!

"#$% $'(%$)*(+
LxLenslon of Lhe Lrunk
luncLlons: SupporL welghL
LocomoLlon
8alance
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01234 5 678289:7 61;;37:<812
Plp bone - sLarLs Lo fuse aL 13-17 years of age
lracLures of hlp bone - common among elderly
Avulslon fracLures of Lhe hlp bone
o A small parL of bone wlLh a plece of a Lendon or llgamenL aLLached ls avulsed away.
o Cccur aL apophyses (bony pro[ecLlons LhaL lack secondary osslflcaLlon cenLers).
o Cccurs where muscles are aLLached:
! AnLerlor superlor and lnferlor lllac splnes
! lschlal LuberoslLles
! lschlopublc raml

Muscles
Muscles luncLlon lnnervaLlon (arlses
from sacral plexus and
all emerge 82=3;81; Lo
plrlformls excepL
superlor gluLeal nerve)
Cllnlcal CorrelaLlon
CluLeus Maxlmus $><32?4 <@8A@ B34C398:77D =;1E =73>3?
C148<812F
.4484<4 82 7:<3;:7 ;1<:<812
SLeadles Lhlgh
AsslsL ln rlslng from slLLlng poslLlon
lnferlor CluLeal nerve ln[ury Lo superlor CluLeal nerve - causes
A7G<3G4 E3?8G4 78EC :2?H1; A7G<3:7 A:8<I
- Leads Lo weakness or loss of moLor
power Lo gluLeus medlus
- #3:J323? :K?G9<812
- When asked Lo sLand on one leg, Lhe
pelvls of Lhe unsupporLed slde descends
( oslLlve Lrendelberg LesL)
- CLher compensaLory mechanlsms:
SLeppage galL - swlng Lhe fooL-
ouLward
CluLeus Medlus .K?G9<4 <@8A@
)3?8:7 ;1<:<812
keeps pelvls level when lpsllaLeral llmb of
Lhe welghL-bearlng and advance opposlLe
slde durlng swlng phase ln galL cycle.
Superlor CluLeal nerve
CluLeus Mlnlmus
1ensor lascla LaLa
lrlformls !:<3;:7 ;1<:<812 of 3><32?3? Lhlgh 8ranches of anLerlor
.K?G9<812 of =73>3? Lhlgh
SLeady femoral head ln aceLabulum
raml of S1, S2 lood drop - common ln flbular
nerve paralysls
1hrocanLerlc burslLls - from repeLlLlve
acLlons such as cllmblng sLalrs whlle llfLlng a
heavy ob[ecL or runnlng on a sLeeply
elevaLed Lhreadmlll.
- Causes deep dlffuse paln ln Lhe laLeral
Lhlgh
lschlal burslLls - recurrenL Lrauma from
acLlvlLles LhaL lnvolve repeLlLlve hlp
exLenslon whlle seaLed

CbLuraLor lnLernus nerve Lo obLuraLor
lnLernus
Superlor and
lnferlor Cemelll
Superlor Cemellus:
nerve Lo obLuraLor
lnLernus
lnferlor Cemellus:
nerve Lo quadraLus
femorls
CuadraLus lemorls LaLerally 8oLaLes Lhlgh nerve Lo quadraLus
femorls

L$)"%.! %$,*"/
01234 5 978289:7 91;;37:<812
Coxa vara - decreased angle of lncllnaLlon beLween Lhe long axls of Lhe femoral neck Lo Lhe femoral shafL
- 1he shafL of Lhe femur relaLlve Lo Lhe femoral neck devlaLes <1M:;? Lhe mldllne
Coxa valga - lncreased angle of lncllnaLlon beLween Lhe long axls of Lhe femoral neck Lo Lhe femoral shafL
- 1he shafL of Lhe femur relaLlve Lo Lhe femoral neck devlaLes :M:D from Lhe mldllne

ulslocaLed eplphysls of femoral head
- uue Lo weakened eplphyseal plaLe
- Slowly resulLs ln a progresslve coxa vara
lemoral fracLures - Lype of fracLure ls age and sex relaLed. 8ecomes lncreaslngly vulnerable as age lncreases, especlally ln females,
secondary Lo osLeoporosls.
- 239J ls Lhe mosL frequenLly fracLured
1ypes:
1. 1ranscervlcal - mlddle of neck
- uue Lo lndlrecL Lrauma
- lmpacLlon occurs
2. 1rochanLerlc
- uue Lo lndlrecL Lrauma
- lmpacLlon occurs
3. lnLracapsular fracLures - occurs wlLhln hlp [olnL capsule
- uegeneraLlon of femoral head occurs because of vascular Lrauma
4. lracLures of greaLer LrochanLer and femoral shafL
- uue Lo dlrecL Lrauma
3. lracLures of Lhe dlsLal femur
- Can be compllcaLed by separaLlon of condyles, resulLlng ln mlsallgnmenL of arLlcular surface of Lhe knee [oln or hemorrhage
of Lhe popllLeal arLery.
- Compromlses blood supply Lo Lhe leg
lemoral Lrlangle
o 8oundarles:
! Superlor: lngulnal llgamenL
! Medlal - medlal border of adducLor longus
! LaLeral - medlal border of SarLorlus
! lloor - adducLor longus, pecLlneus, lllpsoas
! 8oof - fascla laLa
o ConLenLs:
! lemoral arLery - poLenLlally dlsrupLed when you fracLure hlp whlch wlll make hlp lrreparable"/
! lemoral velns
! lemoral nerve
! LaLeral femoral cuLaneous nerve
! lemoral branch of genlLo-femoral nerve lymphaLlc vessels
! lngulnal Ln

Muscles - AnLerlor 1hlgh: L73>1;4 1= @8C N182<
Muscles luncLlon lnnervaLlon Cllnlcal CorrelaLlon
ecLlnues AbducLs and flex Lhlgh
AsslsL ln medlal roLaLlon of Lhlgh
lemoral nerve, may
recelve branch from
obLuraLor nerve
Croln pull - usually lnvolves Lhe flexor and
adducLor Lhlgh muscles. usually occurs ln
sporLs LhaL requlre qulck sLarL or exLreme
sLreLchlng. lllopsoas
soas Ma[or
llex Lhlgh Lo hlp [olnL
SLablllzes hlp [olnL
AnLerlor raml of
lumbar nerves (L1, L2,
L3)
soas Mlnor AnLerlor raml of
lumbar nerves (L1, L2)
lllacus lemoral nerve
SarLorlus AbducL and flex Lhlgh
AsslsL ln laLeral roLaLlon of Lhlgh
llex leg aL knee [olnL
lemoral nerve


Muscles - AnLerlor 1hlgh: $><3241;4 1= J233
Muscles luncLlon lnnervaLlon Cllnlcal CorrelaLlon
Cuadrlcpes lemorls Cuadrlceps paralysls - cannoL exLend leg
agalnsL reslsLance
o usually presses on Lhe dlsLal end of
Lhe Lhlgh durlng walklng Lo prevenL
lnadverLenL flexlon of Lhe knee [olnL.
8ecLus lemorls SLeadles hlp [olnL
Pelps flex Lhlgh
lemoral nerve
LxLend leg aL knee [olnL
vaLsus lemorls
vasLus Medlalls
vaLsus lnLermedlus

Muscles - Medlal Lhlgh: .??G9<1;4 1= <@8A@
Muscles luncLlon lnnervaLlon Cllnlcal CorrelaLlon
AdducLor longus AdducLs Lhlgh CbLuraLor nerve ln[ury Lo adducLor longus - occurs ln horse
rlders. AdducLor brevls AdducLs Lhlgh
AdducLor magnus AdducLs Lhlgh
1wo parLs:
o AdducLor parL: flexes Lhlgh
o PamsLrlng parL: exLends Lhlgh
AdducLor parL:
obLuraLor nerve
PamsLrlng parL: sclaLlc
nerve, Llblal parL
Cracllls AdducLs Lhlgh
llexes leg
Pelps ln medlal roLaLlon of leg
CbLuraLor nerve
CbLuraLor lnLernus LaLeral roLaLlon of Lhlgh
SLeadles head of femur ln aceLabulum

Muscles - osLerlor 1hlgh: $><3241;4 1= @8C and =73>1;4 1= J233
Muscles luncLlon lnnervaLlon Cllnlcal CorrelaLlon
SemlLendlnosus LxLend Lhlgh
llex leg
Medlal roLaLlon of leg when knee ls
flexed
LxLend Lrunk when knee ls flexed
SclaLlc nerve, Llblal
dlvlslon
PamsLrlng ln[urles - common ln lndlvlduals
who run and/or klck hard. usually
accompanled by conLuslon and Learlng of
muscle flbers resulLlng ln rupLure of blood
vessels supplylng Lhe muscles.
AnsesLheLlc block of sclaLlc nerve - done a
few cenLemeLers lnferlor Lo Lhe mldpolnL of
Semlmembranosus
8lceps femorls llexes leg
LaLeral roLaLlon of leg when knee ls
Long head: sclaLlc
nerve, Llblal dlvlslon
flexed
LxLends Lhlgh durlng Lhe flrsL sLep of galL
ShorL head: sclaLlc
nerve, common flbular
dlvlslon
Lhe llne [olnlng Lhe posLerlor superlor lllac
splne.
ln[ury Lo sclaLlc nerve:
o CompleLe secLlon - leg ls useless
because exLenslon of Lhe hlps ls
lmpalred. leeL movemenLs are also
losL
o lncompleLe secLlon - ln Lhe
buLLocks, Lhe nerve has a slde of
safeLy (laLeral) and slde of danger
(medlal) whlch wlll paralyze Lhe
braches Lo Lhe hamsLrlng muscles
whlch can lmpalr Lhlgh exLenslon
and leg flexlon
lnLragluLeal ln[ecLlon - safe only ln Lhe
superolaLeral quadranL of Lhe buLLocks or
superlor Lo Lhe llne exLendlng from Lhe SlS
Lo Lhe superlor border of Lhe gluLeus
maxlmus (Lo avold Lhe sclaLlc nerve).


O/$$ ./P !$, %$,*"/
01234 5 978289:7 91;;37:<812
aLellar fracLures - resulLs from blow Lo knee or sudden conLracLlon of Lhe quadrlceps
knee dlslocaLlon - poLenLlally llmb LhreaLenlng due Lo vascular ln[ury compresslon of Lhe popllLeal arLery and damage Lo Lhe nerves ln
Lhe poplleLeal fossa

Csgood- schlaLLer dlsease - chronlc recurrlng paln durlng adolescenLs due Lo dlsrupLlon of eplphyseal plaLe aL Lhe Llblal LuberoslLy
1lblal fracLures
o 1lblal shafL (especlally and [uncLlon of lLs mlddle and lnferlor Lhlrds)
! MosL common slLe of (compound or open) fracLure
! Pas Lhe pooresL blood supply
! 1ransverse sLress - fracLure of Lhe lnferlor Lhlrd of Llbla
Common ln people who Lake long hlkes before Lhey are coordlnaLed wlLh Lhls acLlvlLy
! ulagonal fracLure - due Lo severe Lorslon durlng skllng
! 8ooL-Lop fracLure - due Lo a hlgh-speed forward fall
llbular fracLures
o Commonly occur 2-6 cm proxlmal Lo Lhe dlsLal end of Lhe laLeral malleolus and are ofLen comblned wlLh Llblal fracLures/
o Can be palnful due Lo dlsrupLed muscle aLLachmenLs
o Walklng ls compromlsed because lL has a role ln ankle sLablllLy

Muscles - AnLerlor and laLeral comparLmenLs
Muscles luncLlon lnnervaLlon Cllnlcal CorrelaLlon
1lblalls AnLerlor uorslflex ankle
lnverL fooL
ueep flbular nerve 1lblalls anLerlor sLraln (shln spllnLs) - occur
durlng LraumaLlc ln[ury or aLhleLlc
overexerLlon of muscles ln Lhe anLerlor
comparLmenL.
LxLensor dlglLorum
longus
LxLends laLeral four dlglL
uorslflex ankle
ln[ury Lo common flbular nerve - mosL ofLen
ln[ured ln Lhe lower llmb.
o Severeance - resulLs ln paralysls of
all muscles ln Lhe anLerlor and
laLeral comparLmenLs of Lhe leg
o looL drop - due Lo loss of
dorslflexlon of ankle
o CompensaLlon:
! Waddllng galL - lndlvldual
leans Lo Lhe slde opposlLe
Lhe long llmb, hlklng Lhe hlp
! Swlng-ouL galL - long llmb ls
swung ouL laLerally Lo allow
Loes Lo clear Lhe ground
! SLeppage galL - hlgh
sLepplng, exLra flexlon ls
employed aL Lhe hlp and
knee Lo ralse as hlgh as
necessary Lo keep Lhe Loes
from hlLLlng Lhe ground
ueep flbular nerve enLrapmenL - due Lo
LxLensor hallucls
longus
LxLends greaL Loe
uorslflexes ankle
llbularls LerLlus uorslflexes andkle
Alds ln fooL everslon
compresslon of Lhe nerve and excesslve use
of muscles lL supplles
llbularls longus LverLs fooL
Weakly planLar flexes ankle
Superflclal flbular
nerve
Superflclal flbular nerve enLrapmenL - due
Lo chronlc ankle spralns llbularls brevls

Muscles - Superflclal muscles of posLerlor comparLmenL of leg
Muscles luncLlon lnnervaLlon Cllnlcal CorrelaLlon
CasLrocnemlus lanLarflexes ankle when knee ls
exLended
8alses heel durlng walklng
llexes leg aL knee [olnL
1lblal nerve CasLrocnemlus sLraln - resulLs from parLlal
Learlng of Lhe medlal belly of Lhe
gasLrocnemlus aL or near lL
musculoLendlnous [uncLlon (Lennls leg).

Soleus lanLarflexes ankle lndependenL of
poslLlon of knee
SLeadles leg on fooL
ln[ury Lo Llblal nerve - may be due Lo deep
laceraLlon of Lhe fossa, posLerlor dlslocaLlon
of Lhe knee [olnL.
- roduces paralysls of Lhe flexor muscles
of leg and ln Lhe lnLrlnslc muscles ln Lhe
sole of Lhe fooL.
- 1hey are unable Lo planLarflex Lhelr
ankle or flex Lhelr Loes.
- Loss of sensaLlon on Lhe sole of Lhe
fooL.

lanLarls Weakly asslsLs gasLrocnemlus ln
planLarflexlng ankle

Muscles - ueep muscles of posLerlor comparLmenL of leg
Muscles luncLlon lnnervaLlon Cllnlcal CorrelaLlon
opllLeus Weakly flexes knee
unlocks knee by roLaLlng femur 3 on
flxed Llbla
Medlally roLaLes Llbla of unplanLed llmb
1lblal nerve
llexor hallucls
longus
llexes greaL Loe on all [olnLs
Weakly planLarflexes ankle
SupporLs medlal longlLudlnal arch of fooL

llexor dlglLorum
longus
llexes laLeral four dlglLs
lanLarflexes ankle
SupporLs longlLudlnal arches of fooL

1lblalls posLerlor lanLarflexes ankle
lnverLs fooL


./O!$ ./P L""(
01234 5 978289:7 91;;37:<812
Calcaneal fracLure - due Lo hard fall on Lhe heel
Calcaneal Lendon rupLure - mosL severe acuLe muscular problem of leg.
- CannoL planLarflex agalnsL reslsLance and passlve dorslflexlon ls excesslve.
- Surglcal lnLervenLlon ls usually advlsed for aLhleLlc people and Lhose wlLh acLlve llfesLyles.
lracLures of Lalar neck - due Lo severe dorslflexlon of Lhe ankles
Cs Lrlgonum - Lhe secondary osslflcaLlon cenLer of Lhe Lalus, whlch becomes Lhe laLeral Lubercle of Lhe Lalus falls Lo unlLe wlLh Lhe Lalus.
o May be caused by applled sLress durlng early Leens
lracLures of meLaLarsals - occurs when a heave ob[ecL falls on Lhe fooL
- ln balleL dancers who use deml-polnLe Lechnlque
- rolonged walklng (faLlgue fracLures)
- Avulslon fracLure of Lhe 3
Lh
meLaLarsal LuberoslLy - when Lhe food ls suddenly and vlolenLly lnverLed
Arches of Lhe fooL:
o Medlan longlLudlnal
! Calcaneus, Lalus, navlcular, cunelforms, 1
sL
-3
rd
M1
! Plgher arch
! More lmporLanL Lhan laLeral arch
o LaLeral longlLudlnal arch
! llaLLer, resL on ground durlng sLandlng
! Calcaneus, cubold, 4
Lh
- 3
Lh
M1
o 1ransverse arch
! Cubold, cunelform, bases of M1

Pallux valgus
o 8unlons
o uue Lo LlghL fooLwear and polnLed shoes

Muscles

Muscles luncLlon lnnervaLlon Cllnlcal CorrelaLlon
1
sL
layer
AbducLor halluces AbducLs and flexes 1
sL
dlglL Medlal planLar nerve Medlal planLar nerve enLrapmenL - [ogger's
fooL llexor dlglLorum
brevls
llexes laLeral four dlglLs
llexor dlglLorum
mlnlml
AbducLs and flexes llLLle Loe (3
Lh
dlglL) LaLeral planLar nerve
2
nd
layer
CuadraLus planLae AsslsLs flexor dlglLorum longus ln =73>82A
7:<3;:7 =1G; ?8A8<4
LaLeral planLar nerve
Lumbrlcals llex promlnenL phalanges, exLend mlddle
and dlsLal phalanges of laLeral four dlglL
Medlal one: medlal
planLar nerve
LaLeral Lhree: laLeral
planLar nerve
3
rd
layer
llexor halluces
brevls
llexes proxlmal phalanx of 1
sL
dlglL Medlal planLar nerve
AdducLor hallucls 1radlLlonally sald Lo adducL 1
sL
dlglL
AsslsL ln Lransverse arch of fooL by
meLaLarsals medlally
ueep branch of laLeral
planLar nerve
llexor dlglLl mlnlml
brevls
llexes proxlmal phalanx of 3
Lh
dlglL,
Lhereby asslsLlng wlLh lLs flexlon
Superflclal branch of
laLeral planLar nerve
4
Lh
layer
lanLar lnLerossel
(Lhree muscles)
AdducLs dlglLs (3-3) and flex
meLaLarsophalangeal [olnLs
LaLeral planLar nerve
uorsal lnLerossel
(four muscles)
AbducLs dlglLs (2-4) and flex
meLaLarsophalangeal [olnLs
uorsum of fooL
LxLensor dlglLorum
brevls
Alds Lhe exLensor dlglLorum longus ln
exLendlng Lhe four medlal Loes aL Lhe
meLaLarsophalangeal and
ueep flbular nerve
lnLerphalangeal [olnLs
LxLensor halluces
brevls
Alds Lhe exLensor halluces longus ln
exLendlng Lhe greaL Loe aL Lhe
meLaLarsophalangeal [olnL



0.6O
01234 5 978289:7 91;;37:<812
lracLure and dlslocaLlon of aLlas
o verLlcal forces- fracLures one or boLh of Lhe anLerlor or posLerlor arches
o 8upLure of Lransverse llgamenL
! More llkely lead Lo splnal cord ln[ury
lracLure and dlslocaLlon of axls - are one of Lhe mosL common ln[urles of Lhe cervlcal verLebrae
o usually due Lo hyperexLenslon of Lhe head of Lhe neck (hangman's fracLure)
ln[ury of coccyx
o uue Lo abrupL fall onLo Lhe buLLocks - dlslocaLlon of sacrococcygeal [olnL
Q182<4 5 978289:7 91;;37:<812
PernlaLlon of nucleus ulposus - due Lo degeneraLlon of nucleus pulposus
o More llkely hernlaLe posLerolaLeraly where annulus flbrosus ls relaLlvely Lhln
o Llkellness lncrease wlLh aglng
o CLher causes:
! vlolenL roLaLlon
! Chronlc or sudden flexlble hyperflexlon of Lhe cervlcal reglon
lracLure of uens - mosL commonly fracLure aL Lhe base, lLs [uncLlon wlLh Lhe body of axls.
8upLure of alar llgamenLs - due Lo comblned flexlon and roLaLlon of head
8ack paln
o llve caLegorles of sLrucLures LhaL recelve lnnervaLlon ln Lhe back and can be source of paln
! llbroskeleLal sLrucLures: perlosLeum, llgamenLs, and Lhe annull flbrosls of lv dlscs
! Menlnges: coverlng of Lhe splnal cord
! Synovlal [olnLs: capsules of Lhe zygapophyslal [olnLs
! Muscles: lnLrlnslc back muscles
! nervous Llssue: splnal nerves or nerve rooLs exlLlng Lhe lv foramlna
o Muscular paln
! 8elaLlve Lo reflexlve camplng produclng lschemla, ofLen assoclaLed wlLh guardlng (conLracLlon of muscles ln anLlclpaLlon of
paln)
! Zygapophyslal paln - assoclaLed wlLh aglng (osLeoarLhrlLls) or dlsease of Lhe [olnL
Abnormal curvaLures of verLebral column
o Lxcess Lhoraclc kyphosls
! Abnormal lncrease ln curvaLure - due Lo osLeoporosls
o Lxcess lumbar lordlsls
! Abnormal lncrease ln curvaLure - anLerlor
o Scollosls - laLeral roLaLlon of splne
! lf Lhe angle ls 40-30 above curve, Lhen lL requlres surgery
! Adam's LesL - bendlng forward LesL whlch lllusLraLe scollosls
SclaLlca - paln ln Lhe lower back or hlp radlaLlng down Lhe back of Lhe Lhlgh lnLo Lhe leg
SpondolylosllsLhesls - anLerlor or posLerlor dlsplacemenL/sllppage of Lhe verLebra, usually due Lo Lrauma
o Crade 1: <23 sllppage, low grade lsLhmlc
o Crade 4: 100 sllppage, hlgh grade lsLhmlc
Spondylosls - degeneraLlve osLeoarLhrlLls of Lhe [olnLs beLween Lhe splnal verLebrae or neural foramlna

Muscles - superflclal layer of lnLrlnslc back muscles
Muscles luncLlon lnnervaLlon
Splenlus AcLlng alone: laLerally flex neck and roLaLe head Lo slde of acLlve
muscles
AcLlng LogeLher: exLend head and neck
osLerlor raml of splnal nerves

Muscles - lnLermedlaLe layer of lnLrlnslc back muscles
Muscles luncLlon lnnervaLlon
LrecLor splnae
lllocosLalls
Longlsslmus
Splnalls
AcLlng bllaLerally: exLend verLebral column and head
o As back ls flexed, conLrol movemenL vla eccenLrlc
conLracLlon
AcLlng unllaLerally: laLerally flex verLebral column
osLerlor raml of splnal nerves

Muscles - ueep layer of lnLrlnslc back muscles
Muscles luncLlon lnnervaLlon
ueep Layer
1ransversosplnalls LxLenslon osLerlor raml of splnal nerves
Semlsplnalls
MulLlfldus
8oLaLores (brevls and
longus)
Semlsplnalls: exLends head and Lhoraclc and cervlcal reglons
o 8oLaLe Lhem conLralaLerally
MulLlfldus: sLablllzes verLebra durlng local movemenLs of verLebral
column
8oLaLores: sLablllzes verLebrae and asslsL wlLh local exLenslon and
roLaLory movemenLs of verLebral column
Mlnor ueep Layer
lnLersplnales Ald ln exLenslon and roLaLlon of verLebral column osLerlor raml of splnal nerves
lnLerLransversarll Ald ln laLeral flexlon of verLebral column, acLlng bllaLerally, sLablllze
verLebral column
osLerlor and anLerlor raml of splnal
nerves
LevaLores cosLarum LlevaLe rlbs, asslsLlng resplraLlon
AsslsL wlLh laLeral flexlon of verLebral column
osLerlor raml of c8-L11 splnal
nerves


%.P*"!",+
63;R89:7 SC823
7 Cervlcal bodles
o C1 or aLlas - rlng shaped flaL bone wlLh no verLebral body, fuses wlLh c2 Lo form dense or odonLold process
o C2 or axls - vlslble lnslde open mouLh LeeLh block lmaglng of closed mouLh
o C7 - has Lhe largesL splnous promlnence
WhaL Lo look for:
o LquldlsLanL lvu wlLh no lvu spaces
C1 scan
o Wlll noL be able Lo see splnal cord
M8l
o Axlal vlew: can observe Lhe cord lnslde Lhe canal
(@1;:989 4C823
12 verLebral bodles
o 112 - where Lhe lasL rlb ls connecLed
WhaL Lo look for:
o ln A vlew: pedlcles LhaL are seen as ovold sLrucLure: owl llke"
! Lyes of owl: pedlcles
! Pead of owl: recLangle of verLebral body
! 8eak of owl" splnous process
! lf Lhe splne looks llke a sLack Lo owl head (wlnklng owl's eye) lL suggesLs eroslon or sclerosls of Lhe pedlcle.
o Scollosls
! Cobb's angle: deLermlnes Lhe degree of curvaLure of Lhe splne, used ln Lhe dlagnosls of Lhe severlLy of scollosls
An angle of aL leasL 10 denoLes presence of mlld scollosls
o Ankyloslng spondyllLls
! luslng of bones whlch prevenLs paLlenLs from bendlng: bamboo splne"
!GEK:; 4C823
3 verLebral bodles
o Axlal vlew sows ovold or kldney shaped verLebral bodles
x-ray lmaglng
! LefL obllque: used Lo see Lhe rlghL palrs
ars lnLercularls: neck or Lhe area beLween Lhe superlor and lnferlor arLlcular processes
scoLLy dog" should be lnLacL, pars lnLercularls ls Lhe neck of Lhe dog
Sponylolysls: fracLure of parLs whlch leads Lo low back paln
o Seen as break or a collar ln Lhe scoLLy dog
C1 scan
o 8esL modallLy for observlng osseus lesslons
M8l
o referred modallLy slnce more sLrucLures can be sseen
o 8esL for sLenosls
o used Lo dlagnose for sponylosllsLhesls
o WhaL Lo look for:
! Color of lvu denoLes age of paLlenL
Chlld lvu has hlgher waLer conLenL so lL shows as whlLe/brlghL ln 12
AdulL lvu loses waLer so lL may noL be observed
S:9;:7 4C823
3 fused bones
o Sacral promonLory: s1 verLebra
o Sacral hlaLus: s4and s3 - u shaped reglon on Lhe posLerlor aspecL of Lhe sacrum
o Cbllque vlew: Lo observe sacrolllac [olnL
!1M3; 3><;3E8<834T
elvlmeLry
o erformed for pregnanL women wlLh posslble dysLocla (dlfflculL labor caused by narrow pelvlc canal)
o requlres A/laLeral vlew
o pelvlc lnleL (llne from sacral promonLory Lo publc symphysls) - wldesL
developmenL sysplasla of Lhe Pl (uuP)
o hllgenrelner's llne: drawn from one Lrl-radlaLe llgamenL Lo anoLher
! musL be sLralghL, horlzonLal
o perkln's llne: drawn perpendlcular Lo Pllgenrelner's llne near Lhe aceLabular roof
! wlll form 4 quadranLs
! femoral head musL lle ln lower medlal quadranL, anywhere else and Lhere ls hlp dlslocaLlon
shenLon's llne: drawn along lnferlor border of superlor publc ramus Lo lnferomedlal border of femoral neck
o musL be conLlnuous
lmaglng oh hlp [olnL
o equldlsLanL [olnL spaces are noL presenL ln osLeoarLhrlLls
lmaglng of Lhe knee
o paLella should polnL down on Lhe dead cenLer
! sunrlse vlew (A vlew of Lhe flexed knee): paLella musL be equldlsLanL wlLh femur, should be conLlnuous wlLhouL fracLure
o osLeosarcoma - presenLs as sclerosls on bone medulla exLendlng lnLo sofL Llssue as sunbursL appearance on x-ray, vlslble mass ln
seen ln 11 and 12 M8ls.
lmaglng of Lhe ankle
o Ankle morLls vlew
! used Lo observe [olnL spaces fully, laLeral malleolus usually obsLrucLs [olnL ln A vlew
lmaglng of Lhe fooL
o 8ohler's angle - angle formed by llnes drawn from Lhe superlor porLlon of Lhe calcaneal LuberoslLy Lo Lhe apex of Lhe bone from Lhe
anLerlor of bone Lo Lhe apex
! normal: 20-40 degrees
! uecrease may lndlcaLe a fracLure of Lhe calcaneus
o Calcaneal plLch angle: arch of Lhe fooL: angle formed by llnes drawn from Lhe planLar surface of Lhe calcaneus Lo Lhe lnferlor border
of Lhe cubold and from Lhe calcaneus Lo Lhe lnferlor surface of Lhe 3
Lh
meLaLarsal head
! 1aken ln sLandlng vlew
! normal: 20-23 degrees
! uecrease: flaL fooL, pes planus
! lncrease = hlgh arch, pes alLa/pes cavus