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UNIT-III

AC MEASUREMENT AND MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS


MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE
Methods
1. Bridge circuits
Used for measuring component values such as Resistance, Inductance
and capacitance.
Its simplest form consists of a network of four resistance arms forming a
closed circuit. with a D.C source of current applied to two opposite
junctions and a current detector connected to the other two junctions.
Advantages of the Bridge circuits
1.High measurement accuracy
2.Accuracy independent of null detectors characteristics.
Types of Bridges
1.DC Bridges used to measure the resistances
DC voltage as the excitation voltage
Example
1.Wheatstone bridge
2.Kelvin bridge
2.AC Bridge used to measure impedance
AC used as the excitation voltage
Example
1.Maxwell bridge
2.Hay bridge
3.Schering bridge
4.Anderson bridge
Measurement of Resistance
Resistance can be classifed as follows
1.Low resistance the order of less than 1
2.Medium resistance range 1 to about 100K
3.High resistance above 100K
Measurement of low resistance
The following methods are used for the measurement of low resistance
1.Ammeter-voltmeter method
2.Potentiometer method
3.Kelvin double bridge method
AMMETER-VOLTMETER METHOD
Very common method used for the measurement of low resistance.
Current through the resistor (X) under test and the potential drop across it are
simultaneously measured.
There are two ways in which the ammeter and voltmeter may be connected for
measurement.
Case 1
When the voltmeter is connected directly across the resistor,the ammeter
measures current fowing through the unknown resistance X and the voltmeter.
Current through ammeter = current through unknown resistance(X) + current
through voltmeter
I = I
x
+ I
V
I
x
= I - I
v
True value of unknown resistance
X
true
= V / I
x

X
true
= V / I-I
v

X
true
= V / I-(
V/Rv
)

X
true
= V / I(1-V/I
Rv)
V voltmeter reading
Rv - the resistance of voltmeter
I the current indicated by the ammeter.
Case -2
When the ammeter is connected so that it indicates only the current fowing through
the unknown resistance,the voltmeter measures voltage across the ammeter and
unknown resistance X
V = IRa +IX
V = I(Ra+X)

X
true
= V /I
Ra the resistance of the ammeter.
POTENTIOMETER METOD
In This Method The Unknown resistance is compared with a standard resistance of the
same order of magnitude.
Fig shows unknown resistance X ammeter A,a rheostat R to limit the current and a
standard resistance S are connected ,all in series with a low voltage, high current
supply source.
The S value should be accurately known and of the same order of resistance and must
be of the same or higher current rating than the one under test.
The potential diference across each of the resistance is about 1V.
The voltage drop across both unknown resistor X and standard resistor S are
measures by the potentiometer.
The ratio of X to S is
X = potentiometer reading across X
S potentiometer reading across S
X = Vx
S Vs
The accuracy of this method depends on there being no change in current between the
two readings.
Therefore it is necessary that source of supply of current through the circuit be
extremely stable.
By using good potentiometer and sensitive galvanometer are used, very high accuracy
can be obtained.
Me!sure"e#t o$ Mediu" Resist!#ce
1.Ammeter voltmeter method
2.Substitution method
3.Wheat stone bridge
4.Carey foster slide wire bridge method
%EATSTONE BRIDGE
Widely used for precision measurement of resistance from approximately 1 to the low
mega ohm range.
The bridge has four resistive arms, together with a source of emf and null detector,
usually a galvanometer (G) or other sensitive current meter.
The current through the galvanometer depends on the potential diference between the
points C and D.
The bridge is said to be a balanced when the potential diference across the
galvanometer is zero volt, so there is no current through the galvanometer.
Bridge is balance when potential diference between C and D is equal
I
1
R
1
= I
2
R
2
(1)
When current through galvanometer is zero the following conditions should be
satisfed
I
1
=I
3
= E (2)
R1+R3
I2 =I4 = E (3)
R2+R4
Sub the value of I1 and I2 in equation (1)
We get
Rx = R2 * R3
R1
OPERATION
In the fgure, is the unknown resistance to be measured; , and are resistors
of known resistance and the resistance of is adjustable. If the ratio of the two
resistances in the known leg is equal to the ratio of the two in the unknown
leg , then the voltage between the two midpoints (B and D) will be zero and
no current will fow through the galvanometer . If the bridge is unbalanced, the
direction of the current indicates whether is too high or too low. is varied until
there is no current through the galvanometer, which then reads zero.
Detecting zero current with a galvanometer can be done to extremely high accuracy.
Therefore, if , and are known to high precision, then can be measured to
high precision. Very small changes in disrupt the balance and are readily detected.
At the point of balance, the ratio of
Alternatively, if , , and are known, but is not adjustable, the voltage
diference across or current fow through the meter can be used to calculate the
value of , using Kirchhof's circuit laws (also known as Kirchhof's rules). This
setup is frequently used in strain gauge and resistance
thermometer measurements, as it is usually faster to read a voltage level of a
meter than to adjust a resistance to zero the voltage.
DERIVATION
First, Kirchhof's frst rule is used to fnd the currents in junctions B and D:
Then, Kirchhof's second rule is used for fnding the voltage in the
loops ABD and BCD:
When the bridge is balanced, then I
G
= 0, so the second set of equations can be
rewritten as:
Then, the equations are divided and rearranged, giving:
From the frst rule, I
3
= I
x
and I
1
= I
2
. The desired value of R
x
is now
known to be given as:
If all four resistor values and the supply voltage (V
S
) are known, and the resistance of
the galvanometer is high enough that I
G
is negligible, the voltage across the bridge (V
G
)
can be found by working out the voltage from each potential divider and subtracting
one from the other. The equation for this is:
Where V
G
is the voltage of node B relative to node D.
Some of the measurement errors are present,
1.The limiting errors of three known resistance main measurement error
2.Insufcient sensitivity of the null detector
3.Changes in resistance of the bridge arms due to heating efect of the current
through the resistors.
4.Thermal emf in the bridge circuit or the galvanometer circuit.
5.Errors due the resistance of leads and contacts exterior to the actual bridge
circuit.
Applications
1.To measure the DC resistance of various types of wires either for the purpose of
quality control of the wire itself.
Example: measurement of the resistance of motor winding, transformers,
solenoids and relay coils.
2.Used extensively by telephone companies and other to locate cable faults.

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