A MINI PROJECT REPORT

ON THE

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF

RESDENTIAL BUILDING



SUBMITTED



BY

K.UDAY KUMAR (09245A0103)

K.NAGENDRA BABU (08241A0123)







DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
NIZAMPET ROAD, HYDERABAD-500090
JULY 2011

CONTENTS


1. INTRODUCTION

2. PLANNING

3. STUDY AREA

4. METHODOLOGY

5. DESIGN OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

5.1) DESIGN OF SLAB
5.2) DESIGN OF BEAM
5.3) DESIGN OF COLUMN
5.4) DESIGN OF FOOTING
5.5) DESIGN OF LINTEL
5.6) DESIGN OF STAIR CASE

6. CONSTRUCTION OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

6.1) EARTHWORK EXACAVATION
6.2) FOUNDATIONS
6.3) FORM WORK
6.4) SUPER STRUCTURE
6.5) FLOORS & ROOFS
6.6) CURING OF CONCRET
6.7) PLASTERING

7. RESULTS

8. CONCLUSIONS

9. REFERENCES


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We the students of CIVIL ENGINEERING batch 2008-2012 with regulation R07,
Gokaraju rangaraju institute of engineering and technology express our sincere and deep
sense of gratitude to our external guide Mr. B.Balanarsu, project manager roshni
developers pvt.ltd.
It was great privilege for us to work under the experienced guidance of B.Balanarsu
We are very much fortunate to have him as our project guide. His inspiration and un-
reserved co-operation has helped us in completing the project for design and construction
of the residential building.
We also express our sincere thanks to our internal guide G. venkataramana H.O.D OF
civil engineering, GRIET for guiding us in the preparation of this project and for his
encouragement during this period.





























1. INTRODUCTION


The art of construction building for residential, business and other purposes
systematically according to their planning and design is known as building construction.
A building construction project involves the following works.

a) planning/ architectural works
b) design works
c) execution works


A) PLANNING / ARCHITECT URAL WORKS:

The planning of a building is done to suit the requirement of the
occupants, giving due construction to the site, orientation, ventilation, appearance etc.
this part of work is done by a special person who is called an architect. Indeed small or
rural buildings for which an engineer / supervisor is expected to draw up plans and
estimates which are not done by an architect.


B) DESIGN WORKS:

The art of designing of different parts of elements such as columns, beams, slabs,
foundation, footings to withstand the loads. They have to carry safely and
economically is known as designed works.

The process of designing is done by a special person who is called as structural
engineer.

B) EXECUTION WORKS:

When the plans and bar bending schedule details are ready, the construction of the
building is take up systematically according to their plans , as per the specifications of
I.S.I, N.B.C ( national building code) and A.P.D.S.S.







2.0 PLANNING:


2.1 ORIENTATION OF THE BUILDING
The orientation of the building is the relationship of the buildings to its
environment. Orientation of the building is fixed by studying the sun diagram indicating
the path of sun at a particular place during the day and the year.
The building orientation can have an impact on heating, lighting and cooling
costs. By maximizing southern exposure, for example, one can take optimal advantage of
the sun for daylight and passive solar heating. This will result in lower cooling costs by
minimizing western exposures, where it's most difficult to provide shade from the sun.
Important points to be remembered regarding the orientation of a building are as
follows:
Long walls of the building should face north and south, short walls should
face east and west.
A verandah or balcony can be provided towards east and west to keep the room
cool.
To protect a building from sun and rain, chajjas are required for window facing
the east, west and south.
Energy conservation strategies relating to building orientation:
Maximizing north and south faade exposure for daylight harvesting to reduce lighting
electrical loads
Using southern exposure for solar heat gain to reduce heating loads in the heating
season
Using shading strategies to reduce cooling loads caused by solar gain on south faades
Turning long faades toward the direction of prevailing breezes to enhance the cooling
effect of natural ventilation
Turning long faades in the direction parallel to slopes to take advantage of cool
updrafts to enhance natural ventilation
Shielding windows and openings from the direction of harsh winter winds and storms to
reduce heating loads
Orienting the most populated building spaces toward north and south exposures to
maximize day lighting and natural ventilation benefit
Determining building occupant usage patterns for public, commercial, institutional, or
residential buildings, and how occupants will be affected by the building orientation, by
time of day, on different exposures

Application: Designing for Building Orientation:
The designer must consider and prioritize all factors and site conditions affecting
building orientation. For example, a building might have to take heed of multiple
orientation factors depending on functional requirements: designing for cooling
load or heating load. To take advantage of northsouth daylighting, the building
may be oriented along an eastwest axis. But this may be counter to street lines
and other site considerations. Orientation of the building entrance may have to
respect street access, activity zones, and local urban design guidelines.

For most regions, optimum faade orientation is typically south. South-facing
glass is relatively easy to shade with an overhang during the summer to minimize
solar heat gain. Light shelves also can work well with the higher sun in the
southern exposure. North-facing glass receives good daylight but relatively little
direct isolation, so heat gain is less of a concern.

East and west window orientations and horizontal orientation (skylights) all
result in more undesired heat gain in the summer than winter. East and west sun
glare is also more difficult to control for occupant comfort because of low sun
angles in early morning and late afternoon.


Wind will affect tall buildings more than low structures. Design for wind
directionadmitting favorable breezes and shielding from storms and cold
weather winds. Wind information is often available from airports, libraries,
and/or county agricultural extension offices. In cold climates, locate pedestrian
paths and parking lots on south and east sides of buildings to enable snow
melting, but in southern climates locate these on the less sunny east or north sides
of the building.

In temperate and northern climates, locate deciduous trees for south-side shading
in the cooling season; in the heating season, the dropped leaves will permit
desired solar gain. In urban settings, orientation may be strongly determined by
local regulation, view easements, and urban design regulations. Be aware of
unique local and site-specific conditions, such as lake or coastal exposures, effect
of mountainous conditions, and special scenic easements.

To minimize heat losses and gains through the surface of a building, a compact
shape is desirable. This characteristic is mathematically described as the
surface-to-volume ratio of the building. The most compact orthogonal building
would be a cube. This configuration, however, may place a large portion of the
floor area far from perimeter day lighting. Contrary to the cube, a building
massing that optimizes day lighting and ventilation would be elongated along its
eastwest axis so that more of the building area is closer to the perimeter.
Although this may appear to compromise the thermal performance of the
building, the electrical load and cooling load savings achieved by a well-designed
day lighting system will more than compensate for the increased surface losses.

2.2 Provisions for lighting and ventilation:

Habitable rooms of residential building shall have for admission of light and air, one or
more openings directly to the external air of an open verandah with a maximum width of
2.4m

Door openings are not counted in the lighting and ventilation of the building. If a window
is partly fixed, only the area of shutter those can be opened shall be counted. Also no
portion of a room is assumed to be lighted if it is more than 7.5 m away from the
opening. The minimum aggregate area of such openings, excluding doors inclusive frame
shall be not less than

1/10 of the floor area for dry hot climate

1/6 of the floor area for wet hot climate

1/86 of the floor area for intermediate climate

1/12 of the floor area for cold climate


2.3 Provisions for safety from fire and explosions:

It may be achieved by insisting on non inflammable materials of constructions, i.e.,
banning thatched sheds in urban residential areas, providing open space on all the sides of
the building , thus localizing the incident and preventing spread of its influence to the
neighbouring buildings. It is also possible by insisting on standard sizes for the load
bearing members, foolproof construction with adequate ventilation for the quick and easy
escape of inflammable gases.

2.4 Provisions for drainage and sanitation:

It is possible by

Aligning the road to a gentle slope and by providing reasonable camber

Providing more plinth height so that storm water from road should never rush into
the house.




2.5 BUILDING BYE LAWS

The building byelaws are defined as the standards and specifications designed to grant
minimum safeguards to the workers during construction, to the health and comfort of the
users and to provide enough safety to the public in general. The regulation set out the
basic requirements to be observed in the of design and construction of buildings. They
are applied to new building and also to extensions, material alterations, and certain
changes of use of existing buildings

Following are the importance of building bye laws:

1) Permissible size of plots: the minimum size of plot required for each family unit shall
be as follows:

200m for one family unit.


300m for two semi-detached family units.

665m for ownership flats.


2) Built up area: the F.S.L shall be 1.00 with maximum utilization up to 0.40 on the
ground floor.


3) Margins:

The margins on road side and adjacent properties shall be respectively
4.5m and 3.0m for plots having areas less than 300m, they shall be respectively 3.00m to
2.00m


3) Areas of rooms:

The minimum areas of various rooms as given below:






Sl.no Use of room Minimum
area
remarks
1 Living room , bedroom,
drawing room, sitting
room ladies room dining
room , study room
9m No side to be less
than 2.4m

2 Store room , kitchen 5.4m No side to be less
than 1.8m
3 Bath room, dressing
room, pump room, water
room, coal room.
Minimum
1.35m
No side to be less
than 90cm

4 w.c. urinal 0.81m No side to be less
than 90cm.


5) Plinth height: it shall be 45cm above road level or plot level,
which ever is higher.

6) Height of floors: the minimum height shall be as follows.

2.10m : bath room W.C. pump room, room and water room.


2.70 : floor height on each floor.

The maximum heights of floors shall not be more than

1.25 times the minimum height

2.6 TYPE OF SOILS:
1. ROCKS
2. COHESIVE SOILS
3. NON-COHESIVE SOILS
4. PEAT


BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

Bearing capacity is the power of foundation soil to hold the forces from the
superstructure without undergoing shear failure or excessive settlement. Foundation soil
is that portion of ground which is subjected to additional stresses when foundation and
superstructure are constructed on the ground. The following are a few important
terminologies related to bearing capacity of soil.

Super Structure
Foundation
Foundation Soil
Ground Level

Main components of a structure including soil

Ultimate Bearing Capacity (q
f
) : It is the maximum pressure that a foundation
soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure

Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (q
n
) : It is the maximum extra pressure (in
addition to initial overburden pressure) that a foundation soil can withstand without
undergoing shear failure.
q
n
= q
f
- q
o
Here, q
o
represents the overburden pressure at foundation level and is equal to D for
level ground without surcharge where is the unit weight of soil and D is the depth to
foundation bottom from Ground Level.

Safe Bearing Capacity (q
s
) : It is the safe extra load the foundation soil is
subjected to in addition to initial overburden pressure.
o
n
s
q
F
q
q
Here. F represents the factor of safety.

Allowable Bearing Pressure (q
a
) : It is the maximum pressure the foundation soil
is subjected to considering both shear failure and settlement.

Factors influencing Bearing Capacity:
Bearing capacity of soil depends on many factors. The following are some important
ones.
1. Type of soil
2. Unit weight of soil
3. Surcharge load
4. Depth of foundation
5. Mode of failure
6. Size of footing
7. Shape of footing
8. Depth of water table
9. Eccentricity in footing load
10. Inclination of footing load
11. Inclination of ground
12. Inclination of base of foundation

The bearing capacity is fixed by:

1) presumption depending on soil
2) calculation depending on laboratory tests
3) actual field tests

a) By plate load test
b) Standard penetration test





Presumptive Safe Bearing Capacity

It is the bearing capacity that can be presumed in the absence of data based on visual
identification at the site. National Building Code of India (1983) lists the values of
presumptive SBC in kPa for different soils as presented below.

A: Rocks

Sl
No
Description SBC (kPa)
1 Rocks (hard) without laminations and defects. For e.g. granite,
trap & diorite
3240
2 Laminated Rocks. For e.g. Sand stone and Lime stone in sound
condition
1620
3 Residual deposits of shattered and broken bed rocks and hard
shale cemented material
880
4 Soft Rock 440

B : Cohesionless Soils

Sl
No
Description SBC (kPa)
1 Gravel, sand and gravel, compact and offering resistance to
penetration when excavated by tools
440
2 Coarse sand, compact and dry 440
3 Medium sand, compact and dry 245
4 Fine sand, silt (dry lumps easily pulverized by fingers) 150
5 Loose gravel or sand gravel mixture, Loose coarse to medium
sand, dry
245
6 Fine sand, loose and dry 100

C : Cohesive Soils

Sl
No
Description SBC (kPa)
1 Soft shale, hard or stiff clay in deep bed, dry 440
2 Medium clay readily indented with a thumb nail 245
3 Moist clay and sand clay mixture which can be indented with
strong thumb pressure
150
4 Soft clay indented with moderate thumb pressure 100
5 Very soft clay which can be penetrated several centimeters with
the thumb
50
6 Black cotton soil or other shrinkable or expansive clay in dry
condition (50 % saturation)
130 - 160
2.7 CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS

The N.B.C has classified the following buildings as follows according to
their uses and character

1. Group A- Resident AR : Residential purposes

2. Group- B- Education BE : Education

3. Group- C- Institutional CI : Medical treatment

4. Group- D- Assembly DA : recreations, theatres, assemblyhall

5. Group- E- Business EF : Transaction of business

6. GroupF- Merchentile FM : Shops, stoves, market etc.

7. Group-G- industrial GI : Production/manufacturing

8. Group-H- hazardous HH : Handling of highly consumable




















2.8 COMPONENT PARTS OF BUILDING


1) FOUNDATION BED CONCRETE

2) FOUNDATION

3) BASEMENT

4) SUPERSTRUCTURE

5) DOORS AND WINDOWS

6) LINTELS

7) SUNSHADES

8) FLOORING

9) R C C SLAB OR ROOF

10) STAIRCASES

11) SUBSTRUCTURE

12) PARAPET WALL

13) STEPS

14) ARCHITECTURAL WORKS














1) FOUNDATION BED CONCRETE:

It is a mixture of cement, sand , concrete and water which is placed
below ground level (G.L) at the foundation so as to distribute the loads equally and
uniformly too the soil. Usually width of foundation bed is 1.10m

2) FOUNDATION:

The part of building which is below the G.l is called foundation. It is
constructed with stone masonry and cement motor (C.M) . Its function is to receive the
loads from the superstructure and transmits it uniformly to the soil below it.

3) BASEMENT:

It is the part of the structure which separates the foundation and the
superstructure. The height of the basement is the level of flooring in the building. it is
generally kept about 0.45 to 0.6m above G.L or road level. The top of the basement is
called as plinth.

4) SUPERSTRUCTURE:

It is the part of the structure which is above the basement. It receives
superimposed loads from the floors and carried it to basement from there the loads are
transmitted to foundation.

5) DOOR AND WINDOWS:

Doors and windows are provided in the walls. Doors enable peoples to
move in and out of the rooms. Windows provides free circulation of air and controls entry
of natural light into the building.

6) LINTELS:

It is the horizontal member of R.C.C. of stone or wood placed over an
opening to support the structure above it.

Since doors and windows are provided in the openings of the wall, a discontinuity is
formed in the wall, in the vertical direction. Therefore, a horizontal structural member is
essential to support the superimposed load carried by the wall above the opening. The
horizontal member is called lintel. It spans across the opening and a little beyond on
either side.

7) SUNSHADES:

It is a horizontal member which is projected from the face of the wall
and is placed above an opening to provide sun race or rain entering into the room.

8) FLOORING:
It is the surface over which people perform different activities. It is laid
so that it is flushed with top of the basement. It is laid over the earth or sand filling in the
space with in basement walls. The flooring will be generally of plain cement
concrete(P.C.C) 1:4:8 of about 150mm, finished with cement mortar 1:3 of about 20mm
thick or of mosaic tiles or marble or polished granite, gabbaro,dolerite or gneiss.


9) ROOF OR SLAB:

It is a top most covering constructed over an enclosed space of a
building. it carry the superimposed load due to the men and materials and transfer them to
the structure i.e., beams, column , footings etc. it provides a cover the superstructure to
prevent sun, rain , wind etc. from entering onto the building.

10) STAIR CASE:

A series of steps which provide a series of access from one floor to
another is called a stair and the path of a building accommodating the stair known as a
stair case.




















3. STUDY AREA




Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India latitude & longitude; 1727'N 7828'E.
Altitude; 545 m (1788 ft).


The average temperature in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India is 25.9 C (79
F).

The range of average monthly temperatures is 12 C.

The warmest average max/ high temperature is 40 C (104 F) in May.

The coolest average min/ low temperature is 15 C (59 F) in December.

Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh receives on average 764 mm (30.1 in) of
precipitation annually or 64 mm (2.5 in) each month.

On balance there are 81 days annually on which greater than 0.1 mm (0.004
in) of precipitation (rain, sleet, snow or hail) occurs or 7 days on an average
month.

The month with the driest weather is January when on balance 2 mm (0.1 in)
of rain, sleet, hail or snow falls across <1 days.

The month with the wettest weather is July when on balance 165 mm (6.5 in)
of rain, sleet, hail or snow falls across 19 days.

Mean relative humidity for an average year is recorded as 47.3% and on a
monthly basis it ranges from 27% in March to 70% in September.

There is an average range of hours of sunshine in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
of between 3.6 hours per day in July and 10.2 hours per day in February.

On balance there are 2877 sunshine hours annually and approximately 7.9
sunlight hours for each day.

On balance there are 0 days annually registering frost in Hyderabad, Andhra
Pradesh and in January there are on average 0 days with frost.











Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh Climate Graph

















Average
Minimum
Temperat
ures in
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh,
India (C)
Average
Maximum
Temperat
ure in
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh,
India (C)
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh
Average
Temperat
ure (C)
Average
Sea
Temp
(C)
Average
Precipita
tion/
Rainfall
(mm)
Wet
Days
(>0.
1
mm)
Average
Sunlight
Hours/
Day
Relative
Humidit
y (%)
Average
Wind Speed
in
Hyderabad,
Andhra
Pradesh
(Beaufort)
Average
Number of
Days with
Frost

Weather
in
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh in
January
16 29 22 - 2 <1 10.1 41 2 0
Weather
in
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh in
February
18 32 24 - 11 1 10.2 34 2 0
Weather
in
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh in
March
21 36 27 - 13 2 9.4 27 2 0
Weather
in
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh in
April
24 38 30 - 24 4 9.6 34 2 0
Weather
in
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh in
May
27 40 33 - 30 4 9.1 35 2 0
Weather
in
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh in
June
24 35 29 - 107 11 7.0 55 2 0
Weather
in
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh in
July
23 31 26 - 165 19 3.6 65 2 0
Weather
in
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh in
August
23 31 26 - 147 17 4.5 68 2 0
Weather
in
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh in
September
22 31 26 - 163 13 5.8 70 2 0
Weather
in
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh in
October
21 31 25 - 71 6 7.3 53 2 0
Weather
in
Hyderaba
d, Andhra
Pradesh in
November
17 29 22 25 3 8.6 45 2 0
Weathe
r in
Hydera
bad,
Andhra
Pradesh
in
Decemb
er
15 28 21 - 6 1 9.5 41 2 0



















































































5.1 SLABS

Slabs are plane structural members forming floors and roofs of building whose thickness
is quit small compared to their other dimensions. These carry load primarily by flexure
and are in various shapes such as square , rectangular , circular and triangular in buildings
, tanks etc. inclined slabs may be used as ramps for multistoried as parking . A staircase is
considered to be an inclined slab.

Slab may be supported by beam or walls and be simply supported or
continuous over one or more supports. When the ratio of the length to the width of a slab
is more then 2, and then most of the load is carried by shorter span and in such a case is
known as one-way in case the ratio is less than 2 then it is called a two-way slab, which is
further classified as restrained and simply supported and simply supported slabs. The
various other types of the slabs are flat slabs, which rest directly on columns with beams
and grid floors or ribbed slabs.
The thickness of the reinforced concrete slabs ranges from 75mm to 300mm slabs are
designed just like beams keeping the breadth of slab as unity depending on the system of
units. Thus the total is assumed to the consisting of strips of unit width compression
reinforcement is used only in exceptional basis in a slabs. Shear stress in a slab are very
low and hence shear reinforcement is never provided and if necessary it is preferred to
the increase the depth of the slab to reduce the stress than providing the reinforcement .
Temperature reinforcement is provided at right angles to the main longitudinal
reinforcement in a slab. The design of the slab is purely is accordance with the code IS-
456 the designing process of the slabs the following assumption are made. M20 Concrete
and Fe415 steel is used both for design and execution purpose

o The overall depth of the slab is restricted to 150mm with a clear cover of 20mm.

o The main reinforcement consists of steel bars and temperature reinforcement consists of mild
steel bars.

o The total depth of the section is obtained from the maximum bending moment of all moments
of the span

Steps to be followed in the design of two Ways slab.

1. Calculate Deed Load

o Live load

o Floor finish load

o Imposed Load (if any)
2. Assume suitable thickness of depth (d) of the slab for working out its self weight.

3. Calculate effective spans both in respect of short span (lx) as well as long span (ly)

o To find the type slab by the governing formula.

If length



4. Calculate the maximum bending moments per unit width along short span and long span by I
.S Code method

5. Calculate the effective depth of the slab from Max B.M consideration.

6. Consideration check for required effective depth of slab from stiffness /deflection control.

Assume percentage of tension reinforcement and corresponding valued of modification factor
from graph in fig 3 IS 456

Calculate required graph depth (d) from stiffness / deflection control consideration.


D= span/basic value x modificatiofactor


Note: basic value for different kinds of slabs is given in clause 23.1 of IS 456

This should work out to be less than the value of effective depth adopted in design

7. Calculate the area of steel per meter width along each span by



Check for min. reinforcement
Ast = 0.12% bd
Select suitable diameter (X) of the bar and find their center to center spacing

8. Check for shear by following the steps given below.
Calculate Maximum shear force (v) from the governing formula.
Calculate Nominal shear stress by formula


Calculate from table 13 of IS 456 the value of permissible shear or the balanced percentage of
reinforcement. Obtain value of clause 47.2.1.1 of IS 456 and work out value of in slab by the
formula
If (formula) the slab is safe in shear requires no shear reinforcement else shear reinforcement
shall be provided.

9. Check for the development length at supports.

Torsion reinforcement; As per code, area of steel of torsion reinforcement per
Meter width of slab in each layer of mesh at each corner of the slab.
=3/4 area of reinforcement for max + ve B .M


Steps to be followed in the slabs design of one way slab

1. Assumed suitable thickness or depth (D) of the slab for working out its self weight.

2. Calculate
o Dead load
o Live load
o Floor finish load
o Imposed load (if any)

3. Calculate effective span for the slab

4. find the type of slab by the governing formula



.5. Calculate the maximum bending moment (M) by the near middle of span.

6. Required effective depth from max. B.M considerations.

7. Check for required effective depth of slab from stiffness / deflection consideration Assume
. Percentage of tension reinforcement provided and corresponding value of modification
factor . . . fromgraph in fig 3 of IS 456

NOTE: Basic values for different kinds of slab are given in clause 23.1 of ARE 456.

8. Calculate the area of steel per meter width








Design of slab

i) Data:-

Clear span = 4.83 m

Wall thickness = 0.23 m

Live load = 2 kn/m

Floor finish = 1 kn/m

Fck = 20 kn/m2

Fy = 415 kn/m2

dx = 4.83 m, dy = 6.02 m

dy/dx = 6.02/4.83 = 1.246 < 2


hence the slab is to be designed as a two way slab.


ii) Thickness of slab:-


Assume effective depth = span/28

= 4830/28

d = 172.5 say 175 mm



Adopting clear cover 20 mm & using 10 mm bars

Overall depth ; D = 175 + 20 + 10/2

D = 200 mm



iii) Effective span:-

Least of the following,

Lx = 4.83 + 0.175 = 5.005 m

Ly = 6.02 + 0.175 = 6.195 m

Ly/Lx = 6.195/5.005 = 1.238




iv) Loads :-

Self wt of slab = 0.200 1 25

= 5 kn/m

Live load = 2 kn/m

Floor finish = 1 kn/m

Total load = 8 kn/m


Factored load ( Wu) = 1.5 8 = 12 kn/m

v) Design moments & shear forces :-

The slab is simply supported on all the four sides. The corners are not
held down. Hence moment coefficients are obtained from table 27 of IS 456.

= 0.074

= 0.056

Mux = l

= 0.074125.005

= 22.24 kn-m

Muy = l

= 0.056125.005

= 16.83 kn-m

Factored shear force (Vu) = Wu.l/2

= 125.005/2

= 30.03 KN




vi) Min depth required :-

The minimum depth required to resist the bending moment
Mu = 0.138 fck b d

22.2410^6 = 0.138201000d


d = ( 22.2410^6 /0.138201000)


d = 89.76 mm < 175 mm



vii) Reinforcement :-

Along x- direction


Mux = 0.87 fy Ast d (1- fy.Ast/ fck.bd)

22.24 10^6 = 0.87415Ast175 (1-415Ast/201000175)

Ast = 368.05 mm

Using 8 mm dia bars , spacing of bars

S = ast/Ast 1000

= (/4 8) /368.05 1000

= 136.57 mm say 130 mm

Maximum spacing is (1) 3d = 3 175 = 525 mm
(2) 300 mm which ever is less

Hence, provide 8 mm bars at 130 mm c/c
Along y-direction

These bars will be placed above the bars in x-direction

Hence, d = 175-8 = 167 mm

Muy = 0.87 fy Ast d (1-fy.Ast/fck.bd)

16.83 10^6 = 0.87 415 Ast 167 (1-415Ast/201000167)

Ast = 289.54 mm

Using 8 mm dia bars, spacing of bars

S = ast/Ast 1000

= (/4 8) /289.54 1000

= 173.6 mm say 170 mm

Max. spacing is (1) 3d = 3 167 = 501 mm
(2) 300 mm which ever is less

Hence, provide 8 mm bars at 170 mm c/c



viii) Reinforcement in Edge strip :-

Ast = 0.12% of gross area

= 0.12/100 1000 200

Ast = 240 mm

Using 8 mm dia bars, spacing of bars

S = ast/Ast 1000

= (/4 8) /240 1000

= 209.44 mm say 200 mm

Max. Spacing is (1) 5d = 5 175 = 875 mm
(2) 450 mm which ever is less

Hence provide 8 mm bars at 200 mm c/c in edge strips in both directions



ix) Torsion Reinforcement :-

Area of reinforcement in each layer

At = Astx = 368.05 = 276.04 mm

Distance over which Torsion reinforcement is to be provided = 1/5 short span

= 1/5 lx

= 5005/5

= 1001 mm

Using 6 mm bars, spacing


S = ast/Ast 1000

= (/4 6) /276.04 1000

= 102.43 mm say 100 mm

Hence provide 6 mm bars at 100mm c/c at all the four corners in four layers



x) Check for deflection :-

For simply supported slabs basic value of l/d ratio = 20

Modification factor tension steel F1

% of steel,

= Ast/bd 100

= (368.05/1000175) 100

= 0.21 %

Fs = 0.58 fy = 0.58 415 = 240 N/mm

From fig 4 of IS 456, modification factor = 1.5

Maximum permitted l/d ratio = 1.5 20 = 30

L/d provided = 5005/175 = 28.6 < 30

Hence deflection control is safe

































Slab
designation
Lx Ly Type of
slab



S


4.83


6.02


Two



S


4.37


4.79


Two






S


3.5


4.37


Two





S


3.02


4.9


Two





S



2.89



3.69



two















































5.2 BEAMS

A reinforcement concrete beam should be able to resist tensile, compressive and shear stresses induced in it
by the on the beam. Concrete is fairly strong in compression but very weak in tension. Paint concrete beams
are thus limited in carrying capacity by the low tensile strength .steel is very strong in tension. Thus, the
tensile weakness of concrete is overcome by the provision of reinforced steel in the tension zone round the
concrete to make a reinforced concrete beam.

The beams and slabs in concrete structure are cast monolithic. Hence the structure becomes a slab, which is
stiffened by concrete ribs in which the intermediate beams act as T beam, and beams round the stair case.
Lift openings. Supports frames, etc.act as L beams. The portion of the slab that acts as a flange of T or L
beams on its own thickness and span.

For a T- beam or L beam action the following condition shall be satisfied:

1) The slab shall be cast integrally with the web, or the web and the slab shall be effectively bounded together
in any other manner, and
2) if the main reinforcement of the slab is parallel to the beam, the transverse reinforcement shall not be less
than 60% of the main rein for cement and at mid span of the slab.













b) DESIGN OF BEAM:

1) Data:

fck =20N/mm

fy = 415N/mm

l = 6.02N/mm

i) Depth of beam :

Selecting the depth in range of l/12 to l/15 based on stiffness

d = 6020/15

= 401.33mm

Adopt d = 410mm

D = 450 mm

3) Effective span:

C/c distance between the supports = 6.02+0.23

= 6.25m

Clear span + d = 6.02+0.41

= 6.43m

Hence effective span = 6.25m

4) loads :-

Self weight of the beam = 0.230.45125

= 2.58kn/m

Load from slab = 8kn/m

Total load = 10.58kn/m

Factored load = 1.510.58 =15.87kn/m

5) factored B.M (Mu) & S.F:-

Factored B.M (Mu) = Wul/8

= __15.62 6.25__________
8
= 77.548kn-m
Factored s.f (Vu) = Wul/2

= _15.8826.25___
2
= 49.63kn

6) Depth required:-

The min depth req to resist b.m

Mu = 0.138Fckbd

77.54810^6 = 0.13820250d

D = 349.5 < 410mm

Hence ok

7) Tension reinforcement:-

Mu = 0.87 FyAstd(1-_____FyAst__________)
Fckbd

Ast = 0.87415Ast410( 1- __415Ast_______________ )
20230410


Ast = 604.19mm

Provide 4 bars of 16 bars

Ast provided = 804.248mm

8) design shear stress :-

Nominal shear stress (Tv) = Vu/bd
= 49.6310^3/ 230410





































5.3 DESIGN OF COLUMN


Load from beam = 76.765 KN

Self wt of column = 0.23125
= 5.75 Kn/m

Total load = 82.515 Kn/m

Factored load (wu) = 1.582.515
= 123.77 Kn/m

Length of column = 3.0 m

Leff = 0.65 l
= 0.653000
= 1950 mm

Check type of the column,

1950/230 = 8.478 < 12

Hence designed as a short column.

Side of the column on one side = 230 mm

Net gross area of column is Ag

Assming 1% of steel,

Asc = 1% Ag = 0.01 Ag

Area of concrete, Ac = Ag- Asc = Ag-0.01Ag = 0.99 Ag

For axially loaded short columns,

Pu = 0.4fckAc + 0.67fyAsc

123.7710 = 0.4200.99Ag + 0.674150.01Ag

Ag = 115667.5 mm

Since the column is rectangular & one side of the column is 230 mm, dimension of
the other side
Ag/230 = 115667.5/230 = 502.9 mm say 500 mm

Adopt 230 mm 500 mm rectangular column,

Asc = 0.01 Ag = 0.01 115667.5
= 1156.675 mm

Provide 6 mm bars of 16 mm diameter,

Asc provided = 1206.4 mm



Lateral ties :-

a) /4 = 16 = 4 mm

b) 6 mm

Hence, adopt 6 mm diameter bars

Pitch of the ties shall be minimum of

a) least lateral dimension of column = 230 mm

b) 16 times of the dia of longitudinal bar = 1616
= 256 mm
c) 300 mm


provide 6 mm lateral ties at 250 mm c/c as shown in the fig












































5.4 DESIGN OF FOOTING :-

a) Data :-
Axial load = 307.068 KN

Size of the column = 280500mm

S.B.C of soil = 200kn/m


Fck = 20kn/m

Fy = 415kn
1) Size of footing:


Load from the column = 307.068kn

Self wt from of footing = 10% of column load = 307.068/10

Total load on the soil =337.775kn

Area of footing = 337.775/200 = 1.689m

Provide 1.21.5m footing so that the cantilever projection of the footing from the column
face is same equal to
1.2-0.23 1.5-0.5
(----------) =(-----------) = 0.5mm
2 2


Area of footing provided = 1.21.5mm



2) Upward soil pressure:

Factored load Pu = 1.5 307.068

= 460.602kn

Soil pressure at ultimate load =

Qu = Pu/area of footing

Qu = Pu /area of footing

Qu = 460.602 /1.21.5

= 255.89kn/m

= 0.26n/mm


3) Depth of footing from B.M consideration:

The c critical section for B.Mwill be at the face of the column as shown

Mu = qul (B-b/8)

= 0.161500(1200-230/8)

= 5.73310^6N-mm

4) Reinforcement:

Mu = 0.87 Fy 415Ast 450 (1-415Ast/201500250)

Ast =557.25mm

Using 16mm diameter bars, spacing of bars

S = ast B / Ast

= 304.42mm

Hence provide 12mm bars at 300mmc/c

5) Check for one way shear:

The critical section for one way shear is at a dist d from the face of the column as
shown in the fig ;

Fact S.F = Vu = soil pressure from the shaded area








































5.5 Design of lintel


1) Data:-

Fck = 20N/mm

Fy = 415N/mm

L = 1.07m

2) Depth of beam:-

Selecting the depth in range of l/15 to l/20 based on stiffness

D = 1070/20

= 60mm

Adopt d = 60mm

D = 90mm

With b = width of wall = 230mm

Assume 150 mm bearing on wall

3) Effective span:-

Least of the following

C/c of supports = 1.07 + 0.06 =1.13m



4) Loads:-

Assuming 60 dispersion, height of equilateral triangle

H = lsin60

= 1.13sin60

= 0.979m

1.25h = 1.25 0.979 = 1.229m

Since the weight of the masonry above the lintel is more than 1.25 times the height
of the triangle. Triangular load has to be considered on the lintel

Masonry load Wm = 1.130.9790.2319

= 2.417KN

Self weight of the lintel WD = 0.230.0912

= 0.518KN/m

Factored bending moment (Mu) = Wuml/6 + Wudl/8

= 1.52.4171.13/6 + 1.50.5181.13/8

= 0.683 + 0.124

= 0.807KN-m

Factored shear force Vu = Wum/2 + Wud/2

= 1.52.417/2 + 1.50.508

= 1.813 + 0.439

= 2.252KN
5) Depth required: -

The minimum depth required to resist bending moment

Mu = 0.138Fckbd

0.87106 = 0.13820230d

D = 35.65< 60mm

Hence provided depth is adequate

6) Tension reinforcement:-

Area of steel is calculated by equating c & t

0.87FyAst = 0.36FckbXumax

Ast = 0.36Fck b Xumax / 0.87Fy

= 0.36202300.4860 / 0.87415

Ast = 132.095mm

Provide 2-12mm bars; Ast = 226.19mm


6) Design shear reinforcement:-

Nominal shear stress T u / bd

= 2.2521000 / 23060

= 0.163N/mm

Pt = Ast100/bd

= 226.19100/23060

Referring to the table -19 of I.S-456


Shear strength of concrete is

Tc = 0.67N/mm

Max shear stress in concrete Tc from table I S 456

Tc = 2.8N/mm

TV< Tc , min shear reinforcement consideration as per I.S 456

Asv/bSv = 0.4/0.87Fy

Sv = 0.8725056.55/0.4230

= 133.7mm

a) Max allowed spacing = 0.75d

= 0.7560 = 45mm

b) 300mm
Which ever is less

7) Check for deflection:-

For simply supported beam basic value of l/d =20

m.f for tension steel f

of steel = 1.63

Fs = 0.58415132.095/226.19

= 140.57N/mm

From modification factor = 1.1

Max permitted l/d ratio = 1.120 = 22

L/d provided = 1130/60 = 18.83<22

Hence defies safe
























































5.6 Design of staircase:-


1) Proportioning of stairs:

Dimensions of stair hall = 1.833.66m

Height of floor = 3m

Height of one flight = 3/2 =1.5mm

Let rise r = 150mm

Tread = 225mm

No. of rises = 1500/150 = 10

Hence no of treads = 10-1=9

Adopt width of stair = 0.865m

For 9 treads the length req

90.225 = 2.025

Width of landing

(3.66-2.025)/2 = 0.8175~0.818m

2) Effective span:-

As the stair slab is spanning longitudinally

Effective span = c/c dist of walls

= 3.66+0.23

= 3.89m

30 thickness of slab:-

Assume effective depth

D = span/25 = 3890/25 =155.6mm

Adopt d=160mm &D = 190mm
4) Loads:-

Loads per meter horizontal width of stairs are as follows

Weight of slab = d1+(r/t) 25

= 5.709kn/m

wt of steps = (rt) 25 /T

0.1512.5 = 1.875kn/m

l.l = 3kn/m

f.f = 0.6kn/m

Total load = 11.64kn/m

Factored = 1.511.184 = 16.776kn/m

5) Factored bending moment:-

Mu = Wul/8 = 16.7763.89/8

Mu = 31.732kn-m

6) Min depth required:-

Mu = 0.138Fckbd

31.73210^6 = 0.138201000d

D = 107.22mm<160mm
\
Hence ok
Provided depth is adequate

7) Tension reinforcement:-

Mu = 0.87FyAstd (1-FyAst/Fckbd)
415Ast
31.73210^6 = 0.87415Ast160(1 -
201000160

Ast = 595.252mm



Using 12mm dia bars spacing of bars

S= ast1000/Ast

= 189.99mm~180mm

Hence provide 12mm bars at 180mmc/c

8) Distribution reinforcement:-

Ast =.12 of gross area

= 0.00121000190

= 228mm

Using 8mm spacing

S = 220.46mm

Hence provide 8mm bars at 220mmc/c






























































6.1 EARTHWORK EXACAVATION

EXCAVATION is the preliminary activity of the construction project. It starts from the pits for
the building foundations and continues up to the handing over of the project.




Materials and Tools Used:

The following are the materials used for the earthwork for foundation
1. Spade,
2. Kassi,
3. Pick Axe,
4. Crow Bar,
5. Rammer,
6. Wedge,
7. Boning Rod,
8. Sledge Hammer,
9. Basket,
10. Iron Pan,
11. Line and Pins

Drawings Required
1. Centerline Drawing
2. Layout Plan

Size of foundation
a. For Main walls 40 Depth

b. For Partition wall 20 Depth

Scope of the work:

o Setting out of corner benchmarks.
o Survey for ground levels.
o Survey for top levels
o Excavation to approved depth.
o Dressing of loose soil
o Making up to cut off level
o Constructing dewatering wells and interconnecting trenches.
o Marking boundaries of the building.
o Constructing protection bunds and drains

Working Procedure


The extent Of soil and rock strata is found by making trial pits in the construction site. The excavation and
depth is decided according to the following guidelines in the site
i. For Isolated footing the depth to be one and half times the width of the foundation
ii. For adjacent footings with clear spacing less than twice the width (i.e.) one and half times
the length
iii. 1.5m in general and 3.5 m in black cotton soils
In this site open foundation pits for columns and trenches for CR Masonry was carried out. The
maximum depth was up to 3m.
Setting out or ground tracing is the process of laying down the excavation lines and center
lines etc. on the ground before the excavation is started. The center line of the longest outer
wall of the building is marked on the ground by stretching a string between wooden or mild
steel pegs. Each peg may be projected about 25 to 50 mm form the ground level and 2m from
the edge of the excavation. The boundary is marked with the lime powder. The center lines of
other are marked perpendicular to the longer wall. A right angle can be formed by forming 3,
4 and 5 triangles. Similarly, outer lines of the foundation trench of each cross wall and are set
out

Removal of Excess soil
Estimate the excavated stuff to be re-utilized in filling, gardening, preparing roads, etc.As far
as possible try to carry excavation and filling simultaneously to avoid double handling. Select
and stack the required material in such a place that it should not obstruct other construction
activities. The excess or unwanted material should immediately be carried away and disposed
off by employing any of the following methods.
o Departmental lab our.
o Tractor.
o Trucks.

Quality CHECKS FOR EXCAVATION

o Recording initial ground level and check size of bottom.
o Disposal of unsuitable material for filling.
o Stacking suitable material for backfilling to avoid double handling.
o Strata classification approval by competent authority.
o Dressing bottom and sides of pits as per drawing with respect to centerline.
o Necessary safety measures observed.

QUALITY CHECKS FOR FILLING
o Recording initial ground level
o Sample is approved for back filling.
o Necessary marking/ reference points are established for final level of backfilling.
o Back filling is being carried out in layers (15cm to 20cm).
o Required watering, compaction is done.
o Required density is achieved.


CAUSES OF WORKSITE ACCIDENTS IN EXCAVATION &
TRENCHING OPERATIONS

The most frequent causes of accidents are due to:-

Collapse of earthwork due to lack of/inadequate or weak shoring;

Persons falling into excavations due to lack of barriers or inadequate fencing;

Asphyxiation from toxic gases which have collected in the excavation/trench;

Spoil (soil from excavation/trench) being placed too close to the sides of the
Excavation/trench which then become overloaded and collapse;

Failure to check and maintain shoring, particularly after inclement weather;

Water seepage (refer boiling Appendix B);

Employees working too close together;

Workers not being provided with or not using proper tools for the job;

Vehicles or plant too close to the edge, causing the edge to collapse;

Vehicles or plant too close to the edge, causing carbon monoxide gas in
Excavation/trench;

Asphyxiation by carbon dioxide which can be present in excavation/trench due
to air stagnation through lack of ventilation;

Employees in the excavation being struck by soil (refer Appendix B) or
Materials or tools falling into the excavation;

Falls through unsafe means of access/egress into or out of the excavation/
trench;

Employees being struck by excavation machinery, e.g. the bucket of the
Excavator.

Vehicles being driven into the excavation due to driving errors, inadequate
Barriers or the absence of stop blocks or adequate control procedures.

The striking or damaging of services, e.g. electricity cables, gas pipes, sewerage,
Water mains etc.

Changing weather conditions.

Lack of training or technical knowledge.

Physical and psychological conditions of workers



























6.2 FOUNDATION

TYPES OF FOUNDATION:

Foundation can be broadly classified as follows:


1) Shallows Foundations

2) Deep Foundations

1) Shallows Foundations:

Shallow foundations are those founded near to the finished ground surface;
generally where the founding depth (Df) is less than the width of the footing
and less than 3m. These are not strict rules, but merely guidelines: basically, if
surface loading or other surface conditions will affect the bearing capacity of a
foundation it is 'shallow'


Shallows foundations are used when surface soils are sufficiently strong and
stiff to support the imposed loads; they are generally unsuitable in weak or
highly compressible soils, such as poorly-compacted fill, peat, recent
lacustrine and alluvial deposits, etc.

Shallow Foundation Types

1. Pad or column footings (Isolated or Combined)

A-Isolated

Used to support single columns. This is one of the most economical types of
footings and is used when columns are spaced at relatively long distances





B-Combined

usually support two columns, or three columns not in a row. Combined
footings are used when tow columns are so close that single footings cannot
be used or when one column is located at or near a property





2. Cantilever or strap footings

consist of two single footings connected with a beam or a strap and support
two single columns. This type replaces a combined footing and is more
economical.



3. Continuous footings

Support a row of three or more columns. They have limited width and
continue under all columns.



4. Wall Footings

Are used to support structural walls that carry loads for other floors or to
support nonstructural walls.




5. Mat (Raft) footings (Thickened slabs)

Consists of one footing usually placed under the entire building area.
They are used, when soil bearing capacity is low, column loads are heavy
single footings cannot be used, piles are not used and differential
settlement must be reduced.

Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a
large area, normally the entire area of the structure. They are used when
column loads or other structural loads are close together and individual
pad foundations would interact.

A raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab which extends over
the entire loaded area. It may be stiffened by ribs or beams incorporated
into the foundation.

Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlements
as the concrete slab resists differential movements between loading
positions. They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing
capacity as they can spread the loads over a larger area.







2. Deep Foundations

Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished
ground surface for their base bearing capacity to be affected by surface
conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m below finished ground level.
Deep foundations can be used to transfer the loading to a deeper, more
competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.

Deep foundations are used when there are weak (bad) soils near the
surface or when loads are very high, such as very large skyscrapers.

Deep foundations derive their support from deeper soils or bedrock

Common Types of Deep Foundations are:

1. Pile foundations

are relatively long, slender members that transmit foundation loads through
soil strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock strata having a high
bearing capacity. They are used when for economic, constructional or soil
condition considerations it is desirable to transmit loads to strata beyond the
practical reach of shallow foundations. In addition to supporting structures,
piles are also used to anchor structures against uplift forces and to assist
structures in resisting lateral and overturning forces.

are thick slabs used to tie a group of piles together to support and transmit
column loads to the piles.





2. Piers

Are foundations for carrying a heavy structural load which is constructed
insitu in a deep excavation.

3. Caissons

Are forms of deep foundation which are constructed above ground level, then sunk to
the required level by excavating or dredging material from within the caisson.

4. Compensated foundations

Are deep foundations in which the relief of stress due to excavation is
approximately balanced by the applied stress due to the foundation. The net
stress applied is therefore very small. A compensated foundation normally
comprises a deep basement.






6.3 FORM WORK



Formwork is an ancillary construction, used as a mould for a structure. Into this mould,
fresh concrete is placed only to harden subsequently. The construction of formwork takes
time and involves expenditure upto 20 to 25% of the cost of the structure or even more.
Design of these temporary structures are made to economic expenditure. The operation of
removing the formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork can be reused.
Reusable forms are known as panel forms and non-usable are called stationary forms.
Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage with timber
formwork is that it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of water impermeable cost to
the surface of wood mitigates these defects.
A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:
1. It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
2. It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both
horizontally and vertically, so as to retain its shape.
3. The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.
4. Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired
sequences without damage to the concrete.
5. The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be
suitable for reuse.
6. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have
plane surface.
7. It should be as light as possible.
8. The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to
the elements.
9. It should rest on firm base.
Economy in Formwork
The following points are to be kept in view to effect economy in the cost of formwork:
1. The plan of the building should imply minimum number of variations in the size
of rooms, floor area etc. so as to permit reuse of the formwork repeatedly.
2. Design should be perfect to use slender sections only in a most economical way.
3. Minimum sawing and cutting of wooden pieces should be made to enable reuse of
the material a number of times. The quantity of surface finish depends on the
quality of the formwork.
Formwork can be made out of timber, plywood, steel, precast concrete or fibre glass used
separately or in combination. Steel forms are used in situation where large numbers of re-
use of the same forms are necessary. For small works, timber formwork proves useful.
Fibre glass made of pre-cast concrete and aluminium are used in cast-in-situ construction
such as slabs or members involving curved surfaces.
Timber Formwork:
Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirement:
It should be
1. well seasoned
2. light in weight
3. easily workable with nails without splitting
4. free from loose knots
Timber used for shuttering for exposed concrete work should have smooth and even
surface on all faces which come in contact with concrete.
Normal sizes of members for timber formwork:
Sheeting for slabs, beam,
column side and beam bottom
25 mm to 40mm thick
Joints, ledges 50 x 70 mm to 50 x 150 mm
Posts 75 x 100mm to 100 x 100
mm
Plywood Formwork
Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of required
sizes. The cost of plywood formwork compares favourably with that of timber shuttering
and it may even prove cheaper in certain cases in view of the following considerations:
1. It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is
there.
2. By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labour cost of
fixing and dismantling.
3. Number of reuses are more as compared with timber shuttering. For estimation
purpose, number of reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.
Steel Formwork
This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by small
steel angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of suitable clamps or
bolts and nuts. The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired modular
shape or size. Steel forms are largely used in large projects or in situation where large
number reuses of the shuttering is possible. This type of shuttering is considered most
suitable for circular or curved structures.
Steel forms compared with timber formwork:
1. Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber formwork and
their reuses are more in number.
2. Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and speed.
3. The quality of exposed concrete surface by using steel forms is good and such
surfaces need no further treatment.
4. Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete.
5. Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.
Construction of formwork:
This normally involves the following operations:
1. Propping and centring
2. Shuttering
3. Provision of camber
4. Cleaning and surface treatment
Order and method of removing formwork:
The sequence of orders and method of removal of formwork are as follows:
1. Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls, beams and column sides should be
removed first as they bear no load but only retain the concrete.
2. Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be removed next.
3. Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering
should be removed in the end.

6.4 SUPER STRUCTURE

MASONRY

Masonry is defined as the art of construction in which building units, such as clay bricks,
sand-lime, bricks, stones, Pre-cast hallow concrete blocks, concrete slabs, glass bricks,
combination of some of these building units etc are arranged systematically and bonded
together to form a homogeneous mass in such a manner that they can with stand point to
other loads and transmit then through the mass without fail or disintegration.


Masonry can be classified into the following categories.

1. Stone masonry
2. Brick masonry
3. Hallow block concrete masonry
4. Reinforced masonry
5. Composite masonry


These can be further sub-divided into varies types depending upon
workmanship and type of materials used.


Definitions of terms:

Course: A course is a horizontal layer of bricks stones

Bed: the surface of a stone perpendicular to the line of pressure of (lower surface of
bricks or stones in each course)

Back: The inner surface of wall not exposed is called back. The material forming back is
known as backing

Face: The exterior of the wall exposed to weather is known as face. The material used in
the facing of wall is known as facing

Hearting: It is the interior portion of a wall between facing and backing

Head: It is a brick or stone, which lies with its greatest length at right angles to the face
of the work.

Stretcher: It is a brick or a stone which lies with its congest side parallel to the face of
the work

Bond: The method of arranging bricks so that the individual units are tied together

Spalls: The chips of stones used for filling the interstices in stone masonry

Quoins: The stones used for the corners of walls of structure

Bat: It is a portion of a brick cut across the width.

Closer: It is the portion of a brick cut in such a manner that its one long face remains
uncut

Queen closer: it is the portion of a brick obtained by cutting a brick length-wise into
two portions

King closer: It is the portion of brick obtained by cutting off the triangular piece
between the centre of one end and the centre of one side.

Bevelled closer: It is the portion of a brick in which the whole length of the brick is
bevelled for maintaining half width at one end and full width at the other

Frog: It is an indentation or depression on the top face of a brick made with the object
of forming a key for the mortar.

Sill: It is a horizontal stone, concrete or wood, employed for the purpose of shedding off
rain water from the face of wall immediately below the window opening

Corbel: It is the extension of one or more course of stone or brick from the face of a
wall to serve as a support for wall plates

Templates: Pieces of stones placed under the end of a beam to distribute load over a
greater area.

Coping: It is the course placed upon the exposed top of an external wall to prevent the
seepage of water
Buttress: It is a sloping or stepped masonry projection from a tall wall intended to
strengthen the wall against the thrust of a roof as shown in figure



Stone masonry

The craft of stonemasonry has existed since the dawn of civilization - creating buildings,
structures, and sculpture using stone from the earth. These materials have been used to
construct many of the long-lasting, ancient monuments, artifacts, cathedrals, and cities in
a wide variety of cultures


Stonemasonry is the craft of shaping rough pieces of rock into accurate geometrical
shapes, mostly simple, but some of considerable complexity and then arranging the
resulting stones, often together with mortar, to form structures

Types of stonemasonry are:

Rubble Masonry

When roughly dressed stones are laid in a mortar the result is stone rubble masonry.

Ashlars Masonry

Well arranged and cut stones set in mortar

1) Rubble masonry:

In this category, the stones used are either undressed or roughly dressed having wider
joints. This can be further subdivided as uncoursed, coursed, random, dry, polygonal and
bint.

(i) Uncoursed rubble masonry: This is the cheapest, roughest and poorest form of
stone masonry. The stones used in this type of masonry very much vary in their shape
and size and are directly obtained from quarry. Uncoursed rubble masonry can be divided
into the following.

a) Uncoursed random rubble

b) Uncoursed squared rubble


a) Uncoursed random rubble masonry: The weak corners and edges are
removed with masons hammer. Generally, bigger stone blocks are employed at quoins
and jambs to increase the strength of masonry.






































b) Uncoursed squared rubble: In this type the stone blocks are made roughly
square with hammer. Generally the facing stones are given hammer-dressed finish. Large
stones are used as quoins. As far as possible the use of chips in bedding is avoided
as shown below.








































(ii) Coursed random rubble: This type of masonry is commonly used in the
construction of low height walls of public buildings, residential buildings, abutment and
piers of ordinary bridges. The stones of 5 to 20cm size are used in each course as shown
below
















































(iii)Coursed squared rubble: This type of masonry is made up of hammer squared
stones facing with bonded backing of uncoursed random rubble masonry. The stones
employed in each course are of
equal height. The backing and facing construction, should be carried simultaneously. In
order to avoid thick mortar joints, small chips may be used as shown.








(iv) Built to regular course: In this type of stone masonry the uniform height stones
are used in horizontal layers not less than 13cm in height. Generally, the stone beds are
hammered or chisel dressed to a depth of atleast 10cm from the face. The stones are
arranged in such a manner so that the vertical joints of two consecutive curse donot
coincide with each other as shown in figure below.










(v) Polygonal rubble masonry: In this type of masonry the stones are roughly
dressed to an irregular polygonal shape. The stones should be so arranged as to avoid
long vertical joints in face work and to break joints as much as possible. Small stone
chips should not be used to support the stones on the facing as shown in the figure below.






(vi) Plint rubble masonry: This type of masonry is used in the areas where the flint is
available in plenty. The flint stones varying in
thickness from 8 to 15cm and in length from 15 to 30cm are arranged in the facing in the
form of coursed or uncoursed masonry as shown below.















































(vii) Dry rubble masonry: This type of masonry is used in the construction of
retaining walls pitching earthen dams and canal slopes in the form of random rubble
masonry without any mortar. The hallow spaces left around stones should be tightly
packed with smaller stone pieces as shown below.











2. Ashlar Masonry:



This type of masonry is built from accurately dressed stones with uniform and fine joints
of about 3mm thickness by arranging the stone blocks in various patterns. The backing of
ashlar masonry walls may be built of ashlar masonry or rubble masonry. The size of
stones blocks should be in proportion to wall thickness.



The various types of masonry can be classified under the following categories are

(i) Ashlar fine

(ii) Ashlar rough

(iii) Ashlar rock or quarry faced

(iv) Ashlar facing

(v) Ashlar chamfered

(vi) Ashlar block in course



Uses of stone masonry:

Stone masonry construction is used in

(i) Building foundations, dams, monumental structures

(ii) Building walls, piers, columns, pillars, light houses and architectural works.

(iii) Arches, domes, lintels and beams

(iv) Roofs, flems, paving jobs
(v) Railway, bullest, black boards and electrical switch boards



Selection of stone for stone masonry:

The selection of stones for stone masonry depends upon

a. Availability
b. Ease of working
c. Appearance
d. Strength and stability
e. Polishing characteristics
f. Economy
g. Durability

The table given below broadly outlines the different types of stones used
for different purposes





BRICK MASONRY :

A systematic arrangement of laying of brick and bonding together with mortor is known
as brick masonry.

The traditional bricks used in india are of size 942 and have very low strength (2-3
n/mm2) with high water absorption. The I.S.I have recommended the use of modular
bricks of size 1969090

As improvement in manufacturing of bricks took place are being manufactured in many
places with a strength of 5N/MM2 and even though 15N/mm2 strengthened bricks
manufactured at Calcutta.

BOND :
The process of arranging bricks and mortor to lie them together in a mass of
brick work is known as bonding. It should have minimum vertical joints in any part of the
work. It is a weak potion of brick and should not be continuous in two successive
courses. There are different types of bonds out of which the most commonly used bond is
English bond consist of alternate courses of headers and stretchers.


Types of Bonds

When the word bond is used in reference to masonry, it may have three different
meanings:

STRUCTURAL BOND is a method of interlocking or tying individual masonry
units together so that the entire assembly acts as a single structural unit. Structural
bonding of brick and tile walls may be accomplished in three ways: first, by
overlapping (interlocking) the masonry units; second, by the use of metal ties
embedded in connecting joints; and third, by the adhesion of grout to adjacent
wythes of masonr

MORTAR BOND is the adhesion of the joint mortar to the masonry units or to
the reinforcing steel.

FLEMISH BOND is made up of alternate stretchers and headers, with the
headers in alternate courses centered over the stretchers in the intervening courses.
Where the headers are not used for structural bonding, they may be obtained by
using half brick, called blind-headers. Two methods are used in starting the
corners. Figure shows the so-called FLEMISH corner in which a three-quarter brick
is used to start each course and the ENGLISH corner in which 2-in. or quarter-brick
closures must be used.

ENGLISH BOND is composed of alternate courses of headers and stretchers. The
headers are centered on the stretchers and joints between stretchers. The vertical (head)
joints between stretchers in all courses line up vertically. Blind headers are used in
courses that are not structural bonding courses. The English cross bond is a variation
of English bond and differs only in that vertical joints between the stretchers in alternate
courses do NOT line up vertically. These joints center on the stretchers themselves
in the courses above and below




Classification of bricks as per I.S:

First Class Bricks

Second Class Bricks

Third Class Bricks

Specification of First Class Bricks

Made of good earth which is free from saline deposits and are sand
molded.
Burnt thoroughly without being vitrified and have deep red, cherry
and copper color.

Regular and uniform in shape and size with sharp and square edges
and parallel faces.

Must be homogeneous in texture and emit a clear ringing sound on
being struck together.


Free from flaws, cracks, chops, stones and lime.

Should not absorb water more than 20% of its own dry weight after 24
hours, immersion in cold water.

Have a minimum crushing strength of 105 kg per sq. cm when tested
according to the test.

Should not show appreciable sign of efflorescence either in dry state
or subsequent to soaking in water.

Specification of Second Class Bricks

They shall be well burnt or slightly over burnt.

They must give clear ringing sound when struck.
The may have slight irregularities in size, shape and color. They
may have slight chips, flaws or surface crack but must be free from
lime or kankar.

The minimum crushing strength of second class brick should be 70
kg per sq cm.


Specification of Third Class Bricks

These bricks are slightly under burnt or over burnt.

They are not uniform in shape, size and edges.


They shall not observe water more than 25% of their own dry
weight after 24 hours, immersion in cold water.

They have some signs of efflorescence.


Characterization of Bricks

Bricks are characterized in terms of variety, size, shape and color according to
which they are being employed in the further construction. Generally bricks that
are used for building have standard size of 1909090 mm in modular form while
non-modular form of brick has standard size of 23011070 mm. bricks are being
chosen on their type and form in their respective size.

Actual bricks that are used for construction must be properly dried and
treated for better durability.

Bricks are said to be completely burnt when they make hard sound on
being clasped together.

Good bricks are characteristics with good & uniform shape, correct
rectangular shape and shard edges.

Brick used for construction purpose should contain pure material instead
unnecessary lime, impurities like organic material and must not have any
kind of crack and distorted edges.

Bricks are ideal only if they absorb not more than 20% of water after
immersed in water for at least 24 hours.
Ideally Bricks should contain appropriate composition of raw material in
respect to clay 20 to 40%, sand 30 to 40% and silt 25 to 35%.

Solid Brick should be produced from apt soil free from vegetable particles
& roots, gravel, and coarse particles etc.

General Principles Of stone masonry:

The stones to be used for stone masonry should be hard, tough and durable.

The pressure acting on stones should be vertical

The stones should be perfectly dressed as per the requirements

The heads and bond stones should not be of a dumb bell shape.

In order to obtain uniform distribution of load, under the ends of griders, roof
trusses etc large flat stones should be used
The beds of the stones and plan of the course should be at right angles to the slope
in the case of sloping retaining wall

Wood boxing should be filled into walls having fine dressed stone work to protect
it during further construction

The mortar to be used should be good quality and in the specified faces.

The instruction work of stone masonry should be raised uniformly.

The plumb bob should be used to check the vertically of erected wall

The stone masonry section should always be designed to take compression and
not the tensile stresses

The masonry work should be properly cured after the completion of work for a
period of 2 to 3 weeks

As per as possible broken stones or small stones chips should not used

Double scaffolding should be used for working at higher level

The masonry hearting should be properly packed with mortar and chips if
necessary to avoid hallows

The properly wetted stones should be used to avoid mortar moisture being sucked




Qualities of good building stone

Crushing strength should be greater than 1000kg/cm2.

They should be durable.

hardness should be greater than 17.

Percentage wear should be less than 3%.

Specific gravity should be greater than 2.7

Toughness index should be greater than 19.

Water absorption should be less than 0.6.

It should possess good fire resistance property.


Percentage crystallization should be less than 2%.











INGRADIENTS OF CONCRETE :-

CEMENT
AGGREGATE
WATER


CEMENT :-


In the most general sense of the word, a cement is a binder, a substance that sets and
hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The word "cement" traces
to the Romans, who used the term opus caementicium to describe masonry resembling
modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The
volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives that were added to the burnt lime to obtain a
hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cment and cement.

Cement used in construction is characterized as hydraulic or non-hydraulic. Hydraulic
cements (e.g., Portland cement) harden because of hydration, chemical reactions that
occur independently of the mixture's water content; they can harden even underwater or
when constantly exposed to wet weather. The chemical reaction that results when the
anhydrous cement powder is mixed with water produces hydrates that are not water-
soluble. Non-hydraulic cements (e.g., lime and gypsum plaster) must be kept dry in order
to retain their strength.

The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concretethe bonding
of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material that is durable in the
face of normal environmental effects.

Concrete should not be confused with cement, because the term cement refers to the
material used to bind the aggregate materials of concrete. Concrete is a combination of a
cement and aggregate.



Types of modern cements :-


Portland cement :-

Cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of other
materials (such as clay) to 1450 C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination, whereby
a molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium
oxide, or quicklime, which is then blended with the other materials that have been
included in the mix. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a
small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement', the most
commonly used type of cement (often referred to as OPC).

Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-speciality grout.
The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a
composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a
construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once
hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element. Portland cement may be grey
or white.


Portland cement blends :-

Portland cement blends are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement
manufacturers, but similar formulations are often also mixed from the ground
components at the concrete mixing plant.[12]

Portland blastfurnace cement contains up to 70 % ground granulated blast furnace slag,
with the rest Portland clinker and a little gypsum. All compositions produce high ultimate
strength, but as slag content is increased, early strength is reduced, while sulfate
resistance increases and heat evolution diminishes. Used as an economic alternative to
Portland sulfate-resisting and low-heat cements.[13]

Portland flyash cement contains up to 30 % fly ash. The fly ash is pozzolanic, so that
ultimate strength is maintained. Because fly ash addition allows a lower concrete water
content, early strength can also be maintained. Where good quality cheap fly ash is
available, this can be an economic alternative to ordinary Portland cement.[14]

Portland pozzolan cement includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan, but also
includes cements made from other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries where
volcanic ashes are available (e.g. Italy, Chile, Mexico, the Philippines) these cements are
often the most common form in use.

Portland silica fume cement. Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high
strengths, and cements containing 520 % silica fume are occasionally produced.
However, silica fume is more usually added to Portland cement at the concrete mixer.[15]


Non-Portland hydraulic cements :-

Pozzolan-lime cements. Mixtures of ground pozzolan and lime are the cements used by
the Romans, and can be found in Roman structures still standing (e.g. the Pantheon in
Rome). They develop strength slowly, but their ultimate strength can be very high. The
hydration products that produce strength are essentially the same as those produced by
Portland cement.

Slag-lime cements. Ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own, but
is "activated" by addition of alkalis, most economically using lime. They are similar to
pozzolan lime cements in their properties. Only granulated slag (i.e. water-quenched,
glassy slag) is effective as a cement component.

Supersulfated cements. These contain about 80% ground granulated blast furnace slag, 15
% gypsum or anhydrite and a little Portland clinker or lime as an activator. They produce
strength by formation of ettringite, with strength growth similar to a slow Portland
cement. They exhibit good resistance to aggressive agents, including sulfate.

Calcium aluminate cements are hydraulic cements made primarily from limestone and
bauxite. The active ingredients are monocalcium aluminate CaAl2O4 (CaO Al2O3 or
CA in Cement chemist notation, CCN) and mayenite Ca12Al14O33 (12 CaO 7 Al2O3 ,
or C12A7 in CCN). Strength forms by hydration to calcium aluminate hydrates. They are
well-adapted for use in refractory (high-temperature resistant) concretes, e.g. for furnace
linings.

Calcium sulfoaluminate cements are made from clinkers that include ye'elimite
(Ca4(AlO2)6SO4 or C4A3 in Cement chemist's notation) as a primary phase. They are
used in expansive cements, in ultra-high early strength cements, and in "low-energy"
cements. Hydration produces ettringite, and specialized physical properties (such as
expansion or rapid reaction) are obtained by adjustment of the availability of calcium and
sulfate ions. Their use as a low-energy alternative to Portland cement has been pioneered
in China, where several million tonnes per year are produced.[17][18] Energy
requirements are lower because of the lower kiln temperatures required for reaction, and
the lower amount of limestone (which must be endothermically decarbonated) in the mix.
In addition, the lower limestone content and lower fuel consumption leads to a CO2
emission around half that associated with Portland clinker. However, SO2 emissions are
usually significantly higher.

"Natural" cements correspond to certain cements of the pre-Portland era, produced by
burning argillaceous limestones at moderate temperatures. The level of clay components
in the limestone (around 3035 %) is such that large amounts of belite (the low-early
strength, high-late strength mineral in Portland cement) are formed without the formation
of excessive amounts of free lime. As with any natural material, such cements have
highly variable properties.

Geopolymer cements are made from mixtures of water-soluble alkali metal silicates and
aluminosilicate mineral powders such as fly ash and metakaolin.







Aggregate :-

Construction aggregate, or simply "aggregate", is a broad category of coarse particulate
material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled
concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are a component of composite
materials such as concrete and asphalt concrete; the aggregate serves as reinforcement to
add strength to the overall composite material. Due to the relatively high hydraulic
conductivity value as compared to most soils, aggregates are widely used in drainage
applications such as foundation and French drains, septic drain fields, retaining wall
drains, and road side edge drains. Aggregates are also used as base material under
foundations,


Types of aggregates :-

fine aggregate
coarse aggregate

Fine aggregate:-



Definition
Aggregate passing the 3/8" (9.5-mm) sieve and almost entirely passing the No.4 (4.75-
mm) sieve and predominantly retained on the No. 200 (75-micrometer) sieve.
That portion of an aggregate passing the No. 4 (4.75-mm) sieve and predominantly
retained



COARSE AGGREGATE.

Coarse aggregate is a material that will pass the 3-inch screen and will be retained on the
No. 4 sieve. As with fine aggregate, for increased workability and economy as reflected
by the use of less cement, the coarse aggregate should have a rounded shape. Even
though the definition seems to limit the size of coarse aggregate, other considerations
must be accounted for. When properly proportioned and mixed with cement, these two
groups yield an almost void less stone that is strong and durable. In strength and
durability, aggregate must be equal to or better than the hardened cement to withstand the
designed loads and the effects of weathering. It can be readily seen that the coarser the
aggregate, the more economical the mix. Larger pieces offer less surface area of the
particles than an equivalent volume of small pieces. Use of the largest permissible
maximum size of coarse aggregate permits a reduction in cement and water requirements.
One restriction usually assigned to coarse aggregate is its maximum size. Larger pieces
can interlock and form arches or obstructions within a concrete form. That allows the
area below to become a void, or at best, to become filled with finer particles of sand and
cement only. That results in either a weakened area or a cement-sand concentration
that does not leave the proper proportion to coat the rest of the aggregate. The
maximum size of coarse aggregate must be no larger than the sizes given in table 13-1.
The capacity of the mixing equipment may also limit the maximum aggregate
size









Admixtures

Admixtures are defined as the material other than the aggregate, water and cement added
to the concrete. The use of suitable admixture can result in the enhancement the
performance of concrete.
Types of Admixture

Air Entraining Agents


Air entraining agents are used primarily to increase the resistance of freezing and
thawing. They also supply greater resistance to deicing chemicals, improve workability,
lower water demands for a particular slump, reduce the amount of fine aggregate needs in
the mixture, reduce segregation and bleeding, increase durability, and improve pump
ability. Even though air entrainments have no effect on drying shrinkage, they do create a
slight loss in the concrete strength.

Water Reducing Agents

A certain amount of the water is added to concrete to make the concrete place able and to
ignite the hydration reaction of Portland cement. Over 50% of the water have no useful
effect and have direct results in drying shrinkage, durability, and the strength of concrete.
Water reducing agents added to the concrete reduce the water demands of the mix,
maintain the workability, increase the strength, reduce the cost, reduce bleeding, reduce
segregation, reduce honeycombing, reduce cracking and permeability, increase bond
strength of concrete to steel, and reduce drying shrinkage. An average of 12-15 %
reduction in the total water content will attain this goal.
Set Retarding Agents

These agents are primarily used for delaying the setting time of concrete. Set retards are
useful, but are not the solution to poorly designed mixes, inferior materials, or low
cement factors. The set retarder must be uniformly dispersed throughout the whole mix.
Failure to do so will result in the admixture remaining in voids, causing some areas to
remain plastic. This leads to plastic shrinkage.
Accelerating Agents

Accelerating agents are used to shorten the setting time and increase the early strength of
the concrete. These agents are mainly used for concrete needing to be used immediately.
Calcium chloride

Calcium chloride is generally used in cold weather to hasten the setting time and
produces an early finish of the concrete. Calcium chloride can effect the characteristics of
concrete causing temperature rise, increased internal stresses, corrosion of unprotected
reinforcement, a decrease in the resistance to freeze, an increase in the attack of sulfates,
and an increase in the amount of drying shrinkage between 10 to 50 %. on the No. 200
(75-micrometer) sieve. See also aggregate and sand


Water cement ratio:

. Water-cement ratio is the weight ratio of water to the weight of cement used in a
concrete mix and has an important influence on the quality of concrete produced. A lower
water-cement ratio leads to higher strength and durability, but may make the mix more
difficult to place. Placement difficulties can be resolved by using plasticizers or super-
plasticizers.

Often, the water-to-cement ratio is characterized as the water to cement plus pozzolan
ratio, w/(c+p). The pozzolan is typically a fly ash, or blast furnace slag. It can include a
number of other materials, such as silica fume, rice hull ash or natural pozzolans. The
addition of pozzolans will influence the strength gain of the concrete.

The concept of water-cement ratio was developed by Duff A. Abrams and first published
in 1918, see concrete slump test.

Concrete hardens as a result of the chemical reaction between cement and water (known
as hydration, this produces heat and is called the heat of hydration). For every 4 lbs of
cement, 1 lb of water is needed to fully complete the reaction. This results in a water-
cement ratio of 0.25. In reality, a mix formed with a w/c ratio of 0.25 is too dry and does
not flow well enough to be placed, so more water is used than is technically necessary to
react with the cement. More typical water-cement ratios of 0.4 to 0.6 are used. For
higher-strength concrete, lower water/cement ratios are used, along with a plasticizer.

Too much water will result in segregation of the sand and aggregate components from the
cement paste. Also, water that is not consumed by the hydration reaction may leave the
concrete as it hardens, resulting in microscopic pores that will reduce the final strength of
the concrete. A mix with too much water will experience more shrinkage as the excess
water leaves, resulting in internal cracks and visible fractures (particularly around inside
corners) which again will reduce the final strength.

However, if more than twice the maximum allowed water content is added, and vibrated
or the water is added so it will mix to the same consistency, not only will it increase the
workability of the concrete but it will also extend the initial setting time resulting in
workers not having to work in an aggressive manner and will result in lower work related
injuries.

ACI reference: A low water-to-cement ratio is the number one issue effecting concrete
quality. Low water cement ratio impacts all of the desired properties of concrete listed in
the desired properties of concrete section.

A maximum .50 water-to-cement ratio is used when concrete is exposed to freezing and
thawing in a moist condition or to deicing chemicals per the 1997 Uniform Building
Code. (Table 19-A-2)

A maximum .45 water to cement ratio is used for concrete with severe or very severe
sulfate conditions per the 1997 Uniform Building Code (Table 19-A-4)

Water permeability increases exponentially when concrete has a water cement ratio
greater than .50.

Durability increases the less permeable the concrete mix is.

Strength improves with lower water-to-cement ratios. A 0.45 water cement ratio most
likely will hit 4500 psi (pounds per square inch) or greater. A 0.50 water cement ratio
will likely reach 4,000 psi (28,000 kPa) or greater.





Tests on concrete

a) Concrete Slump Test


This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made concrete. The slump test
is done to make sure a concrete mix is workable. The measured slump must be within a
set range, or tolerance, from the target slump.

Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more
workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability.
It can also be defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of
its workability.


b) The Compression Test

The compression test shows the compressive strength of hardened concrete. The
compression test shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in perfect
conditions. The compression test measures concrete strength in the hardened state.
Testing should always be done carefully. Wrong test results can be costly.

The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make a
concrete cylinder for the compression test. The strength is measured in Megapascals
(MPa) and is commonly specified as a characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28
days after mixing. The compressive strength is a measure of the concretes ability to
resist loads which tend to crush it.
Apparatus for compression test

Cylinders (100 mm diameter x 200 mm high or 150 mm diameter x 300 mm high) (The
small cylinders are normally used for most testing due to their lighter weight)
Small scoop
Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm)
Steel float
Steel plate

Procedure for compression test of concrete

Clean the cylinder mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil, then place on a clean,
level and firm surface, ie the steel plate. Collect a sample.

Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by rodding 25 times.
Cylinders may also be compacted by vibrating using a vibrating table.

Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first layer, then top up
the mould till overflowing.

Level off the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from around the mould.

Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it in a cool dry place to set for at least 24 hours.

After the mould is removed the cylinder is sent to the laboratory where it is cured and
crushed to test compressive strength


































6.5) FLOORS & ROOFS



Flooring is the general term for a permanent covering of a floor , or for the work of
installing such a floor covering. Floor covering is a term to generically describe any
finish material applied over a floor structure to provide a walking surface. Both terms are
used interchangeably but floor covering refers more to loose-laid materials.

Flooring materials
The choice of material for floor covering is affected by factors such as cost, endurance,
noise insulation, comfort and cleaning effort. Some types of flooring must not be
installed below grade (lower than ground level), and laminate or hardwood should be
avoided where there may be moisture or condensation.
The sub-floor may be finished in a way that makes it usable without any extra work, see:
Earthen floor adobe or claysfloors

Solid ground floor cement screed or g
Types of Floorings

Flooring options are as varied as your needs. Options today come in a range of styles and
colors. According to Ken Edenfield of Floorscapes in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, there are
some basic tips for consumers who are planning to purchase new flooring. "I think you
need to have contact with a full-service company--one that can take you from measuring
to helping you select the item you're looking for and the installation process," he said.
Edenfield also said that when you start shopping for floors, you should tell the
salesperson the number of people in your family, whether you have pets and what kind of
traffic situation you have. This information helps the salesperson to guide you in the right
direction.
Carpet
o Comfort, softness, warmth and quietness are the advantages of carpet. The
tighter the twist, the longer the carpet will last. There are five basic styles
of carpet, each offering its own look and function. Cut-and-loop carpet has
a patterned, sculpted design and is low maintenance. Texture carpet is
tough enough for any room and the sculpted design won't show soil or
footprints easily. Frieze carpet has a luxurious look but requires little
maintenance. Berber uses loop pile yarn. It's durable, a good choice for a
household with children, stain resistant and great for heavy traffic. For a
formal, luxurious velvet appearance, saxony carpet is the best. It has a
solid look and is stain resistant.
However, saxony will show footprints more easily than a textured style.
Laminate
o Laminate flooring comes in a variety of colors in realistic wood, stone
slate and tile designs with grout lines. The advantage of laminate floors is
having a realistic look without the hassle of cleaning soiled grout joints.
Glue, nails or staples are not required for installation because of the
special tongue-and-groove locking system.
Vinyl
o New manufacturing technology allows vinyl floors to replicate the
textures of stone, ceramic tile and wood. These floors provide variety and
unlimited style and color. They can be purchased in both sheet and tile.
Tile
o If you are looking for elegance, then tile is for you. It is available in three
main groups. Porcelain tile is man-made and has heavy residential and
commercial value. Tile is highly resistant to moisture, bacteria, odors,
stains and harsh cleaners. Ceramic tile is made of clay and is most
commonly used in residential areas. Stone tile is a natural, timeless classic
that has been used for centuries. Marble, travertine, granite and slate are
some examples of stone available to homeowners.
Hardwood
o Hardwood floors are classic and never seem to go out of style. They can
easily enhance a room's overall color scheme. The basic types of
hardwood are solid and engineered. Solid wood is the traditional flooring
application. It's nonlayered and refinishable. Engineered flooring can be
broken down into two groups: processed wood application and floating.
Processed wood application is multi-layered for stability and has factory-
applied pre-finish. It is glued or nailed to an existing floor. Floating floors
can be installed over any surface. The installation doesn't adhere to the
existing floor and is simple and quicker to install.




6.6) CURING OF CONCRETE


Curing is the process of controlling the rate andextent of moisture loss from concrete
duringcement hydration. It may be either after it has been placed in position (or during
the manufacture of concrete products), thereby providing time for the hydration of the
cement to occur. Since the hydration of cement does take time days, and even weeks
rather than hours curing must be undertaken for a reasonable period of time if the
concrete is to achieve its potential strength and durability. Curing may also encompass
the control of temperature since this affects the rate at which cement hydrates.

Water curing

General Water curing is carried out by supplying water to the surface of concrete in a
way that ensures that it is kept continuously moist. The water used for this purpose
should not be more than about 5C cooler than the concrete surface. Spraying warm
concrete with cold water may give rise to thermal shock that may cause or contribute to
cracking. Alternate wetting and drying of the concrete must also be avoided as this causes
volume changes that may also contribute to surface crazing and cracking.



Will:
- Increase concrete strength

- Increase concrete abrasion resistance

- Lessen the chance of concrete scaling

- Lessen the chance of surface dusting

- Lessen the chance of concrete cracking












6.7) PLASTERING


Method of plastering :

Surfaces to be plastered must be clean and free from dust, loose
material, oil, grease, mortar droppings, sticking of foreign matter,
traces of algae, etc. It is very important to ensure that there should
not be any chance of the plaster getting debonded due to presence of
materials harmful for bonding.

Raking out of joints is expected to be carried out along with masonry
but it should be hacked thoroughly so as to receive good key.
Bonding agent of approved make and quality shall be applied to the
surfaces ready for plastering but prior to the application of plaster.


Walls should be sufficiently damp prior to plastering. Water from
plastering mortar must not be absorbed by masonry under any
condition

Any unavoidable projections in masonry and concrete surfaces shall
be chiseled back. Care shall be taken that surrounding surfaces are
not damaged and reinforcement is not exposed.

Thickness of one coat should not be more than 15mm and less than
8mm for single coat finished plaster.

Undercoats shall be scratched or roughened before they are fully
hardened to form a mechanical key.

The method of application is also important and hence it is
recommended that the mix be thrown on the surface rather than
stuck with trowel. This increases the adhesion.

Scaffolding should be rigid, allowing free and safe movement on the
platform and it should be at sufficient distance or height from the
working areas. Scaffolding shall be with proper railings.

Actual plastering shall be undertaken only on the approval of the
Engineer. Plaster work should only follow the steps mentioned
below:-

a) Surface must be thoroughly cleaned.

b) Plaster area must be provided with level dabs or spots
allowing working and checking with 2-3 m straight edge.
Depth of plaster must not be less than 8mm at any point.

c)Required concealing services must be completed and tested.

d) No further cutting of masonry must be required.

e) Repairs carried out to masonry or concealing work must be
cured and dry.

f) Surface must be sufficiently damp.

g) Plaster dabs are checked for plumb and level by the EIC or
his representative.

h) Joints shall be racked and grouted/ pointed with square
crushed aggregates.

i) Joints, concealing and repairing areas must be covered with
20 gauge GI chicken mesh as per the EICs instruction
(Chicken mesh shall be applicable for internal and
duct/boxing plaster only.)




Corners, external or internal shall be finished along with final coat.
It is advisable to have rounded corners.

Plaster shall be cured for 14 days by wet curing except in wall care
putty finish plaster. During this period plaster shall be protected
from exposure to extremes of temperature and weather.

Plaster shall be leveled and lined by aluminium hollow section, 2-3
m long. (This will give even and leveled surface). There shall not be
more than 2mm difference in level when checked with 3m straight
edge. It is important that enough pressing and beating is done to
achieve compact filling of joints and that the area is fully compacted.


Corners, external or internal shall be finished along with final coat.
It is advisable to have rounded corners.

Plaster shall be cured for 14 days by wet curing except in wall care
putty finish plaster. During this period plaster shall be protected
from exposure to extremes of temperature and weather.

Plaster shall be leveled and lined by aluminium hollow section, 2-3
m long. (This will give even and leveled surface). There shall not be
more than 2mm difference in level when checked with 3m straight
edge. It is important that enough pressing and beating is done to
achieve compact filling of joints and that the area is fully compacted.


Finishing of plaster may be carried out with wooden float (randhas)
or trowelled smooth with sheet metal trowels as specified. Care
shall be taken to avoid excessive trowelling and overworking of the
wooden float.

All corners, internal or external, shall be truly vertical or horizontal.
These shall be finished with a proper template to achieve best
workmanship for rounding and chamfering as specified or directed.

Plaster shall be cut to correct horizontal or vertical line at the end of
the day or if work requires to be suspended for any reason.

It is advisable to limit the area of plaster to 15 sq.mt. to avoid cracks
due to thermal movements of dissimilar material in contact, it is
advisable to provide joints treated with groove or any other detail as
suggested by the Architect. These joints if not specified shall be
treated with 150mm wide reinforcing chicken mesh (approved by the
EIC) fixed over joints by GI nails and the area plastered.

TYPE OF PLASTER:

6 mm thick cement sand plaster
Single coat cement-sand plaster with cement-sand mix in proportion
of 1:4 shall be carried out over the concrete surfaces. Plastering
operations as specified clause No. 4.3 of this. This shall be finished
just with wooden float to give the bet smooth surface possible. This
may be for internal or external areas.


12 mm thick ordinary cement sand plaster
Single coat cement sand plaster with cement sand mix in proportion
of 1:4 shall be carried out over the entire area as detailed above.
This shall be finished just with wooden float to give the best smooth
Surface possible. This may be for internal or external areas.
Thickness may be from 10 to 15 mm maximum or as specified in the
Item or drawing.

23 mm thick sand face plaster
23 mm thick sand faced plaster in two coats over one bond coat shall
be provided to entire external surface of sub-station, watchmens
cabin, society office & pump house. The first coat shall be of 8 mm
thick in cement sand mix proportion of 1:4 and admixtures as
detailed subsequently, second coat of 15 mm thick cement sand mix
proportion of 1:4 with necessary admixtures enumerated in
subsequent clauses.
23mm thick sand faced plaster in three coats to all external surfaces
of the buildings





















































7. RESULTS


PCC:-

Grade = M15

Mix = 1:2:4

Layer of 4

Compacted from 15 mm to 10mm with rammer
30 degree angle at joints

Surface is watered and cleared

We Assured

1) Steel is free from dirt

2) Proper binding of steel

Foundation: Isolated


Type of Steel : Fe 415

Terms Used


Lap Length = Not More than 50% of bars are cut at one section

Anchorage Length


Treatment of forms: Cleaned with iron brush to make sure no dirt/concrete

Erection : Checking the alignment


Stripping Time

Slab = 8-10 days in summers and 10-12 days in winter

Checked No wooden Ballies were used

Pouring Of Concrete

Checks
Oiling of Shuttering plates

Cover Blocks


Compaction

150mm and 115 mm depth is achieved
Proper compaction at joints
Use of vibrator and steel rods

Curing
Check On Curing in Morning
Marking of Dates of Casting

Reasons for lack of quality in concrete work


Too Much Water
Inadequate Compaction
Inadequate Curing/Shuttering


Slump Test

Allowable limit = 100mm

Test values at site were in the range of 80-90


Compression Test

6 Cubes were casted

3 for site lab and 3 for university lab testing

7 day strength = 23-24N/mm


28 days =32-33N/mm






Brickwork

Alignment
1:4 for 4.5
1:6 for 9
Assessment of Quality of Bricks

Metallic Sound And Should Not Break If Dropped From 1m
Doors and Windows


Plastering

Checking Of Plastering Material like cement used and wire mesh

1:4 for 10mm on ceiling and 1:3 for 12.5 mm on walls


Checking Alignment with the help of wooden plank






















8. CONCLUSIONS


The planning of a building is developed keeping in view, the building bye laws,
environmental conditions prevailing in that area. The drawings of plan is
developed using auto cad software and orientation is as sun diagram.

The structural components are designed as per code of practice IS 456-2000 in
accordance to L.S.M .the imposed loads are noted from code of practice IS 876 -
1987.


The bearing capacity of the soil must be checked so that it withstand the design
load

Layout of footings, columns should be properly marked

Arrangement of formwork & scaffolding should be properly provided

Proper bar bending schedule must be followed

To provide the reinforcement as per the structural drawings

After concreting the structural components proper curing must be done

Preparing of cubes to find out the compressive strength of concrete

If the above points are followed,so the structure will be safe & durable





















9. REFERENCES :



National building code of India in 1983 and building construction by rangwala.

Planning and layout of drawings by N. srinivasulu , A. kamal and S.
subramanyam.

Structural analysis by Ramamrutham and Dr. Prakesh roa

Construction planning and management by Gahloj .P.S.and Dhev .B..M. Mahesh
verma.

IS CODES USED

1) IS 456- 2000

2) IS 875 part 1,2,3,4,5

3) SP 16

Software :

AUTO CAD

M.S.OFFICE