Chemistry in Everyday Life

Introduction
Chemistry, a branch of physical science, is the study of the composition, structure, properties and change
of matter. Chemistry is chiefly concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms - for example, the
properties of the chemical bonds formed between atoms to create chemical compounds. As well as this, interactions
including atoms and other phenomena - electrons and various forms ofenergyare considered, such as photochemical
reactions, oxidation-reduction reactions, changes in phases of matter, and separation of mixtures. Finally, properties of
matter such as alloys or polymers are considered. Chemistry is sometimes called "the central science" because it bridges
other natural sciences like physics, geology and biology with each other. Chemistry is a branch of physical
science but distinct from physics.The etymology of the word chemistry has been much disputed. The origin of
chemistry can be traced to certain practices, known as alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in
various parts of the world, particularly the Middle East.
All the science be it biology or physics or any other science has the basic objective of benefiting the mankind. And all
these benefits start for daily life only and hence I have chosen the topic chemistry in everyday life for my project. All
sciences and specifically chemistry is used in everyday life in innumerous number of ways. These include:-
1) Reagents like baking powder, dairy creamers, sweetening agents etc used in kitchen
2) Process of making tea, coffee etc well illustrate the use of phenomenon like boiling
3) Even the water filters used in households are a good example of chemical membranes used for reverse osmosis.
4) Detergents and soaps used at home are also chemicals
5) Taps, door handles, pressure cookers and Pans etc have coating of certain polymers like Teflon or are galvanized
and anodized
6) All the electronic gadgets work on circuit boards which are semiconductor boards, again a chemical
7) Even batteries used chemical energy to give electricity
8) Refrigerators and Air conditioners use substances to cool which are again chemicals
9) Paints are also made of chemicals
10) Petrol, diesel are also impossible without chemistry
11) Cosmetics also are an inseparable part of household and again chemicals
12) Fake tears and many other special effects in movies and television are created by using chemicals.
And the list never ends.
So uses of chemistry in everyday life are many. And thus it forms a very interesting topic to study about.
Batteries or Electrochemical cells
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into
electrical energy. Each cell contains a positive terminal, or cathode, and a negative terminal, or anode. Electrolytes allow
ions to move between the electrodes and terminals, which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work.
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode materials are irreversibly
changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable
devices. Secondary (rechargeable batteries) can be discharged and recharged multiple times; the original composition of
the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium
ion batteries used for portable electronics. Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to
power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power for telephone
exchanges and computer data centers. Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than
common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat mitigated by the fact that batteries deliver their energy as electricity
(which can be converted efficiently to mechanical work), whereas using fuels in engines entails a low efficiency of
conversion to work.
Principle of operation
Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell
consists of twohalf-cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes
electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell
includes electrolyte and the positive electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Redox reactions power the
battery. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode during charging, while anions are oxidized (electrons are
removed) at the anode during discharge.
[10]
The electrodes do not touch each other, but are electrically connected by
the electrolyte. Some cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell. A separator allows ions to flow between half-cells, but
prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current from the interior to the
exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells.
[11]
Thus, if the electrodes have
emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction
potentials of the half-reactions.
[12]

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is
measured involts.
[13]
The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit
voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance,
[14]
the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is
smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit
voltage.
[15]
An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until
exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete
discharge it would perform 1.5 joules of work.
[13]
In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge
[14]
and the
open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs
typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and
electrolyte. Alkaline and zinccarbon cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts;
likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts.
[16]
The high
electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.
Battery cell types
Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical processes and designs,
including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells and voltaic piles.
[25]

Wet cell
A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the liquid covers all internal parts,
or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can escape to the air. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells
and are commonly used as a learning tool for electrochemistry. They can be built with common laboratory supplies,
such asbeakers, for demonstrations of how electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as
a concentration cell is important in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may beprimary cells (non-rechargeable)
or secondary cells (rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the Daniell cell were built as
open-top glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid
cell, Clark cell, and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still
used in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power for switchgear, telecommunication or
large uninterruptible power supplies, but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used instead. These
applications commonly use leadacid or nickelcadmium cells.
Dry cell

Line art drawing of a dry cell:
1. brass cap, 2. plastic seal, 3. expansion space, 4. porous cardboard, 5. zinc can, 6. carbon rod, 7. chemical mixture.
A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell
can operate in any orientation without spilling, as it contains no free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment.
By comparison, the first wet cells were typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top
and needed careful handling to avoid spillage. Leadacid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the
dry cell until the development of the gel battery.
A common dry cell is the zinccarbon battery, sometimes called the dry Leclanch cell, with a nominal voltage of
1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since both use the same zincmanganese dioxide combination).
A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode in the form
of a central rod. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining
space between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride
and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some designs, the ammonium chloride is replaced
by zinc chloride.
Molten salt
Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as electrolyte. They operate at high
temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.
Reserve
A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no power) for a long period (perhaps
years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled (e.g., by adding electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is
charged and ready to work. For example, a battery for an electronic artillery fuze might be activated by the impact of
firing a gun: The acceleration breaks a capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and powers the fuze's
circuits. Reserve batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage
(years). A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications becomes activated on
immersion in water.
Homemade cells
Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as the electrolyte for a
cell. As a novelty or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes made of different metals into
a lemon,
[59]
potato,
[60]
etc. and generate small amounts of electricity. "Two-potato clocks" are also widely available in
hobby and toy stores; they consist of a pair of cells, each consisting of a potato (lemon, et cetera) with two
electrodes inserted into it, wired in series to form a battery with enough voltage to power a digital
clock.
[61]
Homemade cells of this kind are of no practical use.
A voltaic pile can be made from two coins (such as a nickel and a penny) and a piece of paper towel dipped in salt
water. Such a pile generates a very low voltage but, when many are stacked in series, they can replace normal
batteries for a short time.
[62]

Sony has developed a biological battery that generates electricity from sugar in a way that is similar to the
processes observed in living organisms. The battery generates electricity through the use of enzymes that break
down carbohydrates.
[63]

Lead acid cells can easily be manufactured at home, but a tedious charge/discharge cycle is needed to 'form' the
plates. This is a process in which lead sulfate forms on the plates, and during charge is converted to lead dioxide
(positive plate) and pure lead (negative plate). Repeating this process results in a microscopically rough surface,
increasing the surface area. This increases the current the cell can deliver. For an example, see.
[64]

Daniell cells are easy to make at home. Aluminiumair batteries can be produced with high-purity
aluminium. Aluminium foil batteries will produce some electricity, but are not efficient, in part because a significant
amount of (combustible) hydrogen gas is produced.
Fast-charging, large and light batteries
As of 2012 Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) battery technology was the fastest-charging/discharging, fully discharging
in 1020 seconds.
As of 2013, the world's largest battery was in Hebei Province, China. It stored 36 megawatt-hours of electricity at a cost
of $500 million. Another large battery, composed of NiCd cells, was in Fairbanks, Alaska. It covers 2,000 square metres
(22,000 sq ft)bigger than a football pitchand weighs 1,300 tonnes, It was manufactured by ABB to provide backup
power in the event of a blackout. The battery can provide 40 megawatts of power for up to seven minutes.
[31]
Sodium
sulfur batteries have been used to store wind power.
[32]
A 4.4 megawatt-hour battery system that can deliver 11
megawatts for 25 minutes stabilizes the output of the Auwahi wind farm in Hawaii.
[33]
Lithiumsulfur batterieswere used
on the longest and highest solar-powered flight.
[34]
The recharging speed of lithium-ion batteries can be increased by
manufacturing changes.



Some rechargeable battery types and chemicals used:
Chemistry of
battery
Cell
Voltage
Specific
energy
[MJ/kg]
Comments
NiCd 1.2 0.14
Inexpensive.
High-/low-drain, moderate energy density.
Can withstand very high discharge rates with virtually no loss of
capacity.
Moderate rate of self-discharge.
Environmental hazard due to Cadmium use now virtually prohibited
in Europe.
Leadacid 2.1 0.14
Moderately expensive.
Moderate energy density.
Moderate rate of self-discharge.
Higher discharge rates result in considerable loss of capacity.
Environmental hazard due to Lead.
Common use Automobile batteries
NiMH 1.2 0.36
Inexpensive.
Performs better than alkaline batteries in higher drain devices.
Traditional chemistry has high energy density, but also a high rate of
self-discharge.
Newer chemistry has low self-discharge rate, but also a ~25% lower
energy density.
Used in some cars.
NiZn 1.6 0.36
Moderately inexpensive.
High drain device suitable.
Low self-discharge rate.
Voltage closer to alkaline primary cells than other secondary cells.
No toxic components.
Newly introduced to the market (2009). Has not yet established a
track record.
Limited size availability.
Chemistry of
battery
Cell
Voltage
Specific
energy
[MJ/kg]
Comments
AgZn
1.86
1.5
0.46
Smaller volume than equivalent Li-ion.
Extremely expensive due to silver.
Very high energy density.
Very high drain capable.
For many years considered obsolete due to high silver prices.
Cell suffers from oxidation if unused.
Reactions are not fully understood.
Terminal voltage very stable but suddenly drops to 1.5 volts at 70
80% charge (believed to be
due to presence of both argentous and argentic oxide in positive
plate one is consumed first).
Has been used in lieu of primary battery (moon buggy).
Is being developed once again as a replacement for Li-ion.
Lithium ion 3.6 0.46
Very expensive.
Very high energy density.
Not usually available in "common" battery sizes.
Very common in laptop computers, moderate to high-end digital
cameras, camcorders, and cellphones.
Very low rate of self-discharge.
Terminal voltage unstable (varies from 4.2 to 3.0 volts during
discharge).
Volatile: Chance of explosion if short-circuited, allowed to overheat,
or not manufactured with rigorous quality standards.







Coolant
A coolant is a fluid which flows through or around a device to prevent its overheating, transferring the heat
produced by the device to other devices that use or dissipate it. An ideal coolant has high thermal capacity,
low viscosity, is low-cost, non-toxic, and chemically inert, neither causing nor promoting corrosion of the cooling
system. Some applications also require the coolant to be an electrical insulator.
While the term coolant is commonly used in automotive and HVAC applications, in industrial processing, heat
transfer fluid is one technical term more often used, in high temperature as well as low temperature manufacturing
applications. Another industrial sense of the word covers cutting fluids.
The coolant can either keep its phase and stay liquid or gaseous, or can undergo a phase transition, with the latent
heat adding to the cooling efficiency. The latter, when used to achieve low temperatures, is more commonly known
as refrigerant.

Nanofluids
An emerging and new class of coolants are nanofluids which consist of a carrier liquid, such as water, dispersed with tiny
nano-scale particles known as nanoparticles. Purpose-designed nanoparticles of e.g. CuO, alumina,
[5]
titanium
dioxide, carbon nanotubes, silica, or metals (e.g. copper, or silver nanorods) dispersed into the carrier liquid the
enhances the heat transfer capabilities of the resulting coolant compared to the carrier liquid alone.
[6]
The enhancement
can be theoretically as high as 350%.
Molten metals and salts
Liquid fusible alloys can be used as coolants in applications where high temperature stability is required, e.g. some fast
breeder nuclear reactors. Sodium (in sodium cooled fast reactors) or sodium-potassium alloy NaK are frequently used; in
special cases lithium can be employed. Another liquid metal used as a coolant is lead, in e.g. lead cooled fast reactors, or
a lead-bismuth alloy. Some early fast neutron reactors used mercury.
For certain applications the stems of automotive poppet valves may be hollow and filled with sodium to improve heat
transport and transfer.
For very high temperature applications, e.g. molten salt reactors or very high temperature reactors, molten salts can be
used as coolants. One of the possible combinations is the mix of sodium fluoride and sodium tetrafluoroborate (NaF-
NaBF
4
). Other choices are FLiBe and FLiNaK.
Other types of coolants:
1. Gaseous. eg:- Air is a common form of a coolant. Air cooling uses either convective airflow (passive
cooling), or a forced circulation using fans. Hydrogen is used as a high-performance gaseous coolant.
Its thermal conductivity is higher than all other gases, it has high specific heat capacity, low density and
therefore lowviscosity, which is an advantage for rotary machines susceptible to windage losses. Hydrogen-
cooled turbogenerators are currently the most common electrical generators in large power plants. Inert
gases are used as coolants in gas-cooled nuclear reactors. Helium has a low tendency to absorb
neutrons and become radioactive. Carbon dioxide is used in Magnox andAGR reactors. Sulfur
hexafluoride is used for cooling and insulating of some high-voltage power systems (circuit
breakers, switches, some transformers, etc.).
2. Solids eg:- This approach is common in spaceflight, for ablative atmospheric reentry shields and for cooling
of rocket engine nozzles. The same approach is also used for fire protection of structures, where ablative
coating is applied. Dry ice and water ice can be also used as coolants, when in direct contact with the
structure being cooled. Sublimation of water ice was used for cooling the Project Apollo space suit.
3. Liquefied gases eg:- Liquified gases are used as coolants for cryogenic applications, including cryo-electron
microscopy, overclocking of computer processors, applications using superconductors, or extremely
sensitive sensors and very low-noise amplifiers. Carbon Dioxide (chemical formula is CO
2
) - is used as a
coolant replacement
[4]
for cutting fluids. CO
2
can provide controlled cooling at the cutting interface such that
the cutting tool and the workpiece are held at ambient temperatures. The use of CO
2
greatly extends tool
life, and on most materials allows the operation to run faster. This is considered a very environmentally
friendly method, especially when compared to the use of petroleum oils as lubricants; parts remain clean
and dry which often can eliminate secondary cleaning operations. Liquid nitrogen, which boils at about -
196 C (77K), is the most common and least expensive coolant in use. Liquid air is used to a lesser extent,
due to its liquid oxygen content which makes it prone to cause fire or explosions when in contact with
combustible materials
4. Molten metal eg:- Liquid fusible alloys can be used as coolants in applications where high temperature
stability is required, e.g. some fast breeder nuclear reactors. Sodium (in sodium cooled fast reactors) or
sodium-potassium alloy NaK are frequently used; in special cases lithium can be employed. Another liquid
metal used as a coolant is lead, in e.g. lead cooled fast reactors, or a lead-bismuth alloy. Some early fast
neutron reactors used mercury.
5. Liquids :- The most common coolant is water. Its high heat capacity and low cost makes it a suitable heat-
transfer medium. It is usually used with additives, like corrosion inhibitors andantifreeze. Antifreeze, a
solution of a suitable organic chemical (most often ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, or propylene glycol) in
water, is used when the water-based coolant has to withstand temperatures below 0 C, or when its boiling
point has to be raised. Betaine is a similar coolant, with the exception that it is made from pure plant juice,
and is therefore not toxic or difficult to dispose of ecologically. Very pure deionized water, due to its relatively
low electrical conductivity, is used to cool some electrical equipment, often high-power transmitters and
high-power vacuum tubes.
Heavy water is a neutron moderator used in some nuclear reactors; it also has a secondary function as
their coolant. Light water reactors, both boiling water and pressurised water reactors the most common type, use
ordinary (light) water.
Polyalkylene glycol (PAG) is used as high temperature, thermally stable heat transfer fluids exhibiting strong
resistance to oxidation. Modern PAGs can also be non-toxic and non-hazardous.
[2]

Cutting fluid is a coolant that also serves as a lubricant for metal-shaping machine tools.


Sweetening agents
A sugar substitute is a food additive that duplicates the effect of sugar in taste, usually with less food energy. Some
sugar substitutes are natural and some are synthetic. Those that are not natural are, in general, called artificial
sweeteners.
An important class of sugar substitutes is known as high-intensity sweeteners. These are compounds with many times
the sweetness ofsucrose, common table sugar. As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is
often negligible. The sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds (the "sweetness profile") is sometimes notably
different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most natural sweet sensation.
If the sucrose (or other sugar) that is replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, then a bulking agent is
often also needed. This may be seen in soft drinks or sweet tea that are labeled as "diet" or "light" that contain artificial
sweeteners and often have notably different mouthfeel, or in table sugar replacements that mix maltodextrins with an
intense sweetener to achieve satisfactory texture sensation.
Sugar substitutes commonly used in food[edit]
Aspartame[edit]
Aspartame was discovered in 1965 by James M. Schlatter at the G.D. Searle company (later purchased by
Monsanto). He was working on an anti-ulcer drug and accidentally spilled some aspartame on his hand. When he
licked his finger, he noticed that it had a sweet taste. It is an odorless, white crystalline powder that is derived from
the two amino acids aspartic acid and phenylalanine. It is about 200 times as sweet as sugar and can be used as a
tabletop sweetener or in frozen desserts, gelatins, beverages, and chewing gum. When cooked or stored at high
temperatures, aspartame breaks down into its constituent amino acids. This makes aspartame undesirable as a
baking sweetener. It is more stable in somewhat acidic conditions, such as in soft drinks. Though it does not have a
bitter aftertaste like saccharin, it may not taste exactly like sugar. When eaten, aspartame is metabolized into its
original amino acids. Because it is so intensely sweet, relatively little of it is needed to sweeten a food product, and
is thus useful for reducing the number of calories in a product.
The safety of aspartame has been studied extensively since its discovery with research that includes animal studies,
clinical and epidemiological research, and postmarketing surveillance,
[16]
with aspartame being one of the most
rigorously tested food ingredients to date.
[17]
Aspartame has been subject to multiple claims against its safety,
including supposed links to cancer as well as complaints of neurological or psychiatric side effects.
[18]
Multiple peer-
reviewed comprehensive review articles and independent reviews by governmental regulatory bodies have analyzed
the published research on the safety of aspartame and have found aspartame is safe for consumption at current
levels.
[16][18][19][20]
Aspartame has been deemed safe for human consumption by over 100 regulatory agencies in their
respective countries,
[20]
including the UK Food Standards Agency,
[21]
the European Food Safety
Authority (EFSA)
[22]
and Canada's Health Canada.
[23]

Cyclamate[edit]
In the United States, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned the sale of cyclamate in 1970 after lab
tests in rats involving a 10:1 mixture of cyclamate and saccharin indicated that large amounts of cyclamates
causes bladder cancer, a disease to which rats are particularly susceptible. Cyclamates are still used as sweeteners
in many parts of the world, including Europe (e.g. UK and Russia).
Saccharin[edit]

Aside from sugar of lead, saccharin was the first artificial sweetener and was originally synthesized in 1879 by
Remsen and Fahlberg. Its sweet taste was discovered by accident. It had been created in an experiment with
toluene derivatives. A process for the creation of saccharin fromphthalic anhydride was developed in 1950, and,
currently, saccharin is created by this process as well as the original process by which it was discovered. It is 300 to
500 times as sweet as sugar (sucrose) and is often used to improve the taste of toothpastes, dietary foods, and
dietary beverages. The bitter aftertaste of saccharin is often minimized by blending it with other sweeteners.
Subsequent to this, it was discovered that saccharin causes cancer in male rats by a mechanism not found in
humans. At high doses, saccharin causes a precipitate to form in rat urine. This precipitate damages the cells lining
the bladder (urinary bladder urothelial cytotoxicity) and a tumor forms when the cells regenerate (regenerative
hyperplasia). According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, part of the World Health Organization,
"Saccharin and its salts was (sic) downgraded from Group 2B, possibly carcinogenic to humans, to Group 3, not
classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans, despite sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity to animals, because it is
carcinogenic by a non-DNA-reactive mechanism that is not relevant to humans because of critical interspecies
differences in urine composition."
Stevia

Stevia has been widely used as a natural sweetener in South America for centuries and in Japan since 1970. Due to
its unique characteristics of zero glycemic index and zero calories,
[24]
it is fast becoming popular in many other
countries. In 1987, the FDA issued a ban on stevia because it had not been approved as a food additive.
[25]
After
being repeatedly provided with a significant amount of scientific data proving that there was no side-effect of using
stevia as a sweetener from companies such as Cargill and Coca-Cola, the FDA gave a "no objection" approval
for GRAS status in December 2008 to Truvia, a blend of rebiana and erythritol
[26]
(developed by Cargill and The
Coca-Cola Company), as well as PureVia (developed by PepsiCo and the Whole Earth Sweetener Company, a
subsidiary of Merisant),
[27]
both of which using rebaudioside A derived from the Stevia plant. In Australia, the brand
Vitarium have used Natvia, a natural stevia sweetener, to do a range on sugar-free children's milk mixes.
[28]

Sucralose
Sucralose is a chlorinated sugar that is about 600 times as sweet as sugar. It is produced from sucrose when three
chlorine atoms replace three hydroxyl groups. It is used in beverages, frozen desserts, chewing gum, baked goods,
and other foods. Unlike other artificial sweeteners, it is stable when heated and can therefore be used in baked and
fried goods. About 15% of sucralose is absorbed by the body and most of it passes out of the body
unchanged.
[29]
The FDA approved sucralose in 1998.
[30]

Most of the controversy surrounding Splenda, a sucralose sweetener, is focused not on safety but on its marketing.
It has been marketed with the slogan, "Splenda is made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar." Sucralose is prepared
from either of two sugars, sucrose or raffinose. With either base sugar, processing replaces three oxygen-hydrogen
groups in the sugar molecule with three chlorine atoms.
[31]

Lead acetate (historic)
Lead acetate (sometimes called sugar of lead) is an artificial sugar substitute made from lead that is of historical
interest because of its widespread use in the past, such as byancient Romans. The use of lead acetate as a
sweetener eventually produced lead poisoning in any individual ingesting it habitually. Lead acetate was abandoned
as a food additive throughout most of the world after the high toxicity of lead compounds became apparent.
Mogrosides
More recently, mogrosides (typically extracted from monk fruit) have been used in commercial products after the
FDA granted some of the compounds GRAS status in 2010.
[34][35]
As of 2011, it is not (yet) a permitted sweetener in
the EU, although it is allowed as a natural flavor at concentrations where it does not function as a
sweetener.
[35][36]
Some of the products incorporating it are Nestl's Milo in Asia and certain Kellogg cereals in the
US.
[37]
It is also the basis of McNeil Nutritionals's tabletop sweetener Nectresse in the US andNorbu Sweetener in
Australia.
[37]
As of 2012, the New Zealand company BioVittoria provides more than 90 percent of the global supply
of monk fruit extract; its main manufacturing facility for the product is in Guilin, China.
Name
Sweetness (by
weight)
Trade name
Acesulfame potassium 200 Nutrinova
Alitame 2,000
Aspartame 160200 NutraSweet, Equal
Dulcin 250
Glucin 300
Neohesperidin
dihydrochalcone 1,500
Neotame 8,000 NutraSweet
P-4000 4,000
Saccharin 300 Sweet'N Low
Salt of aspartame-
acesulfame 350 Twinsweet
sodium cyclamate 30
Sucralose 600 Kaltame, Splenda