtyard with rows
of shops.
The pistrinum (Fig. 16), one of the 34 bakeries found in
Pompeii, was used to make bread. Such shops had been in use
since the 2nd century BC. The special characteristics of these
shops are the grinder and wood-burning oven, similar to the
ovens that are still in use today in the pizza restaurants of
Naples. The grinder was pulled by a donkey and used to grind
the grain, which was poured from the top.
The textrina (textile shop) has been reconstructed on the
basis of graffiti. We know that the upper level, where the
weaving took place, contained the looms and that the lower
level was used to sell the finished product. The work was
performed principally by women, according to the graffiti
found in the textrina of Terentius Eudox, giving the names of
11 women and seven men. This work was considered partic- FIGURE 17. Photograph showing the thermopolium. In this sort of res-
ularly suitable for women; indeed, Augustus himself encour- taurant were served hot meals and drinks (from which came the name).
aged his wife, daughters, and nieces to weave. Many of the Along the back wall are the Lares.

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dium (lunch) outside the home. This type of eating establish-
ment, a sort of “fast food restaurant,” could provide a hot meal
that could be eaten while remaining in the street, through a
wide opening in the premises, or while going inside, to the
rooms in the back. The structure had a masonry counter in
which were embedded the dolia, containing the merchandise.
In one of these containers was found a number of coins
weighing approximately 3 kg and valued at 680 cesterces,
perhaps the income of the day, given the enormous quantity
of change (374 aces and 1237 quadrants).
The graffiti written on the doors of different buildings identify
numerous craft shops, each having a different specialty, indicat-
ing the high level of efficiency that existed in Pompeii at the time
of the earthquake. On the majority of the entrances to commercial
establishments hung the tintinnabula, which had the dual func-
tion of warning of the entry of a customer and keeping away the
evil eye (apotropaic function, from the Greek ␣´ ␲␱␶␳␱´ ␲␣␫␱␵
[keeping away the evil]). The writing of the words faber ferrarius
Iunianus indicated a hardware store, where horse bits, common
keys, falces vinitoriae (small scythes for the vineyards), and four
sets of compedes (fetters for slaves) were found. Another example
of graffiti read quactiliari rogant (the felt workers recommend); to
the left of the entry to this shop was a Pompeian Venus laden
with jewels and cloaked in felt. The shop of the lignarius, or
woodworker, had a bas-relief of a phallus at the entrance to
protect against the evil eye. In the shop of a pottery maker called
Zosimus, which sold the vasa faecaria (i.e., containers for garum
sauce) among other things, six containers with residue of the
sauce still inside were found. In the officina lanifricaria, which
specialized in shearing and wool making, graffiti indicate the
best period to shear sheep—between the spring equinox and the
summer solstice (March 21–June 22) and preferably during the
waning moon. The officina infectoria, with the graffiti infectores
rogant (dyers suggest), contained recommendations on how to
keep colors bright.
The Home
Almost two-thirds of the urban area of Pompeii was occupied
by private homes. The city of Pompeii provides an excellent
opportunity to study the private residence in all its aspects and
through the entire period of Pompeii’s social and historical de-
velopment, lasting more than 4 centuries, from the 3rd to 4th
century BC to the 1st century AD. Because the different types of
construction refer to distinctly different eras, it is possible to
determine the date of the initial construction of a building as well
as all subsequent renovations and/or transformations. Pompeii
provides us with a rare and precise anthology of the domus,
whose basic scheme was established by the Samnites. The Sam-
nite era is characterized by the opus incertum and by constructions
of tufa stone. The constructions dating to the first Roman period,
on the other hand, consist of small square blocks with an octag-
onal grid placement, whereas brick was introduced during final
Roman period. Through the centuries, each invading population
transplanted to Pompeii its own customs and culture, but of all
the invasions, the people that left the greatest imprint were the
NEUROSURGERY
POMPEII AND ITS VOLCANO
Samnites, with their influence still felt even after 4 centuries of
progressive Romanization. The style of the houses varied accord-
ing to the social status of the owner. Wealthy aristocrats, land-
owners, fenatores (bankers), forenses (lawyers), and the nobiles
(nobility) lived in luxurious homes having a surface area of 4842
to 32,280 sq ft, mostly situated in the regio VI. In Italic style, these
were later enlarged with peristilia (gardens), triclinia (dining
rooms), and oeci (salons), for example, with enchanting hanging
terraces overlooking splendid panoramas. The house was de-
signed specifically with receptions and banquets in mind, be-
cause this class was accustomed to providing “. . . atria et perys-
tilia amplissima, silvae ambulationesque laxiores . . . praeterea
bybliothecas, pinacothecas . . . quod in domus eorum saepius et publica
consilia et privata iudicia arbitraque conficiuntur . . .” (. . . wide atri-
ums and peristyles, ample gardens and porticoes . . . libraries and
art galleries . . . for their homes were often used for public coun-
cils as well as for private arbitrations . . .) (29). The more modest
and less wealthy class of freedmen, artisans, and businessmen
lived typically in smaller houses ranging in size from approxi-
mately 1291 to 3765 sq ft. The rooms were grouped around a
central covered atrium or around a garden enclosed by a retain-
ing wall called a viridarium. Wall and floor decor was less luxu-
rious even though rather elegant at times. The third type of
residence, called a house-shop or simply shop, was usually 215 to
538 sq ft in size, with a room behind the shop or a loft built above
the shop area called a pergula that could be reached by a wooden
stair. This latter type of residence was considered quite humble:
habitare in pergula meant living in a hovel “. . . hic qui pergula natus
est, aedes non somniatur . . .” (he who is born in a hovel, dreams
not of palaces) (23).
The names assigned to the houses by the excavators during
the various eras followed different criteria. If the name of the
owner was found on a bronze seal or on wall graffiti, that was
the name assigned to the house (e.g., House of the Vettii), the
name may refer to an important object discovered in the house
(e.g., House of the Faun, House of the Golden Bracelet), or the
name may refer to a painting found therein (e.g.,Villa of the
Mysteries, Villa of the Ship Europa).
The domus italica had a number of rooms used principally to
meet physical requirements, such as bedrooms, toilets, kitch-
ens, and dining rooms, all located alongside the spaces re-
served for the family’s social and cultural activities (17). These
spaces were either covered, as in the case of the atrium (Fig.
18), or open, as in the peristilium (Fig. 19). The most popular,
the atrium-style house, consisted of a central nucleus, the
atrium, with a roof having an opening in the center to allow
rain water to flow into a tank called an impluvium. Linked
around the atrium were the various rooms for the family and
servants, and in the back was a large area used partly as an
orchard or vegetable garden and partly as a flower garden. At
the entrance to the house and to many of the commercial
establishments was a lararium, the private oratory of the Ro-
mans or chapel used to worship the Lares, the household gods
who protected the house and the family. The well-preserved
lararium of the House of the Vettii was inserted in an aedicule;
in the middle was the Genius of the owner, and laterally were
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DE DIVITIIS ET AL.
FIGURE 18. Perspective drawing demonstrating reconstruction scheme
and section of an atrium-type house (from, “Pompei e gli architetti
francesi dell’800”; catalog of the exhibition, Naples, 1981).
FIGURE 19. Perspective drawing demonstrating reconstruction scheme
and section of a peristilium-type house (from, “Pompei e gli architetti
francesi dell’800”; catalog of the exhibition, Naples, 1981).
the Lares, together with the Agatodemon (the good snake) (Fig.
20) as opposed to the Kakodemon (the evil snake). The Agato-
demon was represented by the Greeks with a crowned head
and a tail with a lotus flower. In the lararium of the thermopo-
lium, Mercurius, god of commerce and profit, and Dionysus,
god of wine, are represented together with the Lares (Fig. 21).
This design was so practical that the Romans did not change
it for hundreds of years. The only changes they made involved
simple additions to the domus to increase the service rooms.
1002 | VOLUME 55 | NUMBER 4 | OCTOBER 2004
FIGURE 20. Fresco in the House of the Vettii showing the Genius (spirit) of
the household in the center, the Lares (protectors) laterally, and the Agatode-
mon (good snake) at the bottom. The lararium is located in an aedicula.
The atrium was often embellished with columns, and the gar-
den was adorned with fountains and statues. Private rooms
for women only (the gynaeceum), rooms for conversation (the
exedrae), and private thermal baths (the balneum) were created.
From the 2nd century BC, this model underwent a Hellenic
influence, whereby one or more peristyles were added in the
rear, the area previously used as an orchard or garden.
The garden was the heart and center of the house, where the
family would eat, pray, work, and relax. The older houses also
had fruit and walnut trees, underneath which vegetables were
grown. In modern houses, the gardens were more ornamental,
with lawns, berries, viburnums, laurel, oleanders, and roses.
Initially, the garden, or hortus, simply had the function of
providing food and was the responsibility of the lady of the
house: “. . . Haec cura feminae dicebatur . . .” (24). In time, how-
ever, the garden assumed a more architectural aspect and was
placed under the responsibility of a topiarius, the master gar-
dener. The old hortus was now transformed into a place of
prestige to be used for rest, amusement, and receptions, and it
was adorned and enriched with swimming pools, statues, and
paintings. Naturally, there was also a nymphaeum, a place of
meditation, where water was the dominant element.
Some of the houses uncovered in Pompeii are especially sig-
nificant: the House of the Faun takes its name from a small
bronze statue of a dancing faun. The house occupies an entire
block and was the largest and most luxurious villa in the Pompeii
of the Samnite era. In addition to numerous valuable paintings, it
contained a floor mosaic representing Alexander the Great de-
feating the Persian king Darius at the peak of the Battle of Issus
(333 BC), now visible in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale of
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 POMPEII AND ITS VOLCANO

Naples. The Villa of the Mysteries is one of the most important of

the monumental buildings uncovered in the city. Built during the
first half of the 2nd century BC as an urban residence, it under-
went extensive renovation, becoming a highly elegant patrician
villa (Fig. 21). After the earthquake of AD 62, it fell into the hands
of crude owners; shorn of its previous furnishings, it was trans-
formed into a rustic villa and farmhouse. The villa, with its large
Dionysian painting and farming installations, more than any
other, represents a unique synthesis of art, religion, and work in
the fields, displaying all the various and essential aspects of
Pompeii. Inside the villa, in a marble-paved room approximately
376 sq ft in size, is the Hall of the Great Painting (Fig. 22), a fresco
that extends over a surface area 56 ft in length and 10 ft in height
(megalography), with life-sized figures on a red background, the
typical color of Pompeii. The 29 figures in the painting are
grouped and separated into different scenes, human activities
alternating with divine figures and actions. According to recent
studies, this painting illustrates a bride’s initiation into the Di-
onysian mysteries; thus, the name. The ecstatic and sensual cult
of Dionysus, the god who inspired passion and debauchery and
who was honored with unbridled dances to the cry of Evoè (the
typical cry of joy of the bacchantes), was widespread in southern FIGURE 22. Fresco found in the Hall of the Great Painting (megalogra-
Italy, in spite of a severe ban imposed by the Roman Senate phy) in the Villa of the Mysteries.
(Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus). The scene begins with the
figure of a child (perhaps Dionysus) reading the sacred papyrus
containing the rules for the ritual (Figs. 23 and 24).
The House of the Vettii reflects the life of the wealthier classes
in the Pompeii of the 1st century AD. Two bronze seals have led
scholars to attribute this house to two wealthy freedmen, Aulus
Vettiius Restitutus and Aulus Vettiius Conviva. The villa has a
superb peristyle enriched by a splendid garden, in which are
expertly located fountains and decorative waterworks that have
been uncovered intact by the excavations (Fig. 25). All around are
rooms decorated with the fantastic architecture of the fourth
pictorial style, with elegant wall paintings of mythological sub- FIGURE 23. Fresco in the Villa of the Mysteries showing the first part of
the great painting.
jects. Along the southern wall is a painting depicting the struggle
between Hero and Pan. On the northern wall is an illustration of
the myth of Cyparissus, who was guilty of killing a favored deer
of Apollo; Apollo then avenged himself by transforming

FIGURE 24. Fresco in the Villa of the Mysteries showing the second part
of the great painting.

Cyparissus into a cypress. On the northeast corner of the peri-

FIGURE 21. Drawing of the Villa of the Mysteries demonstrating per-
spective (P. Scurati Manzoni, 1991).
style, Daedalus is showing Pasíphae, the wife of King Minos of
Crete, the wooden cow he has built for her. Pasíphae enters the
cow and couples with a bull with whom she has fallen in love,
thus conceiving the Minotaur.
Another structure of great value is the House of the Papyri,
located in Herculaneum approximately 98 ft underneath the

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DE DIVITIIS ET AL.
FIGURE 25. Photograph showing the garden of the House of the Vettii.
current level of the city. This villa stands out for its grandiose
architecture. Its facade is 820 ft long, with a rectangular peristyle
measuring 328 ft by 121 ft, with 25 columns on the major sides
and 10 on the minor sides and a pool at the center measuring 216
ft. There is also an immense terrace opening out toward the sea,
with a lookout reached by means of a long path paved with
precious and elegant marble inlays. This was the home of the
patrician Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesarinus, the father-in-law of
Julius Caesar, a man of extremely fine taste and profound and
eclectic culture. He loved surrounding himself with works of art
in marble and bronze (which are today found in the Museo
Archeologico Nazionale of Naples) and had a complete library of
Epicurean philosophy, with texts by the philosopher Philodemus
Gadarensis, consisting of 1759 papyri. These papyri were found
rolled and charred, but special methods and equipment have
been used to open them without damage, allowing us to read,
translate, and interpret them (10).
Paintings
The paintings found in Pompeii provide an idea of the
nature of ancient paintings: each house or shop, even a modest
one, contained murals, which were considered an essential
element for the embellishment of the walls. Figurative paint-
ings were almost always copies, usually of well-known Greek
works. It is surprising that there was such a great number of
works and of such excellent quality, considering the relatively
modest importance of the city compared with Rome. The
technique used for the wall paintings, known as fresco, con-
sisted of applying two or three layers of plaster made of a
mixture of lime, sand, and marble powder to the walls. This
was used to paint the background and was then left to dry.
After drying, decorations were added. The colors used were
made of colored earth such as ochres, mineral dyes such as
copper carbonate, and vegetable and animal dyes.
Contrary to ancient oriental art, which placed no great empha-
sis on scenery, or the Greek art of Praxiteles and Phidias, which
focused on man, Pompeian art provides us with an entire array
of all that can possibly be painted: still lifes, animals (i.e., insects,
fish, reptiles, birds), and landscapes. Apart from the purely
1004 | VOLUME 55 | NUMBER 4 | OCTOBER 2004
mythological inspiration of the majority of these works, artists
also attempted to evoke the pleasure of the countryside with all
the characteristic elements of idyllic scenery: shepherds, flocks,
small temples, villas, and, farther away, mountains. Even though
artists were not familiar with perspective (the rules of this type of
representation were not developed for more than 1000 years),
they drew faraway items and persons as small and those that
were closer or more important as large.
Thanks to the countless discoveries made throughout the dif-
ferent eras, scholars have identified four distinct styles of paint-
ing, not particularly specific to Pompeii but well known through-
out the Roman world. The first style, also known as the
“encrustation style,” goes back to the Samnite era, around 150
BC, up to the initial years of the Roman colony, around the year
80 BC. It takes its name from the Latin word crusta, meaning to
cover with marble slabs, an economical surrogate for marble, and
consists of simple squares in the predominant colors of red and
black. Hues are intense, indicating an elementary chromatic sen-
sitivity. This style was widespread in buildings and homes and is
found in the basilica and Temple of Jupiter as well as in such
private homes as the House of the Faun.
The second style is the “architectural style,” which was
predominant from the year 80 BC to AD 14, that is, from the
origin of the Roman colony to the death of the Emperor
Augustus. Paintings of this period consist of a plinth above, on
which is painted an architectural pseudoperspective contain-
ing mythological paintings as part of a vast landscape. The
Villa of the Mysteries, with its Hall of the Great Painting,
perfectly expresses this style of painting and this period. The
works of landscape painters of this period are usually inspired
by details from a garden. Pompeii is full of such examples,
presaging the French and Flemish tapestries known as ver-
dures. It was also the fashion to paint animals such as birds
and fishes together with vegetables and different types of fruit
in an extraordinary series of still lifes. Some of the wall dec-
orations in this style are of the trompe l’oeil variety (Fig. 26).
The third style, or “Egyptian style,” also known as the style
“of the royal wall,” has a complex architecture depicting fan-
tastic buildings adorned by small suspended figures. This
style was in vogue from AD 14, the first imperial age, to AD
62. The artists of the new school completely overturned the
three-dimensional opening of space. They traced on the walls
a loosely woven and inconsistent structure, similar to bamboo,
with many Egyptian motifs, a result of the conquest of this
country by Rome in 30 BC. At that time, drawings aimed for
a certain flat and decorative aspect similar to tapestries and
draperies, which, according to the nails and hooks that were
discovered, were used to cover the walls. The landscapes
painted on the walls during this period were small, so reduced
in size as to appear to be miniatures drawn on the masonry.
Finally, the fourth style, or “ornamental style,” from 62 to 79
AD, is the style of the final Pompeian period and the one that best
renders the luxurious and mercantile character of the houses of
Pompeii before the eruption. This style encompasses different
genres of painting. Because the fourth style belongs to the final
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 POMPEII AND ITS VOLCANO

FIGURE 27. Fourth style. Fresco showing mythological scenes in the tri-
clinium of the House of the Vettii.

FIGURE 26. Second style. Frescoed door demonstrating trompe l’oeil. The lime-
containing amphorae testify to the work in progress to repair the damage caused by
the earthquake of AD 64 to the vestibulum of the house of C.J. Polibius.

years of this city, the paintings are also more numerous. Typical
of this period is the House of the Vettii (Fig. 27) (2).
All four styles are in total harmony with the common idea
of placing illustrations on masonry, with an imaginary depth
that is the basis for future drawings in perspective. Apart from
any stylistic classification, there are also numerous paintings
of popular subjects depicting the environment and the social
customs, including, in particular, the paintings of the Lares,
scenes of sex in the lupanarii and thermae, scenes in inns, and
depictions of fights in the amphitheatrum.
Among Pompeians was diffused the habit to represent with
splendid masks characters sometimes human and sometimes myth-
ological. These were found in numerous frescoes, which, unlike
Christian painting, were never painted on walls of churches or
temples but mainly in private houses and villas (Figs. 28 and 29).
Pompeii, one among the best-preserved ancient cities, today
represents a rich field of study and investigation for scientists. FIGURE 28. Fresco on a wall of the oecus in the House of the Golden
The excavations were initiated under the Bourbon king and Bracelet showing a mask.
are still at the height of their course; scientists tend to believe
that only 30% of the city has been unearthed. This city, to- urbanists, volcanologists, geologists, paleopathologists, and
gether with other cities of the Mount Vesuvius area, represents other experts. Buried, together with other cities, between Au-
one of the most famous models for historians, archaeologists, gust 24 and 25, AD 79, Pompeii remained sealed under the

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DE DIVITIIS ET AL.
FIGURE 29. Fresco on a wall in a house in Insula occidentalis showing a mask.
deposits of the eruption of its volcano for almost 2000 years.
Although the eruption killed thousands of defenseless men
and women, it preserved intact and perpetuated one of the
most precious documents of antiquity. Thus, streets, monu-
ments, villas, temples, and gardens of these blooming settings
remained forgotten for centuries. Today, the excavations are
giving us back extraordinary evidence concerning the culture,
everyday life, habits, architecture, and wonderful frescoes of
the Roman cities of southern Italy. As Goethe said: “. . . no
disaster gave so much joy to the following generations . . ..”
If everything that was removed from Pompeii was put back
today, imagination could make us believe that the city is still
alive. The shop of the pharmacist, with the symbol of the
Caduceus and the phials, seems to tell us that the pharmacist
has just gone into the other room to prepare a potion. Entering
in the pistrinum and seeing the sacks of wheat, the oven, and
the millstone, we could believe that the donkey turning the
mill-wheel has just run away. In the mensa ponderaria, the
weigher is not there because he went to force a fraudulent
trader to pay the fine. Entering in the amphitheatrum, one
seems to hear the tumultuous sounds of the fight between the
Nocerians and Pompeians. Goodness knows but that one day,
during an excavation, it may happen that one of the modern
archeologists hears from underground the voice of a Pom-
peian asking for help: “maxime Jupiter salvum me fac” (“su-
preme Jupiter, save me”). Covered by a shroud of ashes and
lapilli after centuries of sleep, one fine day Pompeii reawak-
ened and arose from its sepulcher, revealing itself to an aston-
1006 | VOLUME 55 | NUMBER 4 | OCTOBER 2004
ished world in all its past splendor, with its artwork openly
divulging the details of its public life, the secrets of its private
life, and even the mysteries of its religious rites (22).
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