1.

The water system

The hydrological
Cycle
Examine the inputs, outputs, stores and transfers of the hydrological cycle. Discuss the causes and
consequences of the changing balance between water stored in oceans and ice.

The water balance
Explain the concept of maximum sustainable yield of freshwater in terms of a balance between inputs and
outputs.


Key Terms
Precipitation: the transfer of moisture (rain, snow etc) to the
earth's surface from the atmosphere.
Interception: the capture of raindrops by plant cover, which
prevents direct contact with the soil.
Runoff: precipitation that does not soak into the ground but
flows over it into surface waters.
Groundwater: water held underground in soil or porous
rock, often feeding springs and wells.
Evapotranspiration (EVT): the loss of water from
vegetation and water surfaces to the atmosphere.
Potential evapotranspiration (pEVT): the rate of water
loss from an area if there were no shortages of water
Maximum sustainable yields (MSY): the maximum level
of extraction of water that can be maintained indefinitely for
a region.

The Hydrological cycle

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the H2O cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below
the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major
reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The water
moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes
of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow. In so doing, the water goes through different phases:
liquid, solid (ice), and gas (vapor).
The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. For instance, when water evaporates, it takes up
energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat
exchanges influence climate. The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater. The flow of
liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through
processes including erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the
planet.

Because ice shelves and icebergs already make up part of the ocean's volume, their melting does not contribute to rising sea levels. However,
because ice sheets are found on land, their melting does contribute to rising seal levels. In addition because the density of liquid water is
greater than frozen water, as icebergs and ice shelves melt, they do not take up a grater volume of space. The melting of ice sheets will
cause eustatic sea levels changes. This is a global rise in the level of the sea. It is possible for the height of the land to change relative to the
sea (e.g. rebound from last ice age). These local changes in the height of the land are known as isostatic sea level changes. As well as
melting ice sheets and glaciers, it must also be remembered that global warming causes thermal expansion i.e. the density of water reduces
and causes an increase in the volume of water and therefore sea levels.
Negative Effects of Sea Level Changes and Global Warming
1. Loss of island nations
2. Methane release from melting permafrost
3. Loss of biodiversity
4. Cost of protection
5. Climate refugees

Positive Effects of Sea Level Changes and Global Warming
1. The Arctic will become navigable all year
2. Resources (fish and oil) under the Arctic will become accessible.
3. Heating bills will reduce and therefore use of energy.
4. There will be less deaths from the cold.
5. More land can be used for agricultural production.
6. Permafrost may release new supply of freshwater.

The Water Balance

The water balance basically looks at the balance between inputs and outputs. Water balance at a global level (hydrological cycle), at a local
level (drainage basin cycle). At a global level oceans tend to experience greater outputs (evaporation) than inputs (precipitation). This is
because oceans are large unshaded bodies of water that have regular winds blowing saturated air on land, allowing greater evaporation. In
addition oceans do not suffer from the same amount of relief and convectional rainfall as land does. On land, inputs (precipitation) tends to
be greater than outputs (evaporation). This is because lands suffers from larger amounts of frontal, relief and convectional rainfall, as well as
much of the lands water being protected underground or in shaded areas reducing evaporation. At a global level there is an equilibrium
between inputs and outputs. The excess precipitation on land is returned to the oceans by channel flow, surface run-off and to a lesser extent
groundwater flow. The excess of evaporation is returned to the land from the sea by winds blowing saturated air on land.



However drainage basins are open systems, there can be an imbalance in inputs and outputs.






2. Drainage basins and flooding
Drainage basins
Examine the functioning of a drainage basin as an open system with inputs, outputs, transfers, stores and
feedback loops.
2
hours
Discharge
Define stream discharge. Examine its relationship to stream flow and channel shape. 1 hour
Hydrographs
Describe the characteristics of a hydrograph. Examine the reasons for spatial and temporal (short-term and long-
term) variations in hydrographs. Examine the role of hydrographs in forecasting the magnitude, spatial extent and
timing of floods.
3
hours
Floods
Discuss the natural and human causes and consequences of a specific river flood. 3
hours

Key Terms
Drainage basin: The area drained by a river and its tributaries. A drainage basin is considered to be an open system because water can be added or lost
from a drainage basin.

Source: The beginning of a river. A river may have multiple sources. The source of a river is normally found in upland mountainous areas.

Mouth: The end of a river. A river may end in a lake, but more normally in the sea.

Tributary: A small river that flows into a larger river.

Confluence: Where two rivers meet.

Watershed: The border between two drainage basins.

Estuary: The tidal section of a river near the mouth.

Channel: The physical confines of the river, encompassing two banks and a bed.

Bank: The sides of a river channel. A river channel has two banks.

Bed: The bottom of a river channel.



Inputs: When water is added to a
drainage basin.
1. Precipitation: Any moisture that
falls from the atmosphere. The
main types of precipitation are rain,
snow, sleet, hail, fog and dew.
2. Interbasin transfer: Water that
either naturally (due to) the
alignment of the rock) or with
human involvement (pumps and
pipes) moves from one drainage
basin to another.
Outputs: When water leaves a
drainage system.
1. Evaporation: The process of
water turning from a liquid into a
vapour. Evaporation only takes
place from a body of water e.g. a
lake, puddle or the sea.
2. Transpiration: The evaporation of
water from vegetation.
3. Evapotranspiration: The
combined action of evaporation
and transpiration
4. Interbasin transfer: Water that
either naturally (due to the
alignment of the rock) or with
human involvement (pumps and
pipes) moves from one drainage
basin to another.
5. River discharge via channel
flow:
Water entering the sea and leaving
a drainage basin. A very small
amount of water also enters the
sea via throughflow and
groundwater flow (baseflow).
Stores: When water is stationary and
not moving in a drainage basin.
1. Interception: When water is
caught and held by vegetation or
man-made structures like
buildings.

2. Surface store: When water is held
in the surface of the earth. This
may be a puddle, a lake or
a garden pond.

3. Soil moisture store: When water
is held in unsaturated soil.

4. Groundwater store: When water
is held in saturated ground.
Transfers (flows): When water is moving within a drainage basin.
1. Stem flow: When intercepted water runs down the trunks and stems of vegetation.
2. Canopy drip: When intercepted water drips off the leaves of vegetation (drip tip leaves in rainforests are actually designed to allow this to
happen).
3. Throughfall: Precipitation that falls directly through vegetation.
4. Infiltration: Water that moves from the surface of the earth into the soil below.
5. Throughflow: Water that travels through unsaturated ground.
6. Pipeflow: Water that travels through holes left by root systems and animals burrows.
7. Percolation: Water that travels from unsaturated into saturated ground.
8. Groundwater flow (baseflow): Water that travels through saturated ground.
9. Capillary action (or rise): Water that may move upwards towards the surface.
10. Channel flow: Water that travels in a river.
11. Surface run-off (overland flow): When water travels across the surface of the earth e.g. down a hill.


Feedback Loops: A system is always trying to maintain a balance (equilibrium). Feedback loops explain when a system (drainage basin) loses and
attempts to regain its balance. Positive feedback causes an instability by changing inputs (increase in precipitation). Negative feedback attempts to regain
the equilibrium by reducing inputs or possibly increasing outputs. Humans can alter feedback loops by changing the amount of water released from dams,
changing the amount of water used or even increasing run-off through deforestation.

System Diagram: Because two dimensional and three dimensional diagrams of drainage basins can be complicated to understand, drainage basin
systems are often shown in a systems diagram. Below is an example of a systems diagram, it basically shows all the processes taking place using a series
of boxes and arrows. The boxes are usually coloured so that you can clearly see if they are process are an input, output, transfer or store.


Key Terms
Bed: The bottom of the river channel

Bank: The sides of the river channel.

Channel: The confines of the river, encompassing the bed and two banks.

Wetted Perimeter: The total length of the bed and the banks in contact with the river.

Cross-sectional area: The width of the river multiplied by the depth of the river. Because the depth of the river will vary across its width, an average depth
reading is normally taken. The cross sectional area is normally given in m2.
Velocity: This is the speed that the water in a river is travelling at. The unit of measurement is normally metres a second (m/s). River velocity can be
measured using a flowmeter (pictured right), or more commonly by timing a floating object over a set distance (pictured left). Velocity is then calculated by
dividing the time (seconds) by the distance (metres).

Discharge: This is the amount of water in a river at a given point. Discharge is normally measured in cumecs (cubic metres a second). It is calculated by
multiplying the cross-sectional area by the velocity.
A rivers efficiency is gauged by calculating it hydraulic radius. Hydraulic radius is calculated by dividing a rivers cross-sectional area by its wetted perimeter.
If a river has a lower hydraulic radius it means more water is in contact with the bed, banks and surface, making it less efficient. If it has a high hydraulic
radius, it means less water is contact with bed, banks and surface, making it more efficient. A river is most efficient just before it reaches bankfull discharge.
If it is below bankfull discharge it means a greater proportion of its flow is in contact with the bed, banks and the surface. If it is above bankfull discharge then
it means the river is in flood and therefore in contact with the floodplain increasing friction.

Bankfull discharge: The maximum discharge that a river can hold before it bursts its banks.


Long Profile Model
Long profile: The long profile looks at how a rivers' gradient changes from the source to the mouth. A rivers' gradient is much steeper near the source and
a lot more gentle near the mouth. Later in the topic we will look at how a rivers' features change as you move from the source to the mouth. We will also look
at changes in erosion, transportation and deposition.

Base level: This is the lowest level that a river can erode its bed to. It is basically sea level. A river cannot erode its bed below sea level because rivers are
unable to travel upwards.







BRADSHAW MODEL SCHUMM MODEL







Hydrographs

A hydrograph or storm hydrograph is a type of graph that shows how a rivers' discharge responds to a period of precipitation. Discharge is measured in one
point (using the units cumecs), but precipitation is measured over the whole drainage basin. On the hydrograph, precipitation is shown using a bar graph and
discharge is shown using a line graph
Key terms
1. Peak rainfall: The highest rainfall (usually measured in mm) during a storm.
2. Peak discharge: The highest discharge as a result of a storm event.
3. Lag time: The period of time between peak rainfall and peak discharge
4. Response time: The time between the first rain falling and the first change in discharge.
5. Rising limb: The period of time that the river is experiencing an increase in discharge.
6. Falling or recessional limb: The period of time that a rivers' discharge is falling after a storm event and returning to its normal flow.
7. Bankfull discharge: The maximum amount of discharge that a river can hold before it burst its banks and floods.
Factors Effecting Storm Hydrographs

Permeable and Impermeable Rock: If a drainage basin has a large amount of impermeable rock, then there will be less infiltration and more
surface run-off. This will greatly reduce both the response time and lag time. Alternatively if a drainage basin has a lot of permeable surfaces
then there will be more infiltration and less surface run-off. This may not significantly change the response time, but will delay the lag time.

Deforestation and Reforestation: If a drainage basin has been deforested, then there will be less interception. Precipitation will fall directly
on the ground. This will increase the speed that the ground becomes saturated and also increase surface run-off. This will reduce the response
time and lag time. If any area is forested or been reforested then there will be more interception, root uptake and transpiration. These three
factors will reduce the peak discharge as well as slowing the lag time.