Rajat Goyal and Michelle Fater

The Circulatory
System

1

Table of Contents
Table of Contents 1
Human Organ Systems 2
The Circulatory System 3
Open Circulatory System 4
Closed Circulatory System 4
Functions of the System 5
Heart 6
Pulse 7
Chambers of the Heart 7
Arteries 8
Veins 9
Blood 10
Oxygenation of Blood 11
Red Blood Cells 12
White Blood Cells 13
Antigens 14
Plasma Cells and Platelets 15
Circulatory Systems of Other Organisms 16
Mammals and Birds 16
Amphibians and Reptiles 17
Fish 18
First Aid 19
Glossary 21
About the Authors 23
Illustration Credits 24

2

Human Organ Systems

Humans have several organ systems: the immune system,
the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the lymphatic
System, the digestive system, the skeletal system, the muscu-
lar system, the endocrine system, the excretory system, the
reproductive system, the integumentary system, and the
nervous system. Each of these systems are responsible for
carrying out unique functions that are essential for human
life. Humans cannot live if one of these systems malfunc-
tions. This book focuses on the
circulatory system and its compo-
nents.









3


The Circulatory
System

The circulatory system is made up of the vessels and mus-
cles that help to control the flow of blood throughout the
body. This process is called circulation. The main parts of this
system are the heart, the arteries, the capillaries, and the
veins through which the
blood flows. As blood be-
gins to circulate, it leaves
the heart from the left
ventricle and goes into
the aorta. The aorta is the
largest artery in the body.
The blood leaving the
aorta is full of oxygen.
The oxygen-rich blood
travels throughout the
body and its system of ar-
teries into the smallest ar-
terioles.


4

Open and Closed
Systems

The open circulatory system:
The open circulatory system is common in mollusks and arthropods.
Open circulatory systems, which evolved in crustaceans, insects, mol-
lusks and other invertebrates, pump blood into a hemocoel (a blood-
filled, open body cavity) with the blood diffusing back into the circu-
latory system between cells. Blood is pumped by the heart into the
body cavities, where tissues are surrounded by the blood.








The closed circulatory system
Vertebrates, and a few invertebrates, have a closed circulatory sys-
tem. Closed circulatory systems have the blood closed at all times
within vessels of different sizes and wall thickness. In this type of sys-
tem, blood is pumped by the heart through these vessels and does
not normally fill body cavities.

5

Functions of the
System

The circulatory system has many functions including carry-
ing oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from
tissues to the lungs, resulting in the
exchange of gases. Blood cells sup-
ply the oxygen needed for proper
functioning of the cells. The re-
moval of carbon dioxide is equally
essential because it becomes toxic
to cells when present in high con-
centrations. This system helps in
fighting against infections by using
its defense cells the granulocytes
and agranulocytes. It prevents over
-bleeding by forming blood clots using the platelets in the
blood.

6

The Heart

The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood into the
body through blood vessels known as veins and arteries. The
heart is an organ found in all animals that have a circulatory
system. Humans have a
four chambered heart,
with two superior atria
and two inferior ventricles.
The heart pumps blood
throughout the body by
repeated rhythmic con-
tractions. The heart has
two distinct sides, the
right side and the left side.
The right side collects de-
oxygenated blood in the right atrium from the body and then
pumps the blood back into the lungs using the right ventricle.
The left side of the heart collects oxygenated blood from the
lungs into the left atrium and then oxygenates the blood
through the process of diffusion.

7

Heart Rate

Heart rate is the number of heart beats per minute
(BPM), which can vary as the body's need for oxygen changes,
such as during exercise or sleep. The measurement of heart
rate is used by medical professionals to assist in the diagnosis
and tracking of various
medical conditions. It is
also used by individuals,
such as athletes, who are
interested in monitoring
their heart rate to gain
maximum efficiency from
their training. The heart
rate is measured by find-
ing the pulse of the body. Pulse rate can be measured at any
point on the body where an movement of blood inside an ar-
tery can be felt on the surface of the skin. This usually occurs
as the artery is pressed against skin or bone, by pressing on it
with the index and middle finger. The thumb should not be
used for measuring another person's heart rate because it
has a strong pulse of its own.

8

Arteries

An artery is a blood vessel that sends blood from the heart to any
part of the body. The heart pumps blood the through the main artery
called the dorsal aorta. The
main artery then divides
and branches out into
many smaller arteries so
that each region of the
body has its own system of
arteries supplying it with
fresh, oxygen-rich blood.
Arteries are tough on the
outside and smooth on the
inside. An artery wall actu-
ally has three layers: an
outer layer of tissue, a muscular middle layer, and an inner layer of
epithelial cells. The muscle in the middle is elastic and very strong.
The inner layer is very smooth so that the blood can flow easily with
no obstacles in its path. The muscular wall of the artery helps the
heart pump the blood. When the heart beats, the artery expands as
it fills with blood. When the heart relaxes arteries contract, which in
turn exerts a force that is strong enough to push the blood along
through the body. This rhythm between the heart and the arteries re-
sults in an efficient circulation system.

9

Veins

Veins are similar to arteries but, because they transport
blood at a lower pressure, they are not as strong as arteries.
Like arteries, veins have
three layers: an outer layer
of tissue, muscle in the
middle layer, and a smooth
inner layer of epithelial
cells. However, the layers
are thinner, containing less
tissue. Veins receive blood
from the capillaries after an
exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide has taken
place, and the veins transport deoxygenated blood back to the
lungs and heart. It is important that the deoxygenated blood
keeps moving in the proper direction and not be allowed to
flow backward. This is occurrence is made possible by valves
that are located inside the veins. The valves are like gates that
only allow this particular type of blood to move in one direc-
tion.


10

Blood

Without blood, the human body would stop working. Blood is the
considered to be the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the
lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the
lungs. Blood transports foods, vitamins, and minerals from digestion
and hormones from glands
throughout the body. It also
transports disease fighting
substances to the tissues and
waste to the kidneys. Because
it contains living cells, blood is
considered to be alive. Blood
cells have a definite life cycle,
just as all cells do. Red blood
cells live for about four months before being replaced for new cells.
Approximately 55 percent of blood is plasma, a straw-colored clear
liquid. The plasma carries the solid cells and the platelets which help
blood to clot. Without these blood platelets, humans would bleed to
death.



11

The Oxygenation of
Blood

The blood gets oxygenated this way: Oxygen-poor blood
(blue) blood begins its course at the right atrium of the heart.
It then continues on
to the right ventri-
cle, to the pulmo-
nary arteries and
then to the arteri-
oles (the smaller ar-
teries) in the lungs.
From the arterioles,
the blood travels to
the capillaries, the
smallest blood vessels in the body, where CO
2
in the blood is
removed and O
2
in the blood is replaced. The newly oxygen-
ated blood (red) then goes into left atrium and left ventricle,
which pumps the oxygen-rich blood throughout the body.

12

Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells are the most common type of blood cells,
and they deliver oxygen to the body tissues through the
blood flow. They take up oxygen in the lungs and release it to
cells in the body. These cells have cytoplasm that is rich in
hemoglobin, an iron-containing molecule that can bind oxy-
gen and is responsible for the blood's red color. Red blood
cells develop in the bone marrow and circulate for about 100
120 days in the body before
they are replaced with new cells.

The Discovery of Blood
Cells
The first person to describe
red blood cells was a Dutch
biologist, Jan Swammerdam,
who in 1658 used an early
version of the microscope to
study the blood of a frog. An-
ton van Leeuwenhoek pro-
vided another microscopic
description in 1674, which
had a more accurate descrip-
tion of red blood cells and
their size, which he described
as "25,000 times smaller than
a fine grain of sand".

13

White Blood Cells

White blood cells are cells of the immune system that de-
fend the body against both infectious diseases and foreign
materials. Five different types of
white blood cells exist, but they are
all produced in the bone marrow
from the same type of cell. White
blood cells are found throughout the
body, including the blood and lym-
phatic system. The number of white
blood cells in the blood is often a
good indicator of disease. There are
normally between 410
9
and
1.110
10
white blood cells in a liter
of blood, making up about 1% of blood in a healthy adult. An
increase in the number of these cells is an indication that the
body is producing cells to fight a bacterial or viral infection.

14

Blood Types and
Antigens

Antigens are foreign substances that stimulate the produc-
tion of antibodies. Anti-
gens include toxins,
bacteria, foreign blood
cells, and the cells of
transplanted organs.
They exist on the sur-
face of red blood cells
and continue their pro-
duction of antigens
throughout the life span
of the cell. There are three types of antigens: type A, type B,
and type AB. Humans who have type A antigens have blood
type A and anti-B antibodies. Humans who have type B anti-
gens, have blood type B and anti-A antibodies, and humans
who have type A and type B antigens have blood type AB and
no anti-A or anti-B bodies. There are also people with type O
blood. This blood type occurs in a people with no type A or B
antigens on their red blood cells.

15

Plasma Cells and
Platelets

Plasma cells exist on white blood cells that produce many
antibodies. Plasma is the clear, yellowish fluid portion of
blood, lymph, or intramuscular fluid in which cells are sus-
pended. They are also called
plasma B cells, effector B cells, and
plasmocytes. Platelets are cells
that are no longer functional, but
they are essential in the clotting of
blood. They are small, colorless, ir-
regular blood cells that are pro-
duced in bone marrow and stored
in the spleen.

16

The Circulatory System
of Other Organisms



The hearts of mammals and birds have four chambers two
upper chambers called the atria and two lower chambers
called the ven-
tricles. This is
the most effi-
cient system,
as deoxygen-
ated and oxy-
genated
bloods are not
mixed. The
four-chambered heart means that the tissues of the body are
supplied with oxygen-saturated blood and allows these warm
-blooded organisms to control their body temperature.

17

Circulatory System of
Other Organisms



Amphibians and reptiles have a three-chambered heart,
which consists of two atria and one ventricle. The deoxygen-
ated blood from the right atrium
and oxygenated blood from the left
atrium combine in the single ventri-
cle, so organs of these organisms do
not receive the fully oxygenated
blood. These organisms cannot con-
trol their body temperature and are
cold blooded.


18

Circulatory System of
Other Organisms


Fish have the simplest type of heart a two-chambered or-
gan composed of one atrium and one ventricle. Blood is
pumped from the ventricle to the gills. At the gills, the blood
receives oxygen and loses carbon dioxide. Blood then
moves on to the or-
gans of the body,
where nutrients,
gases, and wastes
are exchanged. The
blood travels from
the heart to the gills and then directly to the body before re-
turning to the atrium to be circulated again.

19

First Aid for the
Circulatory System

Cardiac Arrest
Cardiac arrest occurs when the heart stops beating or beats
too weakly or irregularly to circulate blood effectively to the
bodily organs. Cardiac arrest is life-threatening because vital
organs can only live for a few minutes without receiving oxy-
gen-rich blood.
Causes of Cardiac Arrest
Cardiovascular disease is the most common cause of cardiac
arrest. Drowning, suffocation, and certain drugs can cause
breathing to stop, leading to cardiac arrest as well.
First Aid for Cardiac Arrest
The brain and other vital organs live only for a few minutes
after the heart stops. It is critical
that the patient be given imme-
diate CPR, defibrillation, and ad-
vanced emergency medical
care.

20

First Aid

Bleeding
Bleeding causes the blood to escape the circulatory system
and can be life threatening depending on the volume of
blood loss.
First Aid for Severe External Bleeding
External bleeding is usually easy to control. The first aid for
external bleeding includes resting the patient to decrease the
heart rate, elevating the injured area to decrease the blood
flow towards the injury, and applying direct pressure over
the injury.
First Aid for Internal Bleeding
Warning signs of internal bleeding include pain, bruising,
swelling, and blood in vomit, spit, or urine. The first aid for
internal bleeding includes resting the patient, placing an ice
pack over the injury, and contacting Emergency Contact Ser-
vices (EMS) immediately.

21

Glossary

Antigens: Foreign substances that stimulate the production
of antibodies.

Aorta: The largest artery in the body.

Artery: A blood vessel that sends blood from the heart to any
part of the body.

Capillaries: The smallest blood vessels in the body, where the
nutrients in the blood are exchanged for new blood vessels.

Circulatory system: The system made up of the vessels and
muscles that help to control the flow of blood throughout
the body.

Heart: A muscular organ that pumps blood into the body
through veins and arteries using blood vessels.

Heart rate: The number of heart beats per minute (bpm),
which can vary as the body's need for oxygen changes, such
as during exercise or sleep.


22

Plasma: Clear, yellowish fluid portion of blood, lymph, or in-
tramuscular fluid where cells are suspended.

Platelets: Cells that are no longer functional, but are essen-
tial in the clotting of blood.

Red blood cells: The most common type of blood cells and
are one of the principal means of delivering oxygen (O2) to
the body tissues through the blood flow.

Veins: While similar to arteries, they transport blood at a
lower pressure, they are not as strong as arteries.
the body tissues through the blood flow.

White blood cells: Cells of the immune system that defend
the body against both infectious diseases and foreign materi-
als.




23

About the Authors

Rajat Goyal
Rajat Goyal is a junior at the Massachusetts Academy of Mathematics
and Science in Worcester, Massachusetts. Recently he performed an inde-
pendent research project that analyzed the effect of turmeric (a spice) on
Escherichia coli . He has also recently written a book review on Doctors
Diaries (a NOVA documentary) and coauthored an e-book chapter for
Topics in Toxicology. In his spare time, Rajat enjoys skiing, biking, and ka-
rate.



Michelle Fater
Michelle Fater is currently a junior at the Massachusetts Academy of
Mathematics and Science in Worcester, Massachusetts. Recently she per-
formed an independent research project as well as published several
pieces of writing, including an e-book chapter for Topics in Toxicology.
In her spare time, Michelle enjoys painting, musical theatre, and ball-
room dancing.

24

Illustration Credits
Cover Picture: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/hb/
hb_understanding.html
P.2: http://www.globalneighbourhood.org/k-presentation.php
P.3: http://doctorgrasshopper.wordpress.com/2010/03/11/tools- for-the-
toolbox-i-3-the-lub-dubber/
P.4: http://www2.gsu.edu/~bioasx/closeopen.html
P.5: http://www.heartzine.com/anatomy-physiology/the-circulatory-
system.html
P.6: http://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2007/08/01/health/
adam/19387Circulationofbloodthroughtheheart.html
P.7: http://www.stormgrounds.com/wallpaper/Miscellaneous/
Heart-Rate/
P.8: http://www.kidney-hypertension.com/hypertension.htm
P.9: http://www.landholt.com/3d/arteries_and_veins/
P.10: http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/specialtopic/
physical-activity/exercise's-effects-on-the-heart.html
P.11: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
File:Diagram_of_the_human_heart_(cropped).svg
P.12: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_blood_cell
P.13: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_blood_cell
P.14: http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/scireport/chapter6.asp
P.15: http://repairstemcell.wordpress.com/2009/02/
P.16: http://www.paulnoll.com/Oregon/Birds/Avian-Circulatory.html
P.17:http://www.digitalfrog.com/resources/archives/circ.jpg
P.18:http://www.biology-resources.com/drawing-fish-circulatory-
system.html
P.19:http://kytostat.com/Portals/0/howItWorksGraphic.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aid
P.20:http://www.cbc.ca/22minutes/defibrillator-with-ecg-display-- 4.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aid