HOW TO WRITE A DEADLY ERT

in the Persuasive Exposition Genre

for Senior Chemistry
By Richard Walding Griffith University
ITRODU!TIO
This article is about completing an Extended Response Task in Queensland Senior Chemistry in the
persuasive exposition genre.
What is an E"tended Res#$nse Tas%&
An Extended Response Task (ERT) is an assessment instrument that reuires you to respond to a !science
uestion" statement" circumstance or issue#. $t is essentially non%experimental" but &ill reuire research and
use o' secondary (someone else(s) data ) although you may ha*e to dra& on primary (your o&n)
experimental data.
What is 'ers(asive E"#$siti$n&
+ersuasi*e exposition is ,ust one type o' genre. $n a persuasive exposition ERT you ha*e to argue 'or (or
against) a statement usually called a thesis" focus or topic statement) and pro*ide e*idence to ,usti'y your
claims. -or example.
That ozone depletion and greenhouse effect are serious environmental problems but are not linked.
THE RE)EAR!H * WRITIG 'RO!E))
There are t&o phases to preparing your ERT. Research Phase" and Writing Phase. /ou can(t do the &riting
&ithout the research.
THE RE)EAR!H 'HA)E
+,+ 'RE'ARATIO
-a. What is the #(r#$se $f the /ac%gr$(nd 0sti1(l(s2 inf$r1ati$n&
/our ERT is likely to be introduced &ith some background in'ormation. This &ill set the scene 'or the task by
relating it to you personally and possibly putting it in a social context. The aim is to help you understand the
task and guide you to your initial research.
0ere(s an example o' a stimulus about airbag sa'ety.
You are a science reporter for the magazine Science Nation, a magazine similar to the
New Scientist magazine, but focussing mainly on producing science articles clarifying
issues for senior science students and the general public with an interest in science.
Your editor has just asked you to produce an article to be titled The Death of Ozone by
the Greenhouse Efect: Myths Busted.
As your editor explains to you, there is a lot of confusion in the public about these two
issues (i.e. ozone depletion and the Earths warming via the greenhouse efect). In the
eyes of some members of the public, it is thought that the burning of fossil fuels will
eventually be responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer, meaning all on Earth
will die as the dangerous suns rays hit Earth. To others, the issue is a non-event, as
scientists and governments have stopped the use of dangerous chemicals called CFCs
and any damage will be repaired by time. The editor wants you to propose a strong
statement (thesis) and write an article to argue the case.
-/ H$3 d$ I devel$# a f$c(ssed t$#ic f$r 1y ERT&
There are t&o things that you need to consider &hen proposing and de*eloping your ERT topic. these are
the Research Question and the Thesis (or Focus !tatement.
-c. H$3 d$ I devel$# a Research 4(esti$ns&
$n the stimulus you may be gi*en a situation or phenomena that is contentious" contro*ersial or socially
important (eg o1one hole) and you &ill be expected to take a personal stand based on sound chemistry
principles. The most common in science around the &orld are global &arming" cloning" stem cells" genome
pro,ects and alternati*e 'uels. The research uestion can be 'airly broad but &ill identi'y a uery about this
2&orld out there2 &ith some chemistry ideas relating to it. $' your topic is" 'or example" the chemistry o' the
atmosphere3 your research uestion should not be something simple like What is the ozone hole" A uestion
o' this nature &ill limit your ability to access the criteria in the upper achie*ement le*els. $t &ould be better to
ask. #re ozone depletion and greenhouse effect linked"
-d. H$3 d$ I devel$# a thesis -f$c(s. state1ent&
A thesis statement is a tentati*e statement about an obser*ation" phenomenon or scienti'ic problem (posed
in the Research Question) that you can argue about. /ou may also see it re'erred to as the focus. $t should
be something that people could reasonable ha*e di''ering opinions on. 4ust as a hypothesis in an EE$ has to
be testable" a thesis or 'ocus statement in an ERT should be debatable and resol*able based on clear logical
chemistry concepts and 'acts3 that is" it must allo& you to bring scienti'ic e*idence 'or&ard to ,usti'y your
stand" resol*e opposing *ie&s and come to a conclusion. $' it reuires no scienti'ic concepts or data about
real%&orld phenomena then it is not a science ERT ) and it &on(t allo& you to meet the 'ull range o' syllabus
criteria.
/our teacher may pro*ide the research uestion and a thesis statement but you may be encouraged to
de*elop your o&n &ithin the context o' the unit. $' you do de*elop your o&n 'ocus you are better able to
demonstrate formulation of $ustified significant %uestions&h'potheses ) an essential element in mastery o' the
argumentation genre and one o' the syllabus criteria. Signi'icant means 5not tri*ial(3 in other &ords"
something that is important to society or to you personally. 6e a&are that some per'ectly reasonably
sounding ideas can soon turn completely impractical &ith huge time in*ested and a poor return.
Example o' a poor (non%debatable) thesis.
#ir pollution is a real problem.
7' course it is ) no one &ould disagree3 no%one &ould say that pollution is good.
Examples o' good thesis ('ocus) statements taken 'rom ERTs in Queensland schools.
That ozone depletion and the greenhouse effect are serious environmental problems but are not
linked.
That biofuels are better than petrol.
(ased on onl' its chemical&biochemical properties) aspirin is a better drug than paracetamol.
$t is most likely ) particularly in /ear 88 ) that you &ill be gi*en the 'ocus to argue. 6ut you should be able to
choose &hether you are 'or it or against it based on clear chemistry principles. $t is al&ays better in a science
ERT to argue in 'a*our o' a proposition3 and to allo& 'or that you should &ord it appropriately. 'or example"
either That biofuel is better than petrol" or That petrol is better than biofuel depending on your belie' or
understanding 'rom preliminary scienti'ic reading.
-e. What ty#es $f clai1s are there&
There are se*eral types o' claims you can make. 9no&ing the di''erences may help you decide the &ay you
&ant to argue. 0ere they are &ith some examples.
*laims of fact. The o1one hole is no longer a problem. it is shrinking.
*laims of cause and effect+ C-Cs and C7: ha*e destroyed the o1one layer.
*laims about solutions or policies+ The go*ernment &as correct to ban C-Cs to stop us getting skin
cancer.
*laims about value. 6io'uels are better than diesel and petrol as they don(t &aste a non%rene&able
resource.
-f. H$3 narr$3 sh$(ld 1y thesis /e&
A broad 'ocus &ill reuire too many arguments to be done in the recommended &ord length. /ou should
keep you 'ocus narro&. -or example. Rene,able fuels are better than fossil fuels is uite broad. /ou could
-o, to ,rite a .eadl' /RT in *hemistr'
0
narro& it to. (iofuels are better than petrol. ;ike&ise. the chemistr' of drugs is important to societ' &ould be
a tough thesis as the terms !drugs#" !important# and !society# need a lot o' clari'ication. 6road thesis
statements are usually too general and &ill not allo& you to clearly demonstrate !A le*el# standards.
-g. H$3 d$ I 3$rd 1y thesis -f$c(s. state1ent&
This is called 0fra1ing2. The statement can be &ritten in a number o' &ays but 'or the purposes persuasi*e
argumentation a simple 'orm is. !A is better than 6#. This makes it immediately apparent &hat the t&o sides
o' the argument are. <nless there are t&o sides an argument cannot occur. <sing !A is better than 6#" the
t&o obser*ations" phenomena or scienti'ic problems are !A# and !6#. -or example" the thesis statement
!=uclear magnetic resonance imaging is &orth the risk# could be re'ramed to read !$n spite o' the risks" =>R
imaging is better than the alternati*es. $' !better# is not an appropriate &ord then you still need a comparati*e
&ord linking the opposing *ie&s. Comparati*e &ords that you could use are !better# or !&orse#3 and !same#
or !not the same#. -or example. !>icro&a*e cooking is not the same as radioacti*e medical treatment#.
Remember" you &ant to re'rame the thesis so that you can argue in 'a*our o' it.
This statement needs re'raming. The use of radiation for the treatment of foods is an effective and safe ,a'
to extend the shelf life of perishable foods and address an impending crisis in food shortages in the ,orld
toda'? The re'ramed statement &ould be something like The use of radiation for the treatment of foods is
better than not irradiating food in terms of effectiveness and safet') to extend the shelf life of perishable
foods and address an impending crisis in food shortages in the ,orld toda'.
-raming establishes your authority o*er the &ay the argument &ill proceed. $t immediately puts you in
command and control.
-h. H$3 d$ I dec$nstr(ct the t$#ic&
The ob,ect here is to 5de'ine the topic2" that is" elaborate or de'ine the key &ords (digital" analogue" laser"
micro&a*e etc). $' one o' the &ords is !better# or !best# then the de'inition is particularly important. /ou could
de'ine it in terms o'. cost" e''iciency" longe*ity" energy use" sa'ety" thrill" speed" uality o' li'e etc. @e must
ne*er 'orget that this is a !he1istry ERT and the emphasis must al&ays be on establishing the chemistry
'acts" concepts and understanding. The syllabus criterion says !analysis and e*aluation o' complex scienti'ic
interrelationships# and the &ord scienti'ic is underlined because &e are most interested in the science that is
going on and not so much the other social issues that may impinge upon it. 9eep the science to the 'ore'ront
at all times. That(s &hat your chemistry teacher &ill be looking 'or.
+,5 RE)EAR!H
!an I 3$r% in a gr$(#&
/our teacher &ill probably allo& some class time 'or you to be able to e''ecti*ely undertake each component
o' the ERT. /ou may be allo&ed to &ork in pairs or small groups during the initial stages &hen you discuss
the 'ocus and come up &ith a research uestion and thesis statement. /ou may &ork together to decide your
stand on the topic3 understanding the chemistry concepts concerned and ho& you &ill tackle the task.
0o&e*er" the &riting &ill be done indi*idually.
D$ I need a l$g/$$%&
/ou may 'ind a ,ournal or logbook help'ul 'or recording important points &hen you begin &riting. They &ill
also pro*ide e*idence that you ha*e personally engaged in research (important &hen the teacher has to
authenticate your &ork). /ou &ill need to date all entries. Schools o'ten encourage &eblogs" 1ne2ote or
3oodle.
H$3 d$ I g$ a/$(t the Research 'r$cess&
-a. !$nd(ct a #reli1inary literat(re6internet search a/$(t the t$#ic7 read /r$adly,
/ou may already ha*e an opinion on the topic but you need to become more in'ormed so you begin by
reading up on it. Aather and sort in'ormation and data 'rom a *ariety o' sources" and &rite do&n appropriate
re'erences in your log i' you keep one. /ou may need to make some assumptions about uantities or do
calculations.
-/. Identify8 inter#ret8 analyse and e"#lain relati$nshi#s /et3een (nderlying science c$nce#ts6ideas
/ou should no& try to &ork out &hich scienti'ic concepts are in*ol*ed. 7ne &ay is to dra& a concept map.
5Concepts(" in this sense" include e*ents (eg collisions)" ideas (momentum) or ob,ects (air bags). A concept
map pro*ides one o' the best methods to sort out &hat the important concepts are" and ho& they inter%relate.
The similarities bet&een t&o di''erent ideas that you are arguing about &ill become clear3 so too &ill the
-o, to ,rite a .eadl' /RT in *hemistr'
4
di''erences. 0ere(s the process.
8. <se your stimulus article and Research Question to identi'y key scienti'ic concepts (e*ents" ideas
or ob,ects). ;ist these concepts (usually B to 8C is enough" and then add concepts that you
disco*ered during your preliminary research so you end up &ith about 8C % 8B concepts /ou should
also include the &ords de'ining 5better( i' that is a part o' your topic.
:. Rank order the concepts in the list 'rom most general to most speci'ic. Start &ith the concepts 'rom
your thesis statement at the top o' the list. This list is called the 5parking lot(. Some concepts may
remain in the parking lot as the map is completed" i' you cannot see a good connection 'or these
&ith other concepts in the map.
D. Construct the preliminary map by &riting the concepts on +ost%it notes or using CmapTools
computer so't&are ('ree do&nload a*ailable at http.EEcmap.ihmc.us).
F. 7nce the preliminary map is built look 'or crosslinks (eg bet&een greenhouse effect and
electromagnetic radiation). <se arro&s to ,oin concepts.
B. 6e selecti*e in identi'ying crosslinks and be precise in identi'ying linking &ords bet&een science
concepts.

is heating of the atmosphere

caused by the absorption of
Greenhouse effect electromagnetic radiation

8. Re*ise the map" reposition concepts in &ays that lend to clarity and better o*erall structure to
prepare the 'inal map.
:. $' any concepts do not relate to chemistry concepts then prune them out.
Alternati*ely" you may need to analyse the data andEor do a series o' calculations to determine a position on
the research uestion.
-c. Tentatively c$11it y$(rself t$ a #$siti$n
Record your thinking in your log Read more narro&ly or analyse more thoroughly Take a 'inal position
and state your thesis. $' you can(t take a 'inal position" read broadly or re&ork your data until you can.
-d. What s$rt $f evidence d$ I 3ant&
There are t&o types o' e*idence.
(i) -irst hand ) in &hich you ha*e conducted the research yoursel' such as an experiment (eg EE$)"
inter*ie&s" sur*eys" personal experience" and anecdotes3
(ii) Second hand data is that supplied and compiled by others" 'or example. textbooks" ,ournals"
ne&spapers and &ebsites. $n an ERT you are more likely to be using second%hand data" but
there are many ERTs based on a student(s o&n data collection 'rom an experiment. /ou should
also ask yoursel' &hat sources does my reader *alue? The reader (teacher) is more likely to
*alue ,ournals such as 2e, !cientist more so than a ne&spaper3 and *alue internet sites 'rom
go*ernment organisations or uni*ersities o*er unspeci'ied ones. @hen you make mathematical
calculations using science 'ormulas (eg n G mE>) you are using second%hand data to ,usti'y your
thesis statement.
-e. Rec$nstr(ct y$(r thesis -synthesise data.
@rite do&n" speci'ically" an outline o' ho& you &ill use these concepts to make an argument 'or your thesis
and against the opposing *ie&s.
WRITIG 'HA)E
H$3 1any 3$rds d$ I need t$ 3rite t$ get an A9&
/our task sheet probably gi*es recommended &ork lengths 'or your assignment (eg HCC%8CCC 'or /ear 88"
and 8CCC%8BCC 'or /ear 8:). 0o&e*er" you can go o*er or under these recommendations i' you need to. The
criteria in Queensland schools 'or an !A# &ill reuire you to !discriminating selection" use and presentation o'
scienti'ic data and ideas to make meaning accessible#. $' it takes you extra &ords to do this" then so be it. 6ut
your teacher &ill be looking to see i' you ha*e used &ords and numerical data !&ith discrimination# and not
&a''led on. /ou should aim to stick to the recommendations3 you don(t &ant to test your teacher(s patience.
The important point here is that you can produce an ERT in 8CCC or 8BCC &ords &orthy o' an AI. $t has been
-o, to ,rite a .eadl' /RT in *hemistr'
5
done and is being done. Aetting a narro&" correctly &orded thesis is critical" e*en i' it means re'raming it. As
a reminder. one AF page is about :BC &ords o' double spaced 8:pt 'ont.
H$3 1(ch feed/ac% fr$1 the teacher 3ill I get&
/our task sheet &ill speci'y a number o' !checkpoints# &here the teacher &ill monitor your &ork. There &ill
most likely be one at the end o' the research phase" and one &hen your dra't is 'inished. /our teacher &ill
pro*ide 'eedback to pro*ide ethical guidance and to monitor your &ork 'or progress and authenticity
(Teachers are reuired to implement strategies to ensure authentication o' student &ork). -eedback and
assistance is usually 'airly general (maybe in the 'orm o' a checklist) and you should not expect them to
re&rite parts 'or you or tell you i' it &orth an !A#. Jon(t submit your dra't 'or 'eedback until it is complete (or
almost complete) and you are generally satis'ied &ith it. As you get more experience and con'idence (by
/ear 8:) you &ill get less 'eedback. 0o&e*er" you can use the 'eedback process more strategically. $t makes
a di''erence i' you can present your argument 'ace%to%'ace as &ell as in &riting. Juring the dra'ting process
you &ill be reuired to submit a dra't to your teacher but you should also get a chance to discuss the
argument 'ace%to%'ace.
)h$(ld I incl(de diagra1s&
The ans&er is !yes# pro*iding they 'unction as a better &ay o' presenting a part o' your argument instead o'
&ords. Remember ) a picture is &orth a thousand &ords. Students generally li't images 'rom books or the
internet and rarely ackno&ledge the sources. Sources must be ackno&ledged. /ou can also Photo!hop
them to remo*e unnecessary &ords or add explanatory captions. They should be labelled (-igure 8 etc)"
gi*en a caption (!Jiagram o' the photochemical reactions in K#) and re'erenced in the text. $' you are making
calculations using physical uantities such as time" distance" 'orce" temperature" mass etc diagrams &ill be
,ust as important as &hen you sol*e problems in other 'ormats.
)h$(ld I incl(de calc(lati$ns&
This &ill depend on the type o' response you are presenting. $' you need to make assumptions about
uantities (eg mass" time" rate" temperature) or per'orm mathematical calculations to ,usti'y your conclusion
or to come up &ith a solution (ans&er) then these need to be sho&n. Extensi*e calculations may be better in
an appendix &hich is re'erred to in the text.
Wh$ is 1y a(dience&
/our task sheet may speci'y an audience3 that is" the recipients o' your in'ormation. $n real li'e" audiences
ha*e di''erent backgrounds" attitudes and purposes 'or recei*ing your &ork. The earlier stimulus on airbags
speci'ied an audience &ith a senior science background. $t is *ery unlikely that you &ould be &riting 'or a
more expert audience" and i' your task sheet doesn(t mention it ) assume you are &riting 'or your classmates
&ho are ,ust interested and unbiased readers. @hate*er you do don(t load up your response &ith 'ormulas
and technical terms that are &ay beyond the audience. /ou(ll be marked do&n 'or sure.
What a/$(t the 0f$r1at2 -1edi(1.&
This article is sca''olding you in the genre !persuasi*e exposition# but the format o' your response can be
*aried" depending on &hat the task sheet reuires. $(m assuming you are preparing a ,ritten paper so that is
your format. $n other sub,ects it could be a debate" speech" letter" billboard" mo*ie and so on.
What a/$(t 0ti1e28 0#lace2 and 0c$11(nity2&
All arguments occur in speci'ic contexts or en*ironments. /ou may ha*e to &rite your assignment set in a
speci'ied time" place and communit'. $n the senior sciences &e can sa'ely assume you are &riting 'or an
audience &ith the time set in the present. 0o&e*er" the place could be a lecture hall" a court room or a
classroom3 or 'or an assignment like you are doing ) the pages o' a ,ournal or ne&spaper. ;astly" the
communit' could be one o' school children" members o' a club" people at a protest meeting or a group o'
academics and so on. $' your task doesn(t speci'y these things assume the reader &ill be at home in your
home to&n and reading your essay in a ,ournal or ne&spaper or as a &ritten statement.
H$3 d$ I 1a%e 1y arg(1ents c$nvincing&
Some people think that you need t&o people to ha*e an argument. This is not the case. The 'amous scientist
Charles Jar&in" in his most 'amous book !7n the 7rigin o' Species#" &rote that it &as !one long argument#.
Argumentation is a contention (thesis) supported by e*idence and reason. 7ther genres such as analytical"
explanatory or discussion are also 'orms o' argumentation. $n &riting a persuasi*e exposition you are
presenting an argument and then also taking the role o' the second person in uestioning your e*idence and
logic. Some people call this imaginary 5second person( a na'sa'er &ho is pro*iding counter%arguments 'or
-o, to ,rite a .eadl' /RT in *hemistr'
6
e*erything you say. $t is like ha*ing an imp on your shoulder uestioning e*erything you say. $t helps make
your argument more persuasi*e by insisting on e*idence 'or your claims and logic 'or your reasoning.
The type o' argumentation used in an ERT is similar in many &ays to that used in an EE$. $n both cases you
are trying to use e*idence and reason to support your thesis (ERT) or hypothesis (EE$). The main di''erence
is the source o' e*idence. in an EE$ you mainly use your o&n ('irst%hand) data obtained by manipulating
*ariables. $n an ERT you may gather some data 'irst%hand but you &on(t manipulate any *ariables3 any&ay"
you are more likely to use secondary data.
:ey R(les f$r the Arg(1entati$n Genre
8. -RA>$=A. As &ell as presenting arguments supporting your position" it is critical that you re'ute
arguments opposing your argument. Students tend to think that i' they pro*ide enough supporting data
the argument is &on3 but this is not true. /ou ha*e to demolish the negati*e. Remember ) this is an
argument not a 5discussion( &here you &eigh up both sides dispassionately then make a ,udgement. $n
an argument" you ha*e made your ,udgement and no& you are con*incing the reader that it is the only
possible ,udgement that could be made.
:. ;ESS $S >7RE. $' you try to present too many arguments supporting your position the less *alue the
reader &ill ascribe to each one o' them3 their po&er becomes diluted. +ick a 'e& (say three) and go in
hard. The other arguments you ha*e are probably &eaker and you can com'ortably lea*e them out.
D. -ACE T7 -ACE. $t makes a big di''erence i' you can present your argument 'ace%to%'ace rather ,ust in
&riting. Juring the dra'ting process you &ill be reuired to submit dra'ts to your teacher but you should
also get a chance to discuss the argument 'ace%to%'ace. >any teachers use obser*ation checklists to
monitor your progress. This is &here you can make a good 'irst impression.
F. ST/;E 7LER S<6STA=CE. 0esitancy in speech ) such as !$ mean#" !you kno&# and !isn(t it# ) is a
killer in an argument as it reduces the speaker(s po&er. The same is true 'or &ritten &ords. >ake the
sentences sound strong and stylish as it &ill be more con*incing. Style is *ery important as sometimes
the reader &ill skim read much o' your text and make a ,udgement on the &ay you &rite rather than the
content.
B. AET T0E> $=L7;LEJ. /ou need to make the reader in*ol*ed in your argument and you can do this by
getting them personally in*ol*ed. The key is to ensure they understand that you are passionate about
this *ery important issue. The seuence is clear. 8. >ake your argument personal (the issue has to be
'ramed so that it is personally rele*ant to the reader" eg car accidents" radiation e''ects on the unborn"
dangerous road conditions" eye de'ects and so on)3 :. Aet them stirred up by pro*iding a clear (local)
example the problem3 D. 7''er a solution. A solution makes an argument *ery persuasi*e.
What lang(age c$nventi$ns are there f$r a #ers(asive e"#$siti$n&
$t is a 'ormal genre and there'ore" the language needs to be 'ormal.
A*oid collouial expression.
A*oid contractions (e.g. don(tEshouldn(tE&ouldn(t).
<se 'ull sentences" paragraphs and linking sentences.
>ake *aried and extensi*e use o' cohesi*e ties (eg repetition and re'erences 'rom one
sentenceEparagraph to the next. These help uni'y relationships" and promote cause and e''ect links.
<se 'irst and second hand data (citing the source) to support arguments.
<se a combination o' past and present *erb tenses (!this data revealsK#" !the scientists have
/een in*estigating this problem t$ de1$nstrate the conseuences o' excessi*eK#.
<se o' bibliographical con*entions and citation o' re'erences throughout the text.
A*oid hesitancy &ords such as !$ mean#" !you kno&# and !isn(t it#. These are killers in an argument &hether
&ritten or spoken as they make the user seem unsure o' the topic. >ake the sentences sound strong and
stylish as it &ill be more con*incing.
-o, to ,rite a .eadl' /RT in *hemistr'
7
<se !$# &here appropriate in your report" a'ter all you &rote it and certainly you should express yoursel' in
acti*e *oice rather than passi*e terms. 0o&e*er" make sure that any personal opinion is e*ident as such to
the reader.
H$3 /ig sh$(ld a #aragra#h /e&
The rule is !one idea per paragraph# but you don(t &ant them to be too big or too small. @hat is easy to read
'or an essay (but not too 'ragmented) is about three paragraphs per page (perhaps BC%8CC &ords per
paragraph).
WHAT I) THE )TRU!TURE O; A ERT&
A &idely used 'ormat 'or &ritten expression is the three part model.
8. $ntroduction"
:. 6ody"
D. Conclusion.
Some call it the 'i*e part model as they break the body up into three sections.
1. INTRODUCTOR P!R!GR!P"S #1$% P!GES&
The introductory paragraphs should include. a topic sentence &hich includes the thesis or a speci'ic purpose
statement" 'ollo&ed by a brie' outline o' the essay. This is &here you establish the intention o' your &riting
and in'orm the reader o' &hat the paper is about3 and outline the main points to be argued con*incing the
reader o' your point o' *ie&. The brie' outline is &here you try to make your story engaging so your reader
&ill &ant to read on. The best &ay to do this is by highlighting &hy the issue is personally rele*ant to you and
your teacher3 better still i' you ha*e a local example (eg radiation concerns 'rom o*erhead po&er &ires). This
also can ha*e the e''ect o' making the reader stirred up by the problem &hich engages the reader e*en
more. Secondly" say &hy it is rele*ant to society (cost electrical transmission" health dangers). =ext" you
should present de'initions o' the comparati*e &ords and o' other terms that may not be 'amiliar to your
audience. /ou need to de'ine these key terms so they are unambiguous. There are t&o types o' de'initions.
one is the 'ormal explanation o' technical terms. /ou need to ,udge &hether any explanation is really
necessary 'or straight%'or&ard &ords like 5electricity( or 5nuclear &aste(. The second type o' de'inition is more
important as it is so that you can position yoursel' to better argue your case. These are sometimes called
5contingent( or 5tactical( de'initions. $n the earlier example o' a thesis. !That re'racti*e laser surgery better than
the use o' optical de*ices# this is &here you &ould argue the meaning o' 5better( (eg lo&er cost" sa'er" simpler
etc). /ou must a*oid basing your Chemistry ERT on social" historical or emotional arguments more
appropriate to other non%science sub,ects.
Then it is time to brie'ly present the three arguments you &ill be using and ho& you &ill be considering and
re'uting the opposition arguments. /ou should be care'ul not to mock the opposition because the &ay to
persuade a reader &ho has an opposing point o' *ie& is to ackno&ledge their *ie& and then slo&ly demolish
it. $' you are too critical 'rom the outset you &ill lose the reader(s empathy and they &ill not &ant to read
'urther.
As this is a science essay" you &ill certainly need to present the science behind each o' the t&o opposing
terms. /ou are not presenting your argument here but merely ) in terms o' the QSA syllabus ) reproducing
and interpreting) and comparing and explaining concepts) theories) principles and phenomena. 0o& much
about the science should you &rite? The ans&er depends on ho& complex and challenging the issues are
but no more than t&o pages &ould be &arranted (and this &ould include diagrams).
The last sentence o' this paragraph should also include a transitional sentence that mo*es the reader to the
'irst paragraph o' the body o' the essay.
$n summary.
Thesis (topic" 'ocus) statement and o*er*ie&
+ersonal rele*ance
Social rele*ance
Re'ramed thesis
Je'initions (o' comparati*e &ords" and technical terms)
Scienti'ic explanations (*alid and accurate)
Closing statement and link to next section
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Y$(r !hec%#$int< although your teacher &ill be marking according to the criteria sheet" heEshe &ill be
looking 'or indicators o' these criteria. The main ones in the introduction &ill be.
$s the thesis (topic" 'ocus) clearly stated?
Joes the thesis (topic" 'ocus) sho& sol*ability
Are the kno&ledge statements scienti'ically *alid and accurate?
)ylla/(s criteria li%ely t$ a##ly (aspects o'" at L0A le*el)<
reproduction and interpretation o' complex and challenging concepts" theories and principles
(9C<8)
comparison and explanation o' complex concepts" processes and phenomena (9C<:)
linking and application o' algorithms" concepts" principles" theories and schema to 'ind solutions in
complex and challenging situations (9C<D)
'ormulation o' ,usti'ied signi'icant uestionsEhypotheses &hich in'orm e''ecti*e and e''icient design"
re'inement and management o' in*estigations ($+8)
%. 'OD P!R!GR!P"S #($) P!GES&
These &ill consist o' t&o sections % the arguments3 and the counter%arguments" although you shouldn(t label
them as such.
5,+ ARGU=ET)<
Three arguments is the right number to ha*e. $' you try to present too many arguments supporting your
position the less *alue the reader &ill ascribe to each one o' them3 their po&er becomes diluted.
)tr(ct(re
-or all arguments" the 'irst sentence should contain a link to the transitional sentence 'rom the pre*ious
paragraph. The sub,ect 'or this paragraph should be in the 'irst or second sentence and should relate to the
thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. Remember" only one ideaEconcept per paragraph. $' you
change ideas" start a ne& paragraph. The closing sentence (clincher) ideally should not only sum up the
paragraph" but also pro*ide a link to the next paragraph" in order to pro*ide 'luency o' expression and
cohesion in the argument. Arguments and support should be logically linked and seuenced in a &ay that
makes it easy and interesting to 'ollo& the author2s train o' thought.
4(antitative evidence
Seeing this is a chemistry task ) you should be ,usti'ying your argument &ith uantitati*e (numerical) data
and analysis. @hat you &ill be looking 'or are some 5rich( data sets3 that is" a *ariety o' data sets that can
be analysed in &ays to help your case. $n the &ords o' the syllabus you &ill be attempting s'stematic
anal'sis of primar' and secondar' data to identif' relationships bet,een patterns) trends) errors and
anomalies. @hen you do 'ind relationships (eg correlation bet&een t&o sets o' data" or graphs that trend
the same &ay)" be care'ul not to say one causes the other. 4ust because a relationship is e*ident and
seems plausible (logical)" do not 'all into the trap. /ou need to ask i' the relationship suggests a probable
cause" not ,ust a plausible one. ;astly" in many cases you &ill need to make an argument using a series o'
mathematical calculations. 9eep this straight'or&ard. data 'ormula result" and don(t get bogged do&n
by sho&ing the &orking.
Arg(1ent + the first idea that s(##$rts the arg(1ent f$r y$(r thesis,
.ata 9 Theor' :+
The 'irst paragraph should clearly set out the 'irst and most important argument (premise).
$t should then include the data ('acts" statistics" principles" examples" real%li'e experiences) and the
rele*ant theory (concepts" la&s" 'ormulas" uantities" units) that support the premise. All o' the
e*idence (data and theory) should be speci'ic" rele*ant and explanations (sometimes called
,arrants or backings) are gi*en that sho& ho& each piece o' e*idence supports and con*inces o'
the author2s position. 6e care'ul that i' you cite scienti'ic theories or mathematical calculations in
support o' your thesis" you must explain &hy and ho& they relate. $t is no good ,ust saying
!supported by =e&ton(s Second ;a&# &ithout explanation. Students do this a lot ) they are not
speci'ic.
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$t should then dra& a clear connection to the conclusion (thesis)3 and most importantly ) it should
be plausible. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional statement that ties
into the next paragraph o' the body.
Example 8. -or the o1one and greenhouse thesis" the 'irst argument could be.
+remise 8. that !link# means ha*e similar causes (your de'inition)
+remise :. that o1one depletion and greenhouse e''ect ha*e di''erent causes (your e*idence)
Claim. o1one depletion and greenhouse e''ect are not linked (logical reasoning)
Arg(1ent 5 the sec$nd idea that s(##$rts the arg(1ent f$r y$(r thesis,
.ata 9 Theor' 0+ 6egin &ith linking &ords that makes it clear that you ha*e another piece o' e*idence to
support your argument in 'a*our o' the thesis. Repeat the three points abo*e 'or your second argument. As
said be'ore" the last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional statement that ties into the
next paragraph o' the body.

Example :. -or the o1one and greenhouse thesis" the 'irst argument could be.
+remise 8. that !link# means ha*e similar e''ects (your de'inition)
+remise :. that o1one depletion and greenhouse e''ect ha*e di''erent e''ects (your e*idence)
Claim. o1one depletion and greenhouse e''ect are not linked (logical reasoning)
Arg(1ent > the third idea that s(##$rts the arg(1ent f$r y$(r thesis,
.ata 9 Theor' 4. Repeat the process used 'or Argument : abo*e 'or your third argument. /ou do not need
more than three arguments. /ou &ill probably 'ind that your F
th
and B
th
arguments are &eaker and &ill
ine*itably detract 'rom your main points. Expert public speakers kno& this to be true. The last sentence in
this paragraph should include a transitional statement that makes it clear your ma,or premises ha*e been
stated but &ill be brought together in the summary. This &ill tie it into the next paragraph o' the body.
Example D. -or the o1one and greenhouse thesis" the 'irst argument could be.
+remise 8. that !better# means cheaper to make (your de'inition)
+remise :. that digital 'abrication has mass market cheapness (your e*idence)
Claim. digital is better (logical reasoning)

Arg(1ent )(11ary< 6egin by reminding the reader that three arguments ha*e been presented to support
your thesis" and that you ha*e ,usti'ied them by pro*iding e*idence using 'irst%hand or secondary data" or
theory and 'acts taken 'rom an authoritati*e and reliable source. Then you need to summarise them and
present a tentati*e conclusion. /our concluding sentences should state that the data and theory combined
are a logical argument 'or your thesis3 that is" there are no errors in logic. /ou should ackno&ledge that
some o' the e*idence can be challenged but that in the next section you &ill raise and rebut any limitations
o' your e*idence and reasoning to sho& ho& they remain *alid. This is the !killer# section in critical
reasoning.
5,5 !OUTER!LAI=) -RE;UTATIO). * REBUTTAL)
0ere you can uali'y the limitations o' your arguments in terms o' the uality o' the data you used" the
supporting 'ormulas or theory" and the logical process you ha*e adopted. =ot all o' the 'ollo&ing points
need to be used ) only &here and &hen appropriate. /ou can lump them all together in a !Counter%claims
and Rebuttal# section or you can address them in each o' your three arguments.
DATA
4(antitative Data Ref(tati$n +< /ou should examine the data that has been presented by you or by
the stimulus. $n it you should examine the uality o' the data. is it appropriate 'or the argument3 is
there su''icient data to make the claim3 is it up%to%date and does it apply to the thesis today3 has it
been collected 'airly by impartial (unbiased) obser*ers3 could there be errors in the data because o'
limitations o' the measuring de*ices3 could there be mistakes in the data because o' sloppy
collection (eg reading o' scales)3 &ere the obser*ers uali'ied.
Example. a scientist claimed that the *ariations in o1one concentrations is natural KKK

4(antitative Data Re/(ttle +< /ou should then rebut any re'utations that can be made in relation to
the data. $' your argument can possibly be re'uted by any points you ha*e raised in the !Re'utation#
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abo*e" then this is your chance to explain &hy your use o' the data is sound" appropriate and logical.
$' you cannot do this you should be honest and say so.
Example. data pro*ided by the CS$R7 has been peer%re*ie&ed and is considered robust.
4(alitative Data Ref(tati$n +< Students tend to take trust&orthiness o' scientists and their data 'or
granted. /ou should examine the theory that has been presented to you in the stimulus or that you
ha*e located on the internet or book as support 'or the claim using the abo*e%mentioned data. There
is a lot o' rubbish on the internet ) and a lot o' it by scientists commenting outside their area o'
expertise" or 'or some more sinister reason. /ou should examine the authorit' on &hich the claims in
the theory ha*e been made.
$s the theory presented correctly &ithout mistakes3
Are the 'ormulas" units" uantities" and symbols correct and appropriate3
0a*e scienti'ic terms been used in an e*eryday sense to change the meaning3
Joes the theory apply to a limited range o' situations or is it able to be generalised more
broadly3
$' you are uoting or responding to the claim o' a scientist" is it in the scientist(s 'ield o'
expertise? That is" a rocket scientist may not be an expert in climate science.
$s the cited expert really an expert?
0o& recent is the source? Table o' constants and properties o' elements may be still 'ine
e*en i' published :C years ago" but data on communications" electronics" diseases" and
plastics may go out o' date uickly.
0o& authoritati*e is the expert? Are they recognised by colleagues as an outstanding
expert?
$' se*eral scientists disagree on the topic" ha*e you consulted se*eral experts as &ell?
$s supporting e*idence a*ailable" and is the statement by the scientist in accordance &ith
this e*idence?
$s the expert(s statement clear and intelligible" and correctly interpreted?
Joes the scientist ha*e a *ested interest in the research? That is" does the scientist &ork 'or
a company or institution &ith a 'inancial interest in the research3 i' so" you may ha*e to
uestion the scientist(s personal reliability (is heEshe honest" unbiased" and conscientious?).
This has been a problem in the asbestos" cigarette" s&ine 'lu" mobile phone" *accination"
nuclear and oil industries.
4(alitative Data Re/(ttle +< /ou should then rebut any re'utations that can be made in relation to
the theory. $' your argument can possibly be re'uted by any points you ha*e raised in the !Re'utation#
abo*e" then this is your chance to explain &hy your use o' the data is sound" appropriate and logical.
-or example" i' it could be claimed that the theory is !old#" state &hy it is still current and not
superseded.

A))U='TIO)
Ass(1#ti$ns +< /ou &ill use a lot o' unstated assumptions in your ,usti'ication. $s there any &ay you
could be challenged on your use o' theory" 'ormulas" terms and so on? $s it logical to use this theory
in support o' your claim? $s this argument commonly used by experts in the 'ield? Are all
assumptions you ha*e made about physical uantities (such as mass" 'orces" *olume" time etc)
reasonable?
Ass(1#ti$ns Ref(tati$n +< Are there unstated assumptions made in supporting the claim? Could
you be challenged &ith the statement. !no one has used this theory be'ore to support such a claim#.
Critics &ill o'ten say !you don(t ha*e enough e*idence3 there may be a situation scientists ha*en(t
seen &hich re'utes your claim#. $' 'or instance you ha*e made an assumption about the coe''icient o'
'riction on a particular road sur'ace" could someone ask !ho& did you kno& it &asn(t raining?#.
Ass(1#ti$ns Re/(ttle +< Say &hy the assumptions are appropriate 'or the claim. To the argument
that !a case may come along one day to re'ute your claim# you merely ha*e to ackno&ledge this and
say that on the current e*idence your claim is the simplest and best there is.
LOGI!AL REA)OIG
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L$gical reas$ning +< $n you summary o' the arguments you should ha*e stated that the data and
theory combined are a logical argument 'or your thesis3 that is" there are no errors in logic. $' you
used the logic o'. !premise 8" premise :" conclusion# 'airly then you should be sa'e. This also applies
&hen you are selecting 'ormulae and substituting *alues in to it.
L$gical reas$ning ref(tati$n< Jo the data and theory logically support the argument you ha*e
made in support o' the thesis. That is" is there any other claim that could also be made 'rom the data
and theory you ha*e presented? There is a common statement in argumentation is that !correlation
is not causation#" that is" because t&o uantities are related mathematically" one does not
necessarily cause the other. -or example" there is a relationship bet&een reading ability and shoe
si1e. the larger shoe si1es correlate &ith better reading ability" but this does not mean large 'eet
cause good reading skills. $nstead it is caused by the 'act that young children ha*e small 'eet and
ha*e not yet (or only recently) been taught to read.
L$gical reas$ning re/(ttle< /ou should critically e*aluate the data 'or bias" emoti*e language"
contradictions" 'alse premises and assumptions.
Y$(r !hec%#$int<
Reasoning structure
Are there multiple lines o' reasoning (more than :" 'e&er than F)?
$s the reasoning plausible?
$s the reasoning logical?
Jo the lines o' reasoning con*erge to a conclusion (has there been linking and application o'
algorithms" concepts" principles" theories and schema)?
0as the reasoning been put &ith con*iction?
1bservational /vidence (.ata and Theor'
$s speci'ic empirical (obser*able) data used?
0as the method o' gathering and interpreting empirical e*idence been ,usti'ied and e*aluated?
Are the data (including theory) appropriate and rele*ant? Are they clearly identi'ied?
Are they clearly explained?
Are they su''icient?
0as the explanation o' &hy or ho& the data supports the claim been made (including the underlying
assumptions that connects the data to the claim)?
0a*e unsubstantiated statements or generalisations been a*oided?
Are there su''icient and appropriate !inscriptions# (graphs" diagrams" images" photographs etc)?
0a*e !inscriptions# been re'erenced in the text" captioned and the source ackno&ledged?
$s uantitati*e e*idence included and has it been systematically analysed to identi'y relationships
bet&een patterns" trends" errors and anomalies?
0a*e any 5counterclaim( statements been made to re'ute the data (and rebutted)?
0a*e any 5counterclaim( statements been made to re'ute the logic (and rebutted)?
/xplanator' /vidence
Are the data and theory used appropriately to ,usti'y the thesis?
$s the rele*ance o' the data clearly stated?
Jo your claims account 'or all the e*idence?
0a*e single pieces o' e*idence that support personal belie' been a*oided (and instead a 'ocus on
the patterns and relationships in the data been made)?
)ylla/(s criteria li%ely t$ /e (sed (aspects o'" at L0A le*el)<
reproduction and interpretation o' complex and challenging concepts" theories and principles
(9C<8).
comparison and explanation o' complex concepts" processes and phenomena (9C<:).
linking and application o' algorithms" concepts" principles" theories and schema to 'ind solutions in
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::
complex and challenging situations (9C<D).
systematic analysis o' primary and secondary data to identi'y relationships bet&een patterns"
trends" errors and anomalies ($+D).
analysis and e*aluation o' complex scienti'ic interrelationships (EC8)
exploration o' scenarios and possible outcomes &ith ,usti'ication o' conclusionsE recommendations
(EC:).
(. CONC*UDING P!R!GR!P"+S #1$% P!GES&
Each sentence should sum up the main idea or point o' the indi*idual paragraphs in the essay. These
paragraphs are the summary paragraphs. The conclusion should be *ery strong and clear and 'ollo&
logically 'rom in'ormation collected and ,udgments made and must not introduce ne& in'ormation. $deally" it
&ould contain three critical conclusions. -irstly" an e''ecti*e restatement o' the position statement should
strongly begin the closing paragraph. This is the main conclusion. $t is important to restate the thesis and the
supporting ideas in an original and po&er'ul &ay as this is the last chance the &riter has to con*ince the
reader o' the *alidity o' the in'ormation presented. Secondly" you may be able to state a conclusion about the
limitations o' the argument3 and thirdly ) a conclusion about the implications o' your thesis. $n essence" you
&ould make the 'ollo&ing.
8. A restatement o' the thesis statement" using some o' the original language or language that MechoesM
the original language. (The restatement" ho&e*er" need not be a duplicate o' the thesis statement.)
:. A summary o' the main points 'rom the body o' the essay and ho& they link to this thesis.
D. A statement about the limitations o' the argument and the thesis (can you generalise this idea to
other areas in industry or society" or do they only apply to the narro& area o' your thesis statement?.
F. A 'inal statement that gi*es the reader signals that the discussionEpresentation has come to an end.
This 'inal statement may be a Mcall to actionM or the implications o' the thesis. $t is sometimes &here
you can o''er a solution to the reader. Students o'ten think !&hat more could $ possibly say?# but your
last 'e& sentences should lea*e a lasting and pro'ound impression on the reader (&ell" try to any&ay).
Y$(r !hec%#$int<
$s there a statement that the thesis is supported?
0a*e other conclusions (acceptable alternati*e explanations) based on the e*idence been
considered and &eaknesses in them challenged (rebutted)?
$s a re'lection on possible 'uture action or conseuences o''ered?
)ylla/(s criteria (aspects o'" at L0A le*el)<
exploration o' scenarios and possible outcomes &ith ,usti'ication o' conclusionsE recommendations
(EC:).
?, RE;ERE!E)8 ;OOTOTE) * BIBLIOGRA'HY -+ 'AGE.
To pro*ide credibility to your argument you &ill need to present a Re'erence ;ist and a 6ibliography.
Students treat these as t&o 'airly unimportant aspects o' the &riting. 0o&e*er" you should see them as a &ay
to bolster your argument and a &ay to pro*ide e*idence that you ha*e engaged in the research process (to
help authenticate the &ork as being your o&n).
-a. RE;ERE!E) * ;OOTOTE)
Re'erences are used to ackno&ledge the source o' comments" uotations" diagrams" photos and so on.
Citation o' primary sources establishes that you ha*e gone to the trouble o' 'inding the original source o' the
material rather than rely on someone else(s report o' it. Citations sho& that your argument rests on solid
'oundations and that your comments should not be treated lightly. Ackno&ledgement o' secondary sources
&ill sho& you ha*e still pro*ided e*idence o' the source o' your material to bolster your case. Footnotes or
endnotes can also be used to sho& the examiner that you ha*e additional interesting and rele*ant material to
elaborate the point you are making but that it is incidental to your argument. The last thing you &ant to do is
to upset the 'lo& o' your logic as this is &here the po&er o' your argument comes 'rom. $t &ill create a
'a*ourable impression3 an impression that you are genuinely interested in the argument and that you can
cater 'or stylistic and logical needs.
-/. BIBLIOGRA'HY
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A bibliography is a list o' sources that you ha*e consulted during your research. $t is di''erent to a Re'erence
;ist in that you can cite sources that &ere read but not uoted. 6ibliographies and Re'erence ;ists are
usually treated as proo' that you ha*e consulted more than ,ust one source or 'ormat (not ,ust the internet"
but books and ,ournals 'or example). The 6ibliography is used to assert that your argument is credible and
the uality o' the research is high. /ou don(t need to cite e*ery source you consulted3 you should be
discriminating. There are t&o approaches. focused and broad. A focused bibliography &ill ha*e a 'e&" *ery
speci'ic" highly rele*ant" recent" authoritati*e sources in di''erent 'ormats and can be *ery persuasi*e as they
sho& your competence and control o' the sub,ect matter. Alternati*ely" you can sho& that you ha*e consulted
a broad range o' sources and ha*e le't no stone unturned in your uest to get to the bottom o' things.
Sources should be listed alphabetically according to the re'erencing style ad*ised in the task sheet. /our
teacher &ill expect to use consistent" accepted con*entions o' in%text citations and re'erencing. A simple rule%
o'%thumb is to use about se*en re'erences 'or a 8BCC &ord assignment.
Ann$tated Bi/li$gra#hy
/ou may also be asked to annotate your bibliography3 but" i' not" you can do this any&ay. An annotated
bibliograph' is your list o' cited sources (as in the (ibliograph' abo*e)" each 'ollo&ed by a brie' paragraph
that discusses aspects o' the source. An annotated bibliography is use'ul 'or documenting your research in a
speci'ic area" exploring *arying *ie&points" and summari1ing main points 'rom di''erent sources. $t is a
po&er'ul &ay to sho& your control and mastery.
There are t&o parts to e*ery entry in an annotated bibliography. the citation and the annotation. The 'irst is
the *itation &hich includes the bibliographic in'ormation o' the source (as abo*e). Secondly" there is the
#nnotation &hich is a brie' paragraph 'ollo&ing the citation. $ts purpose is pro*ide a critical re*ie& o' each
source" including a critical analysis o'.
!$verage. 0o& much detail and depth does the article include?
A(dience< describe the intended audience.
!redi/ility< e*aluate the credibility o' the source
A(th$rity. @hat is the authorE&ebpageEbook(s status or credibility? Joes it ha*e its o&n
re'erences and are they decent re'erences?
Acc(racy. 0o& accurate is this article &hen compared to all the other articles" textbooks"
encyclopaedia entries you(*e read.
O/@ectivity re'ers to bias. Joes the author sho& an ob,ecti*e approach through using ob,ecti*e
!matter o' 'act# language and simply explaining the sub,ect matter !scienti'ically#? This can also
link back to &ho &rote it. $.e." are they trying to sell something? @ho is paying their salary? Jo
they ha*e something to gain by trying to persuade you?
!(rrency re'ers to the date the article &as published. $s the science and the disco*eries o' science
current and does it sho& the latest in'ormation about your topic?
Usef(lness< describe the use'ulness o' the source. /ou should describe ho& use'ul it &as 'or
understanding the research problem and ,usti'ying the thesis statement.
;OR WHOLE A))IG=ET
!hec%#$int<
0a*e the 'eatures o' the genre been adhered to?
Are the language 'unctions appropriate ('ormal) and consistent.
$s language used &ith discrimination to make meaning clear?
)ylla/(s criteria (aspects o'" at L0A le*el)<
discriminating selection" use and presentation o' scienti'ic data and ideas to make meaning
accessible to intended audiences through inno*ati*e use o' range o' 'ormats (ECD).
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:4
OTHER EAA='LE)
The use o' radiation 'or the treatment o' 'oods is an e''ecti*e and sa'e &ay to extend the shel' li'e o'
perishable 'oods and address an impending crisis in 'ood shortages in the &orld today.
The e''ect C7: is ha*ing on global &arming
The e''ect C0F is ha*ing on global &arming
The e''ect 0:7 is ha*ing on global &arming
Acid Rain
The pollutant C7
The pollutant =7 and =7:
The pollutant S7:
The pollutant C-Cs and the e''ect they ha*e on 71one
71one
The science behind monitoring air uality
@hy scientist belie*e C7: increase is causing global &arming
@hy scientists are not sure i' C7: is causing global &arming
Earth(s energy balance
Acidity o' 7cean

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:5
USEFUL WORDS AND PHRASES FOR FORMAL ARGUMENTATIVE
WRITING
E"a1#les
-or example
-or instance
This is e*ident
$llustrated by
To exempli'y this
To illustrate this
As an illustration
As in the case o'
;ike
Such as
!a(se and Effect
6ecause
Since
As
7&ing to the 'act that
Jue to
There'ore
Thus
So
Conseuently
As a result
@ith the result that
=e*ertheless
$n order to
-or the purpose o'
The reason 'or
;eading to
As an outcome
$t is there'ore clear
$n response to
;ed to
!hange $f Directi$n =ar%ers
As the same time
;ess ob*iously
At the other extreme
Jespite
E*en so
0o&e*er
$n contrast to $n spite o'
=e*ertheless
=ot&ithstanding
7n the other hand
Although
6ut
E*en though
@hereas
@hile
/et
I1#$rtance =ar%ers
$t is essential to realise that
0o&e*er" these are minor issues
ThatK is &ell &orth noting
Speci'ically
>oreo*er
7b*iously
$' course
$n 'act
7*erall
Lin%ing =ar%ers
$n addition
>oreo*er
Thirdly
=ot onlyK but also
-urthermore
Again
Additionally
$n the same &ay
Similarly
$nitially
Commencing &ith
;ater
Subseuently
-inally
7riginally
Juring
Concluding &ith
>ean&hile
E*entually
+rior to
Earlier
A'ter&ards
0ence
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