14

C h a p t e r 2
Review of Related Literature
2.1. Introduction to review of related literature
To review the literature on human face and reconstruct human face in 3D environment
it is necessary to study the selected topics of various streams that focus on human face.
This study will enable us to understand the various thoughts, philosophies,
experiments, findings and inferences gathered by mankind over many centuries. The
consolidated analysis of these thought processes will become the crucial input for
emerging system. The researchers path begins from there onwards to give the unique
path for the design of most suitable and applicable facial reconstruction system.
2.2. Various streams related to study of human face
At a very broad level two manmade divisions of human activities are art and science.
Art is subjective, based on emotions and synthesis of thoughts whereas science is
rational, objective and analysis of thinking. Art deals with aesthetic pleasure without
utilization value on the other hand science finds purpose in every action. Human face
study was initiated by art stream and then scientific analysis started in the renaissance.
In 18
th
century with the revolutionary development in science emerged many diverse
streams. There is immense information on human face scattered in different pockets of
these new streams. As discussed in chapter 1.2 motivation, there are many aspects of
human face. There are fields dedicated to study every individual aspect of the human
face.

Science Art
Other streams
Study of Human Face
15
Fig 2.1 Human Face study found in various streams
In last 50 years, each field has opened up many new avenues and super specialization
has become the trend of industry.


Fig. 2.2 Human Face Study in science stream
Researcher feels that understanding of few streams is necessary which are linked with
study of various aspects of human face. Researcher mentioned below various streams
and their scope which explains their relationship with human face study and its
reference in the proposed research study. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page)
2.2.1. Statistics
Statistical analysis is used to deal with vast numerical data relating to groups of
individuals or experiments. It helps to reveal all its aspects including collection, analysis
and interpretation. To construct a head model representing Indian population
researcher considered the variations in dimensions of each facial feature. Along with
mean, standard deviation and other terms of this data collection were studied under
mathematics and statistics. Researcher is referring the statistical findings based on
Indian anthropometric dimensions listed in chapter 3.5.1.3.
2.2.2. Genetics
Medical Science
Science Streams
Physiology
Genetics
Human
Races
Anthropology Forensic
science
Maths and
Computer Science
Computer
Graphics and
Animation
16
Genetics unfolds the mysteries of heredity and variation in various Human
communities. Researcher found the explanation of biological aspect of Human race in
genetics and its descendent anthropology. As the focus of proposed thesis is only on
Caucasus race in Indian subcontinent, researcher will have to get the appropriate
knowledge so that distinction and definition of the feature will be decided. In section
2.3.1.2, researcher has noted the genetic factor in the shape of facial feature.
2.2.3. Anthropology
Anthropology unveils human origin, their behavior and classification into various
physical, social, and cultural patterns. Biological or physical Anthropology refers to the
bio-cultural human diversity. Anthropometry is the study of physical measurements of
human individuals which helps in understanding variations in various aspects. It is
discussed further in chapter 2.3.2.2.
2.2.4. Biological morphology
Under bioscience stream, biological morphology scrutinizes form, structure and
configuration of an organism. Geometric morphometrics has collection of methods
that deal directly with the coordinates of anatomical landmarks, either in two or three
dimensions, rather than with traditional distance or angle measurements. Researcher
analyzed various shapes of facial features and ideated blend shapes for facial
reconstruction in the proposed system. Researcher discusses the shape variations in
chapter 2.3.1.2, 2.3.1.3 and 2.3.1.4.
2.2.5. Anatomy
Detailed documentation on the structure of human skull, muscles can be found in a
special branch of medicine that is Anatomy. In order to reconstruct the face researcher
noticed that actual understanding of construction and function of human face is
utmost important. The current trends and some fundamentals related to facial
reconstruction are mentioned in 2.3.1.
17

2.2.6. Embryology
Human face is formed in early stages before birth. Embryology uncovers the details of
development of an embryo from the fertilization of the ovum to the fetus stage which
shows facial formation. It is very important to know how we get theses facial features
and the abnormalities in the formation of facial features. Related study and findings are
listed in chapter 2.3.1.1.
2.2.7. Osteology
Human face shape is basically elevation on skull. Osteology, a branch of anatomy
reveals all aspects of bones. (Sub discipline of anthropology and archaeology). Human
skull and its readings are discussed in chapter 2.3.1.3.
2.2.8. Orthodontics and Odontology
Lower face surface is greatly influenced by the dental arrangement. Orthodontics, the
branch of dentistry dealing with the prevention or correction of irregularities of the
teeth and Odontology also known as Dentistry reveals dental arrangement, soft and
hard tissues of the jaw (mandible), the oral cavity, maxillofacial area. Researchers
analysis of jaw, mouth and cheekbones is stated in Section 3.5.1.2.4.
2.2.9. Forensic science
Forensic science is the application of scientific knowledge and principles to investigate
crime. Forensic science helps presentation and interpretation of scientific information
in court. A forensic scientist has a vital knowledge to examine and determine the
meaning of physical evidence and forensic art uses the artistic skills like composite
drawing, crime scene sketching, image modification and image identification and facial
reconstruction aids. Forensic anthropology studies the analysis and identification of
human remains. Forensic odontology is the study of the uniqueness of dentition for
18
age identification and identification of person to help legal system. Ante mortem and
Postmortem study leads to gender, age and race determination. Facial reconstruction is
the application of forensic science, which is commonly used technique for visualization
of face. Review of various Facial reconstruction systems can be found in section 2.5.
2.2.10. Rhinolaryngology
Nose and ear shows wide range of variations that are difficult to analyze.
Rhinolaryngology deals with ear, nose and throat. The anatomic structure of nose and
ear covered in detail in this branch, helped researcher to design parametric model of
nose (Section 3.5.1.2.2) and ear (Section 3.5.1.2.5).
Biometrics comprises methods for uniquely recognizing humans based upon one or
more intrinsic physical or behavioral traits. Many facial recognition/detection systems
refer the facial biometric data, apply various algorithms to compare with existing vast
facial database to identify individual. Facial reconstruction system should understand
how to uniquely construct a facial model so that it can be identified.
2.2.11. 3D Computer Graphics and Modeling
3D Computer Graphics and Modeling deals with graphics that use a three-dimensional
representation of geometric data (often Cartesian) stored in the computer for the
purposes of performing calculations and rendering 2D images. 3D modeling is the
process of developing a mathematical representation of any three-dimensional surface
of object. Basically there are 2 categories: solid models and boundary or surface
models. In the proposed system a 3Dimentional human head surface model will be
created. In depth analysis of these techniques is presented in the chapter 3.1.6.7 and
detailed analysis of the human head is mentioned in the chapter 2.3.1.3
19

Fig 2.3 Human Face study in Art and Other Streams
Researcher has observed the vast collection of art and referred books and literature on
various artists. The chapter 2.3.2 throws light on many virtuosos and their great
contribution to the study of human face. Some established canons by these artists are
used as basic principles to design the concept of AdarshMudra (Section 3.6.7).
2.2.12. Psychology
Psychology Neuroscience deals with the nervous system activity related to perception
of face. Various psychologists have studied, experimented and noted results on mental
imagery, perception and operational principle of human brain. There are few
controversial and unproved results; hence researcher does not fully bank on any
particular result. Researcher noted few important points related to facial perception in
section 2.5.1.1.2.
2.2.13. Criminology
Criminology studies the crucial aspects of criminal investigation such as Facial
Recognition, Detection and Identification are discussed in the proposed thesis.
Researcher is not going into the details of each branch but touching only those topics
that are necessary to develop facial reconstruction system.
Art Streams
Caricature Portrait
2D and 3D
Animation
Other Streams
Police and Security Systems
Criminology
Painting and Sculpting
Psychology
20
The outcome of every branch is evolving continuously. In order to predict one
particular face we might have to define hundreds of variables and establish their
relationship. Researcher feels that the correctness of modeling of the face directly
relates to the right approach and right input to correctly define of each variable. It
might be very difficult and expensive because definition of one parameter might
require information from different streams. For example, it might be very expensive
and some times impossible to gather the whole genetic family structure as an input. Still
we can consider some serious norms and see how best we can support it.
2.3. Taxonomy of Literature Based on Theories
Theories help us understand the construction, functionality and various aspects of face.
After gathering the absolute knowledge from each field researcher thinks that the
critical analysis of various approaches and industrial applications should be tested.
When we actually build a system and cross check the outputs then many obscure and
unknown details are revealed. A good implementation always stands tall as perfect
theory. Most of the limitations of system are either due to technical problems or
feasibility of the solution. There are many terminologies while stating the theories
about human face. For example: facial modeling, facial simulation, facial detection,
facial identification, facial recognition, facial reconstruction, craniofacial reconstruction.
At a first glance it is very confusing and looks ambiguous but if we read each theory
carefully then it reveals authors exact line of thinking. To design a 3D reconstruction
of human face system the most important step is to categorize all the data into different
streams and then analyze each one with their connection with other streams.
Images captured by camera go through complex algorithm to find out known people.
Faces are matched with target nodal points referred by the distance between eyes,
width of nose, depth of eye sockets, cheekbones, Jaw line and chin. Crime department
takes the help of these systems for facial recognition but knowledge database will
certainly be useful for our system.
21

Fig 2.4 Taxonomy of Literature Based on Approach
22
2.3.1. Facial Anatomy/Surgery
Darwins theory of evolution proved that from last millennia facial anatomy is adopting
gentle changes. The anatomy also changes due to other reasons like malformation,
growth, accident or surgery. A look of a face can be drastically changed by various
surgeries. Since last 20 years Facial Surgery has seen unprecedented development.
Many new techniques added like facial plastic surgery, orthognatic surgery. Surgeons
operate on different parts of face; these surgeries include nasal surgery (Rhinoplasty
and Septoplasty), Face lift (rhytidectomy), Skin peeling, Lift and peel, Eyelid surgery
(blepharoplasty), Brow lift, forehead lift, lip correction, Ear surgery (otoplasty), chin
implant and Neck muscle repair (platysmaplasty) and many other surgeries.
Orthognatic surgery is surgery to correct conditions of the jaw and face related to
structure, growth and other problems. All these surgeries directly modify shape and size
of facial feature which changes the entire look of a person. Preoperative simulation of
plastic or orthodontic surgery will play a great role in near future. The study and results
will be immensely useful for both practitioners and patients.
2.3.1.1. Anatomy of facial Features
The face is the anatomical feature which is truly unique to each human, though the
basis of its general development is identical for all humans and similar to that seems for
other species. First of all we will have to see the face formation and normal and
abnormal development during the embryonic and fetal periods. Face Development will
be best explained with help of Carnegie stages.
23

Fig 2.5 Carnegie Stages of Human Development
[Ref: Human Embryo Face (Carnegie stages, Kyoto collection), UNSW Embryology,
Prof. Kohei Shiota]
Carnegie stages are named after the famous Institute which began collecting and
classifying embryos in the early 19
th
Century.
Face develops from week 4 to week 10. The steps are as follows

Fig 2.6 Human Embryo Face (Carnegie stage 16 to 18)
24
[Ref: Human Embryo Face (Carnegie stage 16 to 18, Kyoto collection), UNSW
Embryology, Prof. Kohei Shiota]
i. begins at week 4 centered around stomodeum
ii. external depression at oral membrane
iii. forms forehead, nose dorsum and apex
iv. paired maxillary prominences: form upper cheek and upper lip
v. paired mandibular prominences: lower cheek, chin and lower lip
vi. Ear Auricles
vii. Facial Prominences

Fig 2.7 Facial Prominences
[Ref: Facial Prominences, Dr Mark Hill, CBL, Anatomy, UNSW, 1999, ANAT 1006-
Embryology Lecture 5]
The face has a complex origin arising from a number of head structures and sensitive
to a number of teratogens during critical periods of its development. The related
structures of upper lip and palate significantly contribute to the majority of face
abnormalities.
25

Fig 2.8 Congenital malformations
[Ref: Congenital Malformations, Data Source: Congenital Malformations Australia
1981-92]
The human skull is almost at full size at birth. However, the cranium has not yet been
compounded together. In simpler words, the skull is flexible and distorted during birth
therefore making it easier for woman to deliver a baby. And, after about 24 months
after birth, the bones are fused together to form the adult skull.
2.3.1.2. Genetic and environmental factors
The human species is blessed with great variety and diversity. Its rich diversity resulted
from its global distribution, which caused the different populations of humanity to be
geographically separated and thus reproductively isolated. Reproductive isolation
enabled divergence -- the process of divergent evolution -- to occur, causing the
isolated populations to evolve in different directions, developing their own distinct
ensembles of genetic traits and characteristics. Race is a cultural and biological term
hugely misused and misinterpreted. Researcher will be studying the races according to
26
variations in the facial features which are crucial input for building facial reconstruction
model. The historical definition of race was an immutable and distinct type or species,
sharing distinct racial characteristics.
The term Caucasian race (also Caucasoid) has been used to denote the general physical
type of some or all of the indigenous human populations of Europe, North Africa, the
Horn of Africa, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia.
The concept of a Caucasian race was developed around 1800 by Johann Friedrich
Blumenbach, a German scientist and classical anthropologist Caucasoid race" is a
term used in physical anthropology to refer to people of a certain range of
anthropometric measurements.
Researcher will be focusing on Caucasoid race and mainly Indian subcontinent. There
is considerable variation in ocular (Eye) anatomy specifically eyelids, orbit, conjunctiva
and sclera shows racial characteristics. Ref: Racial and Ethnic Differences in Ocular
Anatomy by C. Richard Blake, Wico W. Lai, M.D., Deepak P. Edward, New York,
USA.
Nose Type Platyrrhine Mesorrhine Leptorrhine
Ethnicity African Asian or Latino Caucasian or
Indo-European
Skin type Very thick Moderately thick Thin
Dorsum Short, wide,
concave
Short, wide Long, narrow
Radix Low Low High
Nasal bones Short Short Long
Nasal tip Bulbous, under
projected
Rounded, under
projected
Projected
Columella Short Short Long
Nasal alar
width
Wide Intermediate Relatively narrow
Ala Prominent flaring Variable Modest flaring

Table 2.1 Nose Type classification
Ref: Head and Neck Surgery, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2006 P.2530
27
Above table shows the general nasal characteristics by morphology and its relation to
ethnic variation. Among the nasal variation the leptorrhine (tall and thin) nose is
associated with Caucasian or Indo-European descent.
Age determination is primarily associated with teeth. There are many papers discussing
various techniques for the dental assessment of age.
Ref: Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function by Kenneth S.
Saladin, Third Edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2003, Pg No 150

Fig.2.9 Roles of Environment and Heredity in Producing a Phenotype.
Brown eye color requires phenylalanine from the diet i.e. environment factor and two
genetically coded (hereditary) enzymes to convert phenylalanine to melanin, the eye
pigment. People do not inevitably exhibit the phenotypes that would be predicted from
their genotypes. Penetrance is the percentage of a population with a given genotype
that actually exhibits the predicted phenotype. If 80% of people with the polydactyly
28
allele actually exhibit extra digits, the allele has 80% penetrance. Another reason the
connection between genotype and phenotype is not inevitable is that environmental
factors play an important role in the expression of all genes. At the very least, all gene
expression depends on nutrition

Fig.2.10 Genetics of Attached and Detached Earlobes.
(a) Detached earlobes occur if even one allele of the pair is dominant (D). Attached
earlobes occur only when both alleles are recessive (d). (b) A Punnett square (a diagram
that is used to predict an outcome of a particular cross or breeding experiment) shows
why such a trait can skip a generation. Both parents in this case have heterozygous
genotypes (Dd) and have detached earlobes, but there is a one in four chance that their
offspring could have attached earlobes. Each parent is a carrier for attached earlobes.
Ref: Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function by Kenneth S.
Saladin, Third Edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2003, Pg No 147
2.3.1.3. Skull reveals race, age and ethnicity and individual characteristics
Osteology explains how bones remain after death. Identification of the bones should
be done by forensic anthropologist. In order to develop facial reconstruction system
researcher gathered the following information which can be revealed from skull.
Actual topology of the face, its features varies depending on
29
a. Variation in the skull topology
b. Race, Age, Gender and Body Type
c. Linkage of skull-facial muscles- skin
d. Cartilage topology development dependencies
e. Soft tissues and Fat pockets on face
2.3.1.4. Male and Female Skull Differences

Fig.2.11 Skull landmarks
Ref: Forensic Human Identification, Section 5, Facial Identification, Chapter 13, Facial
Anthropology and Reconstruction, pp.234
The difference in the form, proportion and measurements based on the sex is also
termed as sexual dimorphism. Male and female children have similar skull shapes at
birth but once children hit puberty, the differences start to appear.
Most prominent is the difference in the pelvis, owing to characteristics required for the
processes of childbirth. The shape of a female pelvis is flatter, more rounded and
proportionally larger to allow the head of a fetus to pass. Men tend to have slightly
thicker and longer limbs and digit bones (phalanges), while women tend to have
30
narrower rib cages, smaller teeth, less angular mandibles, less pronounced cranial
features such as the brow ridges and external occipital protuberance (the small bump at
the back of the skull), and the carrying angle of the forearm is more pronounced in
females. Females also tend to have more rounded shoulder blades. The identification
of sex only from skull is very difficult. Typically Physical anthropologists pass on this
necessary information to forensic artist for further work of reconstruction of human
face.
According to Merrill Kazanjian is a contemporary artist based in New York City,
Testosterone provokes certain features in males while female faces remain relatively
childlike. The presences of higher levels of testosterone give men a thicker bone
structure with more prominent bones. Male faces have more prominent jaw, chin and
cheekbones (also known as the zygomatic arch). The physical size of the male skull is
larger than the female skull. The distinctive characteristic of male skull is protruding
super orbital ridge also known as brow line. Female faces have more rounded and
narrow jaw line. They have the softness that male faces lack. It carries more fat than the
male face especially in cheeks. Female faces tend to have thicker lips and higher arch
on top lip. Female eyebrows generally sit a little high than male eye brows and generally
have thinner and higher arch shape mainly due to plucking. Female nose is thinner
shorter and narrower bridge and nostrils, and straighter or concave profile than the
male nose.

Fig 2.12 Male and Female Skull (Drawing courtesy of L. Schulzkump, MD)
31
[Ref: The Use of Forensic Anthropology, Second Edition Robert Pikering and David
Bachman, Ch 5 , Ten Key Questions, pg. no. 89] The skull on the right has a
smoother, more rounded vault and a smaller chin; it is female. The more rugged skull
on the left has male characteristics.
There are a few key skull differences between the female skull and the male skull.
1. The male cranial mass is more blocky and massive compared to the females
which more rounder and tapers at the top.
2. (Supraorbital ridges) The females brow ridge margin is sharper while the
males is rather rounded and dull.
3. The Zygomatic bone also called as cheekbone or malar bone is more
pronounced on the male skull than the female skull.
4. Antegonial notch is the depression along the jaw line. The Mandible or the
lower jaw is more rounded on the female skull while the male skull is squared
and heavily marked by muscle attachments. Also, the male have a deeper
cranial mass than the female.
5. The supercilary arch is a smooth elevation extending laterally from the glabella
(flat bone between the eyebrows) on either side, above the orbital margin of
the frontal bone. This landmark of the male skull is more pronounced and
larger than the female skull.
And another difference that researcher shouldnt forget is
A man's face is his autobiography. A woman's face is her work of fiction. says Irish
poet Oscar Wilde.

32
2.3.2. Facial Beauty/Attractiveness
Beauty is the opposite of deformity. - Leonardo
As discussed in the chapter the study of facial beauty was initiated by Egyptians and
then Greek and Roman artists influenced it by their sculptures and paintings. In 5th
century B.C. Phidias showed the importance of golden ratio, the divine proportion is a
formula for beautiful proportion.
If asymmetric perceptual factors alone were critical subjects reactions to the faces
would change dramatically and significantly as a function of the two viewing conditions
Since this was not the case it is reasonable to conclude that the owner's facial
physiognomy was predominant in the rating.
Facial Beauty as explained on www.beautyanalysis.com is the quality or combination of
qualities in a face that evoke the perceiver a combination of strong positive emotion
and a high degree of attraction. Dr. Stephen Marquardt relates facial beauty with the
golden ratio (Phi 1.61803) and designed a mask that gives the beauty quotient
associated with every face. Beauty is a subjective and intriguing topic; obviously one
can find many definitions. It is very difficult to get unanimous statement about facial
beauty.
Ref: An Objective System for Measuring Facial Attractiveness, Bashour, M.,
University of Toronto, CANADA, Plastic and reconstructive surgery 2006, vol. 118, n-
3, pp. 757-776
The difference between facial identity and beauty lies in the physiognomy of the
observed rather than in perceptual asymmetries of the observer and importantly may
be entirely independent of sex.
Ref: Brain asymmetry and facial attractiveness: Facial beauty is not simply in the eye
of the beholder by Audrey C. Chen, Craig German and Dahlia W. Zaidel, Department
of Psychology, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA, June 96
33
As explained there is huge need and scope for facial beautification. It is already
practiced by many surgeons, orthodontists and medical professionals. Facial surgery is
evolving and many new techniques are introduced all the time. Researcher will not be
considering the modification factor on facial features due to surgical changes for the
proposed study. Researcher clearly defined that facial Beauty and attractiveness can be
inferred but is not the goal of the proposed study.
2.3.2.1. Factors contributing to physical structure
From the collected information from medical science researcher inferred that the
physical structure of facial features depends on few parameters. As shown in the figure
the factors contributing to physical structure of the facial feature can be categorized
into 3 parts:
1. Formation/ Foundation
a. Genetic Information
b. Race
c. Sex
d. Morphological Information
e. Congenital Malformations
2. Development
a. Age
b. Health
c. Environmental Conditions
3. Modification
34
a. Surgical Modifications like dental treatment

Fig. 2.13 Factors contributing to physical structure
After this critical analysis, Researcher decided to consider above mentioned parameters
to decide scope of the proposed system.
2.3.3. Facial Proportion/Measurements
Proportion is one of the basic principles of design skills embarks with comparing one
to another. Measurement is the baby of proportion. Measurements are necessary in art
and in science as well. Researcher believes that Facial proportion and measurements is
an integral part of the face and thus proposed system will strongly support this line of
thought.
Formation/
Foundation

Development
Modification

Beautification

Surgery
Genetic
Information
Race
Sex

Age
Heath
Environmental
Conditions
35
Side Image Ref: The Proportions of Human Body by
Bertram W. Windle, Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, London,
1892, pg. no 22 shows the Egyptian canon of
Lepsius(Duval), pp. 22


Fig: 2.14 The Development of the Egyptian Grid
System
Ref: J.A.R. Legon, 'The Cubit and the Egyptian Canon of Art', Discussions in
Egyptology 35 (1996), 62-76, The Image by John Legon from his article "Egyptology
and the Giza Pyramids" demonstrates rise of the early system of using horizontal
guidelines to determine the correct proportions of the human.
(http://www.legon.demon.co.uk/canon.htm)
Portrait has always been the apex of any form of creation. Making a portrait requires a
great face analyzing power and artistic process of some complexity which transforms
the features into sketch or sculpture. Over the period of time many artists found out
their own styles of drawing caricatures. Many styles born out of eloquent stoke of
artists and evolved in a great way. The contribution of many legendary artists has given
some standards to draw the character. Art and design professionals study and practice
36
these aspects knowingly or unknowingly. We will elicit some concealed measures to
build the standard facial features library.
2.3.3.1. Contribution by Various Artists
As discussed in chapter 1.1 Human Face: An Overview, many legendary painters,
sculptors engraved their perception in their artwork. In Egyptians developed the cubit
(first recorded unit of length) noticed in ancient sculptures and colossal structures. In
5
th
century B.C. considered as classical period, Greek influenced study of proportions
by great works of sculptors like Myron, Phidias, Polyclitus, Praxiteles, Scopas, and
Lysippus. Lysippus established canon of proportions, eight head body which still
persists. After many centuries, in renaissance Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and
Vesalius re-established human proportions based on scientific observations and
connotations.
Great artists like Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Albrecht Drer, Qutelet, and Sir
Francis Galton defined the facial proportions. Researcher will be collecting the ideal
dimensions of facial features and proportion related study and analyze it. The standard
dimensions can be used to build the 3D template of human face. Virtuosos findings
will become inspiration to design Vyaktirekha module.
2.3.3.1.1. Leonardo da Vinci
(1452 1519), was a great painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist,
mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, botanist and writer. Probably
the earliest canon of human proportion in the Western world was stated by Da Vinci.
37

Fig: 2.15 Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci, 1487
It suggests that the navel divides the height of the body in a golden section (1.618:1,
compared with 8:5 above), and is the centre of a circle enclosing the outstretched arms
and legs. As well, the erect body is contained within a square bounded by the bottom
of the feet, the top of the head and the fingertips of the outstretched arms held to the
sides at shoulder height. The pubic bone divides the height exactly in half. Note that
the figure uses the convention of eight head-lengths. This view was current in Ancient
Greece and conveyed to Leonardo via the works of Vitruvius, who also influenced
Michelangelo. In recent times this view was revitalized by Le Corbusier.
2.3.3.1.1.1. Leonardo da Vinci's Facial Third Formula
i. The width of nose at its base should be approximately the distance between
the eyes (medial canthus).
ii. The length of upper lip is about twice that of lower lip and chin.
iii. Tip - Slight Upward Rotation : better
38
iv. Nasofacial angle = 36 degrees
v. Nasofrontal angle = 120 degrees
vi. Nasomental angle = 130 degrees
vii. Mentocervical angle = 85 degrees

2


Fig. 2.16 Leonardo da Vinci Crucial facial angles
Researcher has considered these norms up to some extent for design of AdarshMudra
concept (Section 3.6.7).
2.3.3.1.2. Michelangelo
Michelagniolo Buonarroti (14751564) became an artist at the age of 13. Originally
apprenticed as a painter, he rapidly achieved fame also as a sculptor, and later in life as
a poet and architect. Michelangelo made countless drawings and measurements of the
human body (living and dead, as well as Greek and Roman statues) in order to
understand its shape, proportions and variations. David is the most recognized single
statue in the history of art.

2
http://www.facebook.com/pages/Rawnsley-Plastic-Surgery/221940863898?sk=app_4949752878
39

Fig.2.17 Statue of David by Michelangelo
The choice of 7 head-lengths for David emphasized his youth, but was probably used
to correct for distortion due to the observers position: Davids head is some 7 m above
ground level. If rendered in correct proportion, the head would appear too small.
2.3.3.1.3. Albrecht Drer
Albrecht Drer (1471 1528), German painter, engraver and mathematician, made a
detailed study of the human form, and was thoroughly familiar with the work of
Vitruvius, Leonardo and other Italian Renaissance artists. Drer had a very high
opinion of the science of proportion, bestowed much thought upon the subject, and
eventually published a work concerning it. He explored many methods for constructing
the human form according to their shape and proportion. He used circles, triangles,
ratios and proportions, and polyhedra (a method known as stereometry), and was a
pioneer in investigating the shape and proportion of the human body under the
influence of perspective projection. Among these studies, he investigated the human
head and its facial characteristics, distorting its shape using grid transformations.
40

Fig.2.18 Drers study of facial proportions
Ref:
In 1525 he published book entitled Instruction in the Measurement, with the
Compass and Rule, of Lines, Surfaces and Solid Bodies, drawn up by Albrecht Drer,
and printed for the use of all lovers of art, with appropriate diagrams. It was the first
ever attempt to apply anthropometry and engineering perspective to aesthetics.
Researcher thinks that this line of thought is the foundation of morphometric analysis
which is used to design variations of facial features.
2.3.3.1.4. Adolphe Qutelet
(1796 1874) A Belgian astronomer, mathematician and statistician.
He was a mathematics teacher has tremendous contributions in the field of
mathematics, statistics, demography, sociology and criminology. Based on thousands of
measurements of the human body taken from the Renaissance artists and from his own
collection, defined the average man whose measurements were the average of all
measurements. For Qutelet, the average was an ideal value: other measurements of the
same trait were distributed about this according to the normal probability curve. The
41
Average represented the Ideal of the species, and deviations from the Average were
considered to be errors of measurement.
2.3.3.1.5. Sir Francis Galton
(1822 1911), half-cousin of Charles Darwin, was an English Victorian polymath,
anthropologist, tropical explorer, geographer, inventor, meteorologist and statistician.
Galton written over 340 papers and books and invented the statistical term correlation
and regression from the mean. He has done pioneering efforts of applying statistical
methods to the study of human differences.
Following Qutelet, Sir Francis Galton showed that if any set of measurements within
a population (e.g. the heights of all people) is normally distributed, then so are sets of
similar measurements of any subgroup of that population, and vice versa. He showed
too there is a correlation between the measurements of different parts of the body.
The relationships are important in forensic pathology and anthropology as a means of
predicting the likely height and other characteristics of a body from bone
measurements. More widely, such data are critical in ergonomics: the size and shape of
the average person are important in designing human environments and equipment.
2.3.3.1.6. Andrew Loomis
(1892 1959), the premier commercial illustrator was from the United States. He
illustrated many art books mostly published by Walter Foster are great inspiration of
artists.
42

Fig.2.19 Proportions of Male Head by Andrew Loomis
Ref: Proportions of Male Head, Illustration from Drawing Head and Hands, pp. 43
Andrew Loomis thinks that drawing head is primarily a matter of interpreting form
correctly in its proportion, perspective and lighting. All other qualities enter the
drawing as a result of the way that form is interpreted. As Artist, we only see, analyze
and set down. According to Lommis, there are lean faces, fat faces, big-boned and
small bones ones. By the law of averages certain combinations of features are bound to
reappear. For that reason people who are not related sometimes closely resemble with
each other. In this Facial Analysis lies out of scope as it does not gives substantial input
for the design but expects an output format from the system to work. So we design our
system in such a way that it will try to meet those expectations. The Human species is
blessed with great variety and diversity. Basic instincts life forms that humans also
reflect are, fight for survival, and modify self to get adjusted with surrounding and
reproduction to keep existence of species.
43

Fig. 2.20 Heads shapes Illustration from Drawing Head and Hands
44

2.3.3.1.7. Avard Fairbanks
(1897 1987) born in family deeply interested in art started study of sculptures in
childhood. He had a great legacy of creative, dynamic and expressive skills inherited by
family. He was awarded Doctor of Philosophy in Anatomy from University of
Michigan and his topic of interest was human proportions. He spent long span in
teaching sculptures and erected number of monuments in USA. His book Human
proportions for Artists includes vast collection of illustrations of male and female
figures with dimensions and shows his exhaustive study of human proportions.

Fig 2.21 Male and Female Ideal Facial Proportions by Avard Fairbanks
2.3.3.2. Study of Facial Feature Measurements: Anthropology
Anthropometrics was first used in late 19th century in to identify criminals by facial
characteristics. Francis Galton was a key contributor in this field. Along with the
redundancy of Bertillon's measurements, Galton developed the statistical concept of
45
correlation. Anthropometry is the scientific description of the physical characteristics of
the human body. Anthropology is the science that deals with the study of human
culture and evolution; it seeks to produce useful generalizations about people and their
behavior and to arrive at an unbiased understanding of the human nature.
Given the anthropological data the proposed Face will morph and fit to show the
target personality. Anthropological graphs of individual feature will be shown and user
will also be able to tweak the facial feature from graph. If the 3D model is changed
then its dimension will be stored at runtime and can be seen as red dot in the graph.
These cross referencing of 3D model and Feature anthropological graph will give a
tremendous flexibility and fine tuning of the face.
Researcher identified reference data on physical measurements of adults of Indian
origin and facial model will be based on this anthropometric dimension.

Fig 2.22 Anthropometric landmarks with growth chart
Ref: Illustration from Handbook of Normal Physical Measurements, Judith Hall,
Ursula Froster-Iskenius and Judith Allanson, Oxford University Press, 1988, pp 94
46
Science like anatomy and anthropometry gives the precise information about the facial
features in isolation but its location on the face, its characteristic and pattern is
recorded.
Human proportions vary with the individual, but in classical art, the body of the ideal
figure is 8 head-lengths from head to toe. Drer favored 7.5 head-lengths in his
pictures; Rembrandt used 7, while Giacometti at times used 12. The figure of David
uses 7 head-lengths. In real life the adult human body is 7 to 8 head-lengths.
A Mathematician, like a painter or a poet, is a maker of patterns. If his patterns are
more permanent than theirs, it is because they are made with ideas. G.H. hardy,
mathematician
Critical findings gathered from the facial proportion study will act as foundation of
facial reconstruction system. Researcher gathered few guidelines about human face that
are listed below.
i. face can separated into cranial mass even, regular Simple and curved dome
ii. Facial Mass uneven, irregular, hard and triangular form
iii. Best guide that explains basic information like proportion systems, form
concepts and anatomical facts. Here are the points that will plot our standard
face.
iv. The basic head is shaped like an egg.
v. The eyes are located exactly half way between the crowns and chin.
vi. The eyes are spaced one eye length apart.
vii. The outside points of the eyes and the ends of the mouth line up vertically.
viii. The inside points of the eyes and the flare of the nostrils line up vertically.
47
ix. The brow is approximately two times the length of one eye.
x. The nose is located half way between the brows and chin.
xi. The widest part of the nose is equal to the length of an eye.
xii. The brow line marks the top of the ear.
xiii. The bottom of the nose and the ear lobe are always on the same line.
xiv. The mouth stretches from the middle of the right eye to the middle of the left
eye.
xv. The mouth is one third the distance between the nose and the chin.
xvi. The cheek bones are on the same line as the bottom of the nose.
In real world each face breaks these rules
All these ideal measurements vary from face to face. With these proportions a 3D
model will be created and then it will be moulded using 3D tools to get the desired
shape. Facial features are crucial to our identity and while we like to believe we're
unique, there are a few underlying rules which apply. Researcher may use some of
these conventions for the AdarshMudra concept.
2.3.4. Facial Modeling/Simulation
There are many approaches for facial modeling. Researcher is mainly interested in
finding the most suitable and complete approach for facial modeling in 3D
environment. Researcher reviewed many research papers to figure out important
aspects like robustness, viability, accuracy, error correction and ease of use.
Generally, Computer based head modeling/simulation involves determining geometric
descriptions and additional attributes such as surface colors and textures. For the
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proposed thesis, the derived facial model will not support texture extraction and other
needs of expression and animation.
It is not appropriate to categories every research into few specified approaches as their
can be a hybrid approach. The taxonomy is just for better distinction which will help
further analysis. Researcher thinks that Facial modeling plays an important role in facial
reconstruction system so proposed system will be embark the development on the
basis of this philosophy.

49

Fig.2.23 Taxonomy of Various Facial Modeling/Simulation techniques based on
Approach
50

2.3.4.1. Interpolation
Interpolation is old technique emerged from numerical analysis often used in sampling
of data . The method comprises constructing new data points within the range of a
discrete set of known data points. There are many types of interpolation such as linear,
polynomial, spline interpolation etc. In computer graphics, the application of
interpolation is implemented as geometric and image blending. As in proposed thesis
researcher is focusing on 3D facial model, the review will primarily focus only on
geometric interpolation.
Shape interpolation is most common and simple technique to blend synthetic faces. It
is also termed as morphing, vertex blending or geometric interpolation. The technique
involves several different key expressions or facial data set sculpted then blended to
generate a final expression. It can be worked on whole face or on particular feature.
The complete mapping for each vertex makes it powerful editable tool
The blended or modified position is the base position plus a contribution from each
target whose DOF value is greater than 0. In multi target vertex gives the vector
resultant as the combined target influence. Usually it is performed in local space before
smooth skinning operation. Only issue with this is that it consumes lot of memory
which is not preferred by game industry.
51

Fig. 2.24 Model fitting process using interpolation technique
Model-fitting process: (a) a set of input images with marked feature points, (b) facial
features annotated using a set of curves, (c) generic face geometry (shaded surface
rendering), (d) face adapted to initial 13 feature points (after pose estimation) (e) face
after 99 additional correspondences have been given.
In paper , new techniques for creating photorealistic textured 3D facial models from
photographs of a human subject, and for creating smooth transitions between different
facial expressions by morphing between these different models. The system can take
uncalibrated views of a human subject to recover the camera poses. A scattered data
interpolation technique is used to deform a generic face mesh to fit the geometry of the
subjects face. Then texture maps are extracted from recovered poses to apply onto
deformed model. This process is repeated for several facial expressions from various
images of subjects face.
Ref: Synthesizing Realistic Facial Expressions from Photographs by Frederic Pighin,
Jamie Hecker, Dani Lischinskiy, Richard Szeliskiz, David H. Salesin, SIGGRAPH
1998, Proceedings of the 25th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics, July 1998,
Orlando, USA, pp 75-84
52
As interpolation is easy to use and proven technique, researcher thinks that it can be
used as reliable user input for generating predictable output. Interpolation will be used
to design metamorphosis between various morphologies of feature so that user will
control the intensity and get the desired shape. Researcher decided to develop facial
reconstruction system based on interpolation.
2.3.4.2. Vision Based
Vision based surveillance is an emerging field requires multidisciplinary expertise of
signal and image processing and artificial intelligence to eliminate human operators.
Vision based Facial modeling applications can be used for forensic video investigation,
virtual character animation for entertainment, 3D avatars on internet, and 3D
teleconferencing.
Ref: A Vision-based Approach for Facial Expression Cloning by Facial Motion
Tracking by Junchul Chun and Oryun Kwon, Department of Computer Science,
Kyonggi University, South Korea, KSII TRANSACTIONS ON INTERNET AND
INFORMATION SYSTEMS VOL. 2, NO. 2, APRIL 2008
53
Fig. 2.25 Overall steps for vision-based facial motion cloning system
The system proposes real time vision-based approach for 3D head pose estimation and
facial expression control for the face animation of a 3D avatar. The system initially gets
the sequences of input images containing human face and then detects the face using
nonparametric HT skin color model with template matching. After that it goes in two
phases, Motion estimation and Expression control. Motion estimation comprises
creation of cylindrical head model and projection onto the detected face. Then head
pose estimation is done using optical flow motion tracking followed by dynamically
updating the projected template. In expression control phase system uses the RBF
(Radial Basis Function) to deform the local area of the face model around the major
feature points. Finally, facial expression synthesis is done directly by tracking the
variations of the major feature points and indirectly by estimating the variations of the
regional feature points.
This is an effective approach to estimate head pose and track facial features for facial
expression control in real time and applicable for entertainment industry. Most of the
vision based systems requires video processing equipments that should be tested on
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various parameters like time lapse, sequential switcher, time division multiplexing,
compression options and recorders.
Basically vision based modeling depends on many uncontrolled parameters so
researcher decided not to develop a system based only on vision. As digital photograph
can be easily taken and used as input, researcher considered front and lateral photo as
valid input for the proposed system. At the same time researcher decided not to take
the responsibility of calibration and validity of the input.
2.3.4.3. Photogrammetric
Photogrammetry, as the name suggests is a technique of determining the geometric
properties that uses photographs as the fundamental medium for measurement.

Fig.2.26 Setup of cameras and projectors for Multi-Image Photogrammetry
Ref: Nicola D'Apuzzo, Modeling Human Faces with Multi-Image Photogrammetry,
Institute of Geodesy and Photogrammetry, ETH Zrich, Switzerland
55
The process is composed of five steps: acquisition of multi-images, calibration of the
system, establishment of corresponding points in the images, computation of their 3-D
coordinates and generation of a surface model.
The main concerns are
1. Applicable only for real objects preferable with low overlap design
2. Increasing the number of photographs will increase the accuracy of the
measurement
3. To increase accuracies is to move in object closer, and take more photographs
of the parts of object in sub-sections.
4. Smaller intersection angles will progressively reduce accuracies.
5. Minimum of four to six camera setup is recommended otherwise with less
convergent arrangement of the cameras will give unpredictable results.
6. The object can move during the measurement as long as it moves as a rigid
body. The main goal is to ensure high accuracy of the measurement and
automation in the process and based on multi-image Photogrammetry.
7. Requires expensive projectors and multiple CCD cameras should be used with
same calibration.
8. Takes long time to match points, still error correction required.
The system might generate some errors because of
1. Regions where the texture is insufficient because of the darkness (e.g.
eyebrows) or because of the strong reflection, meshed surface doesnt contains
generates matching points. Eventually the matching process fails.
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2. The regions where the projected random texture is not well focused, the
matching process cannot give good results. This problem can be solved by
using lenses with aperture to give a larger depth of field. However overlapping
surface remains a difficult task.
The main advantage is that if configured properly it can become an automated and
accurate process for measurement of the human face from multi-images. From the
review researcher decided not to use the Photogrammetry as the facial modeling input.
Researcher would like to point out that with the advent of technology these limitations
may become obsolete. In coming future input may change drastically so system should
be design independent of the input. Considering these pitfalls researcher decided not to
use this approach for facial modeling for proposed facial reconstruction system.
2.3.4.4. Physically Based Modeling
Physically based approach uses the geometrically accurate shape and studies the
changes in properties of facial tissues, muscle actions. The face model consists multiple
layers Skull, hard solid layer at base, Muscles mounted at both ends on bones is the
flexible and deformable layer, Fascia surface, Dermal-fatty layer variable tissue depth
depends on health and environmental conditions and the top Epidermal surface also
called as skin. Visualization of all these layers with appropriate physics properties is still
an unsolved challenge for computer graphics industry. Some physically based modeling
theories tries to address this situation.
Lee, Terzopoulos and Waterws designed an automated system that proposes fitting an
adaptive canonical facial polygon network to scanned data using automatic techniques
based on the anatomy of faces.
57

Fig. 2.27 Face topology construction using physically based modeling
Both dotted lines and solid lines indicate elastic spring connections between nodes.
Fig.2.27 shows (a) Triangular skin tissue prism element. (b) Close-up view of right side
of an individual with conformed elements.
Few advanced systems digitize facial geometries through the use of scanning range
sensors. Lee presented a methodology to automate dynamic simulation of facial tissues
and muscles. Starting with a structured facial mesh, the system develops algorithms that
automatically construct functional models of the heads of human subjects from laser-
scanned range and reflectance data. These algorithms automatically insert contractile
muscles at anatomically correct positions within a dynamic skin model and root them
in an estimated skull structure with a hinged jaw. They also synthesize functional eyes,
eyelids, teeth, and a neck and fit them to the final model. The constructed face may be
animated via muscle actuations. The system demonstrates great realism with flexibility.
Ref: Realistic Modeling for Facial Animation by Yuencheng Lee, Demetri Terzopoulos,
and Keith Waters, University of Toronto and Digital Equipment Corporation,
58
Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 95 (Los Angeles, CA, August, 1995). In Computer
Graphics Proceedings, Annual Conference Series, 1995, ACM SIGGRAPH, pp. 5562
Researcher noticed that although physically based modeling is best approach for
muscle simulation. Proposed system is not entirely physically based modeling but
Jeevak concept (Section 3.6.8) will have similar features to derive the facial topology.
2.3.4.5. FEM (Finite Element Method) based
The finite element method (FEM) is a numerical approach to approximating the
physics of an arbitrary complex object. [37] The target object is decomposed into
element blocks representing material properties. Each element is associated with
necessary physical properties of the material to visualize stress-strain relationship. The
dynamic element relationships are calculated using partial differential equations and
then numerically integrated using standard techniques such as Euler's method, Runge-
Kutta etc. FEM is an integral part of most of the modern engineering packages for
analysis and simulation testing.

59
Fig. 2.28 Process chart for maxillofacial surgery planning
Main goal was to approximate the physics as closely as possible and to accept higher
computational costs. Therefore, the models were extended described in 3 ways:
1. Initially C
1
continuous finite element model of the facial surface was created
using triangular polynomial shape functions. Increasing the number of finite
elements resulted in a facial surface that was C
3
continuous.
2. System computed the external forces of the model by connecting the surface
with nodal springs to the skull. The individual spring stiffness is computed by
means of 3D line integration through the CT data.
3. Researcher rebuilt the model using 3D modeling software to get interactive
geometric manipulation and rendering support.
The system predicts the facial shape after standard procedures in craniomaxillo facial
surgery.
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Fig.2.29 Rendered results of simulated surgery using FEM approach
As shown in fig.2.29 a), b), and c) Profiles and frontal view before and after
advancement of the lower jaw d), e), and f) Situation before and after surgery on the
upper jaw. In figure a-c show the shapes of the skull and face before and after an
osteotomy (surgical sectioning of bone) and advancement of the lower jaw bone. 19d-f
shows advancement of the upper jaw bone is presented. These are some striking results
obtained in the simulated surgery. Effective FEM can predict realistic results from
simulations which require precise models of particular individuals based on the bone
and soft tissue of the head.
Ref: Simulating Facial Surgery Using Finite Element Models by R. M. Koch, M. H.
Gross, F. R. Carlsy, D. F. von Burin, G. Fankhauser, Y.I.H. Parish, International
Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques, Proceedings of the
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23rd annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, 1996, pp.
421 - 428
Most of the physically based systems require extensive manual tuning to model a
specific face with given characteristics. It produces realistic results at the cost of
intensive computation to approximate human anatomy which drifts away from the
exact simulation of specific persons facial structure. Still it is a great attempt to
visualize the functionality and response of facial muscles, tissues and skin topology.
Researcher thinks that it will be good feature to predict the physically based results with
the face model. Jeevak phase (Section 3.6.8) will imitate artificially the physically based
modeling and allow user to check the impact of various inputs onto facial tissues and
modification of skin topology.
2.3.4.6. Anthropometry Based
As explained in chapter 2.3.2.2, Anthropometry is used to keep record of the physical
characteristics of the human body. A great contribution in craniofacial anthropometry
is from L.G. Farkas who established a database of anthropometric norms later
published in book Anthropometry of the Head and Face.
Ref: D. DeCarlo, D. Metaxas, and M. Stone. "An Anthropometric Face Model using
Variational Techniques", Proceedings ACM SIGGRAPH '98, 67-74, ACM
SIGGRAPH, 1998.
Ref: C. J. Kuo, R. S. Huang, T. G. Lin, Synthesizing Lateral Face from Frontal Facial
Image Using Anthropometric Estimation, proceedings of International Conference on
Image Processing, 1997, Vol. 1 , pp. 133 -136
Although Anthropometry has some loopholes, it is used as the fundamental in
industrial design and reliable survey of Indian population suggests that it might be the
best guideline for AdarshMudra (Section 3.6.7) design and setting the constraints in
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various phases. Researcher has used Indian Anthropometric statistical analysis and
check individual anthropometric dimensions inputs as setting constraints for
modifications of features.
In the measurement based approach it is desirable to compare a natural signal with a
synthetic signal to see how accurately it is possible to simulate the natural one.
2.3.4.7. Scanned Range Data Based

Fig.2.30 Fitting a plane to 3D face model
A novel approach published by Gang Pan, Wu and Yunhe Pan consists of range data
registration and comparison. There are two steps in registration procedure: the coarse
step conducting the normalization by exploiting a priori knowledge of the human face
and facial features, and the fine step aligning the input data with the model stored in
the database by the partial directed Hausdorff distance. To speed up the registration, a
simplified version of the model is generated for each model in the model database.
During the face comparison, the partial Hausdorff distance is employed as the
similarity metric.
63
Ref: Automatic 3D face verification from range data by Gang Pan, Zhaohui Wu,
Yunhe Pan, Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, China,
Proceedings of the 2003 International Conference on Multimedia and Expo - Volume
3 (ICME '03) - Volume 03, 2003, pp 133 - 136
In this paper, an example of based realistic face modeling method with viseme control
is considered. The researcher describes viseme as the particular facial and oral positions
and movements that occur alongside the voicing of phonemes. The proposed method
tries to automate the creation of a realistic face model with viseme control from a set of
scanned data blending face models generated from the morphable face model by PCA.

Fig. 2.31 Fitting mesh using PCA technique
As shown in fig 2.34, process involves fitting the 2D template mesh to the image.
From left to right; (a) range image (b) deformed 2D template mesh (low resolution) (c)
deformed 2D template mesh (high resolution)
Ref: Viseme-aware realistic 3D face modeling from range images by Ken Yano and
Koichi Harada, Graduate School of Engineering, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima,
Japan, IJCSNS International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security,
VOL.9 No.4, April 2009, pp 245-255
With the advent of technology there are many 3D scanners available that offer
standard resolution scans with RGB texture maps.
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Fig.2.32 Head and Face 3D Color Scanner from Cyberware
Ref: http://www.cyberware.com/products/scanners/ps.html
Another great technological revolution in face scanning is single mesh technology from
Geometric Informatics. It is currently bit expensive but the main advantages are real-
time surface captured data (not tinkered) without markers which offers normal map
and color texture.

Fig.2.33 Face scans by Geometric Informatics
Ref: http://www.geometricinformatics.com/sm/sm_demo.htm
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In spite of all these innovations laser scanning systems still has some ambiguities due to
technical limitations. The reflected laser beam may be dispersed so that the sensors can
not get range or color data for some surface points. Scanned output may show missing
points on the underside of the chin, nostril area, eye pupils, mouth bag and in hairline.
Although it can be taken care of by manually filling the missing range and color data to
get smooth shading and texture mapping.
The laser scanner produces dense spurious data with artifacts which must be refined by
manual intervention. The refinement is done for various reasons such as providing the
adequate details in specific areas like eyes and mouth, removal of unnecessary clumps,
filling up holes and refining corresponding texture map. It doesnt provide surface
according to curvature.
Researcher will experiment with scanned data range input of an individual (Section
3.6.9.1.2) and make an attempt to use Vyaktirekha (Section 3.6.8) to modify the Mudra
(Section 3.6.1) for fitting.
2.3.5. Facial Expression and Animation
For the first time in 1972 Frederic I. Parke presented Computer generated animation
of faces at ACM annual conference, since then many research papers have attempted
to generate realistic facial modeling and animation.
Human face is fundamental tool for communication. Facial expression is reflection of
emotions on face and hard to isolate. In 1971, Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen
demonstrated a framework which separated universal and culture specific facial
behaviors and also showed that there is no significant difference between male and
female facial behaviors. They postulated six basic emotions that possess a unique facial
expression. In FACS (facial Action and Coding System), facial expression is specified in
terms of Action Units (AU) is considered as the foundation for describing facial
expression.
66
Ref: Constants across cultures in the face and emotion by Paul Ekman and Wallace
Friesen, Journal of personality and Social Psychology, 1971, Vol. 17, No. 2, 124-129.
Ideally Facial reconstruction system should be able to replicate the face with neutral
expressions. As shown in Fig. 2.34, Generic facial expression analysis framework shows
the basic elements of Facial expression and animation. Although it helped researcher to
understand the Facial expression, researcher confirmed that facial expression and
animation deviates from the main goal of building a neutral face. Therefore proposed
system will not have any features supporting expression and animation. Researcher also
assumes that any input (photographs/scans) will be free from facial expression.
Researcher does not take any responsibility to tweak the input to convert it to neutral
expression.
67

Fig.2.34 Generic facial expression analysis framework
68
The encircled numbers used in the system diagrams indicate relevant processing stages.
Ref: Automatic facial expression analysis: a survey by B. Fasel, Juergen Luettin, Dalle
Molle Institute for Perceptual Artificial Intelligence, Switzerland, Pattern Recognition
36 (2003) 259 275
Further in a hybrid facial expression analysis system proposed by Bartlett, Larson,
Hanger and Ekman integrated holistic difference-images motion extraction coupled
with PCA, feature measurements along predefined intensity profiles for the estimation
of wrinkles and holistic dense optical flow for whole-face motion extraction.
Ref: Classifying Facial Action, by Martin Barlett, jan Larson, Joseph hanger, Paul
Ekman, Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 8(NIPS*96), D.
Touretzky, M.Moser and M. Hasselmo (Eds.), MIT PRESS, 1996 pp. 823-829
As researcher has already stated in section 1.12 Limitations (c), expression lies out of
scope of the proposed thesis. Essentially, the reconstructed 3D facial model will not
support any feature required for facial expressions and animation.
2.3.6. Facial Detection/Analysis/Identification/Recognition
After a certain number of years, our faces become our biographies. tells Cynthia
Ozick. Humans have the natural ability to recognize and distinguish between faces. The
area of the brain, the fusiform gyrus, located in the temporal lobe deals with the visual
perception of facial features. While observing any face, this area gets stimulated and
when person looks at that face again, recognizes it as something they have seen before.
Some people find it difficult to recognize people by faces. In 1947 face blindness was
named as Prosopagnosia by German neurologist Joachim Bodamer. It is a disorder of
inability to recognize faces. Any normal human can recognize faces naturally from
childhood. The functionality of Human brain is simulated by artificial intelligence to
show the similar ability. Face is one of the most studied biometric characteristic.
Typically automated facial recognition systems are developed by group of computer
science researchers, neuroscientists and psychologists. In the mid 1960s, scientists
69
began work on using the computer to recognize human faces. Scientists believe that
interdisciplinary approach will further improve the quality, so current trend is to
promote technology by putting latest psychology and cognitive science researches.
Ideally, Facial reconstruction system should produce a likeness of an individual which
can be recognized by average group of people.

Fig.2.35 Steps in Facial Recognition System
There are two main approaches used by various scientists
1. Geometric ( Feature based)
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2. Photometric ( View based)
Among many different algorithms most appreciated and studied in face recognition
literatures are Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Linear Discriminant Analysis
(LDA), Elastic Bunch Graph Matching (EBGM), and Active Appearance Model
(AAM). Researchers observation is given below.
2.3.6.1. Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
PCA, often termed as the use of eigenfaces, the technique invented by Kirby and
Sirivich in 1988. It requires the probe images with same size and normalized to align
eyes and mouth shape. Each face can be thought of as a feature vector of eigenfaces
and is compared with gallery images by calculating the distance between their
respective feature vectors. PCA algorithm was is the basis of numerous studies in
psychological studies. In the given image sets representing s-dimensional vector
algorithm finds t-dimensional subspace which corresponds to maximum variance
direction in the original image space. This new subspace is normally lower dimensional
(t<<s). I f the image elements are considered as random variables, the PCA basis
vectors are defined as eigenvectors of the scatter matrix.
H. Moon, P.J. Phillips, Computational and Performance aspects of PCA-based Face
Recognition Algorithms, Perception, Vol. 30, 2001, pp. 303-321
2.3.6.2. Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA)
The LDA algorithm whereby two or more stimuli are distinguished is based on the
vectors in the underlying space that separates sample classes. For all samples of all
classes the between-class scatter matrix (SB) and corresponding within-class scatter
matrix (SW) are defined. The class separation matrix and a measure of separability are
calculated. After maximizing SB while minimizing SW, which maximizes the ratio
det|SB|/det|SW|. To calculate eigenvectors ratio is maximized from the column
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vectors of the projection matrix. This yields (SW^-1 SB) eigenvectors which is used
for comparison and obtaining results.
Ref: Discriminant analysis for recognition of human face images by Kamran Etemad
and Rama Chellappa, University of Maryland, 1997
2.3.6.3. Elastic Bunch Graph Matching (EBGM)
In EGBM most of the variance is extracted as face description. It is represented as
image graphs, with nodes positioned at fiducial points for various facial features and
edges labeled with 2-D distance vectors. Each node contains set of many complex
wavelet coefficients at different scales, varying in phase and amplitude. They are named
as "jets". Recognition is based on comparison of image graphs. A labeled graph
representing set of nodes is connected by edges, nodes are labeled with jets, and edges
are labeled with distances.
Ref: Face Recognition by Elastic Bunch Graph Matching by Laurenz Wiskott, Jean-
Marc Fellous, Norbert Kruger and Christoph von der Malsburg, Institute for Neural
Computation, Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany and University of Southern
California, CA ,USA, 1999,pp. 355-396
2.3.6.4. Active Appearance Models(AAM)
An Active Appearance Model (AAM) is an integrated statistical model which combines
a model of shape variation with a model of the appearance variations in a shape-
normalized frame. An AAM usually built during training phase contains a statistical
model if the shape and gray-level appearance of the object of interest which can
generalize to almost any valid example. Starting approximation holds the key for all
processing sets. Matching to an image involves finding model parameters which
minimize the difference between the image and a synthesized model example projected
into the image. Although it is good for motion tracking, it is very difficult to handle
some sets such as occlusions, extremely flexible objects.
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Ref: Statistical Models of Appearance for Computer Vision 1 by T.F. Cootes and C. J.
Taylor, University of Manchester, U.K., March 2004
Facial recognition technology has emerged in a great way as it can be automated to
cater contemporary verification and identification. There is huge market waiting for a
robust, fast and effective facial recognition system. Apart from rigorous development,
performance evaluation issues it will have to address many challenges and concerns.
Performance:
The performance is marked on the basis of the types of tasks it can successfully
perform under any given conditions its known limitations.
Evaluation:
Every system is evaluated based on the quality and variety of generated reports. In this
task evaluation procedures are very important that are used to produce more useful and
transparent results.
After evaluating and reviewing various facial detection/recognition algorithms, it
brought to notice that the main aim of facial detection/identification/recognition differ
from the facial reconstruction system. Facial detection/recognition system works only
if the facial data is already at place but facial reconstruction system works to generate
facial model, at times with unknown end results. Although it is generally stated that
reconstructed facial model should resemble with the source face, facial reconstruction
system may not be build that support a specific facial detection algorithm. For the same
reason Researcher decided not to support any facial detection/
identification/recognition algorithm with facial reconstruction system.


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2.4. Industrial Applications
There are many industrial applications already dedicated various approaches listed in
chapter 2.1.3. These industrial applications are integrated solutions that cater need of
single or multiple fields. Researcher will not be considering all of them but some of
them are closely related with the phases of the proposed 3D Facial Reconstruction
System. The review of such industrial solutions helped researcher to decide various
required features that should be imbibed in the proposed system.
2.4.1. Entertainment Industry (Facial Modeling/ Simulation)
2.4.1.1. EyeMatic FaceStation
http://www.eyematic.com

Fig.2.67 Screen Shot of FaceStation 2 software
FaceStation 2 was released in 2002 but now it is closed. FaceStation 2 integrates
Eyematic's patented computer vision technology with speech analysis techniques to
dramatically improve the realism and accuracy of the resulting facial animation. This
integration also simplifies the creation of high-quality multiple language content and
sound-based animation effects. FaceStation2 includes additional professionally
designed, ready-to-animate characters as well as workflow and usability improvements.
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The product is good for animation but does not support dimension driven models. The
proposed facial reconstruction system also supports facial variations with added
advantage of dimension driven modification tools.
2.4.1.2. FaceGen
http://www.facegen.com

Fig. 2.68 Screen Shot of FaceGen Modeler 3.4.1 software
Application can be used to create realistic human faces in 3D either from photos or
from scratch. Edit faces with over 150 controls including age, race, gender and click-
and-drag editing. It is based on tween-two-faces design.
The software offers 3 step process to create realistic faces in following steps: 1. 3D
human faces from 1 or 2 photographs or at random. 2. Adjust age, race, gender and
150 other controls and 3. Apply faces to any polygonal mesh and UV map. Even if the
software cannot create exactly the head you have envisioned. For example, getting the
bulbous nose I envisioned for a character proved impossible just using FaceGen, but
FaceGen gives a workable 3D facial model. FaceGen delivers good Caucasus/ Negroid
facial model which does not relate Indian facial features. FaceGen does not support
anthropometric dimensions where as proposed system supports anthropometric
dimensions and dedicated for Indian population.
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2.4.1.3. Poser
http://my.smithmicro.com/mac/poser/index.html

Fig 2.69 Screen Shot of Poser 8 software
Digital content creators such as 3-D artists use Poser to set up and animate human
characters, animals, and props. Poser has never been exclusively a modeling program:
It is very difficult to create 3-D models from scratch, but rather, the software easily
allows users to create complete scenes with existing 3-D geometry. Poser can give face
kaleidoscope, means huge permutations to play but requires lot of manual tweaking to
generate a special face. It does not support skull and facial reconstruction features. The
proposed system will have face kaleidoscope with reconstruction features. It will help
user to build a specific face as well as designing unknown/unseen face.
2.4.1.4. Famous3D ProFace
http://www.famous3d.com/
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Fig 2.70 Screen Shot of famouse3D ProFace software
It was facial modeling software with anatomically based tools. Currently support is
discontinued. The proposed system have Vyaktirekha concept that supports facial
landmark based modification system.
2.4.1.5. CrazyTalk
http://www.reallusion.com/crazytalk/

Fig.2.71 Screen Shot of CrazyTalk software
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Reallusion - CrazyTalk transforms image into an actor and using facial fitting
technique, it generates natural life-like head movement. The real labor comes when you
try to make the face respond to the spoken word. There are algorithms to make the
mouth movements needed for various phonemes, though these are quite basic, if you
leave it to the program's own automation. It generated good model from photographs
but fails to deliver dimension driven model.
2.4.1.6. LifeStudio_Head
http://www.lifemi.com/products/LSH_27/
LS: HEAD is a face modeling and animation package with a large library of assets. Its
key features are Curve animation editing, Macro Muscle technology, Slider-driven
feature amendments and 3DS max importer and exporter.

Fig.2.72 Screen Shot of LIFESTUDIO: HEAD2.7 software
LifeStudio Head does not have support for anatomically and anthropometry based
facial model.

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2.4.1.7. Di-O-Matic Facial Studio
http://www.di-o-atic.com/products/plugins/FacialStudio/

Fig.2.73 Screen Shot of Di-O-Matic, Facial Studio software
Di-O-Matic Facial Studio offers features like Photo Matching to create heads based on
photos or drawings. It has non linear approach for the head creation and deformation
creation. User can deform everything from the eyes, the nose, the mouth, the jaw, the
chin, the ears, the cheeks, the forehead, the eyebrows to the overall head shape
including the teeth and the tongue. Facial Studio also offers facilities like skin texture
editing, shading, and the facial muscles deformation.
There are many such types of software like Daz Studio, FaceShop pro, 3DMeNow
develops 3D Human face for entertainment industry. Apart from that various 3D
modeling softwares like Max, Maya, ZBrush, Softimage, Lightwave3D provides several
tools for manual 3D modeling which can be used to develop 3D Human face. For the
sake of simplicity and conciseness, researcher did not add the review of all the
softwares in this section. Researcher found that still facial modeling is highly skilled,
time consuming and manual task. Researcher analyzed various facial modeling products
to determine common features and better approach for facial reconstruction system.
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2.4.2. Medical Industry (Facial Visualization/Reconstruction)
2.4.2.1. Visible Human Project
http://vhp.med.umich.edu/index.html

Fig.2.74 Visible Human Project by University of Michigan
The University of Michigan Visible Human project visualizes human anatomy using
detailed cross sectional images. It helps medical students, researchers, doctors as a
reference human template with arbitrary cross sections, tool tips showing relevant
medical information and helpful navigation tools.
Researcher found that there is huge gap in entertainment industry and medical industry.
Even though goal of facial modeling is same but requirement, processing and results
are completely different. There is a need of liaison or unifying approach with seamless
information exchange and deliver required results.


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2.4.2.2. OnyxCeph ( For orthodontists)
http://www.onyx-ceph.de

Fig.2.75 Screen Shot of Onyx Ceph 2D Pro module
OnixCeph helps orthodontists for planning, managing patients data. OnyxCeph
interface enhances visual diagnostics by presenting deviations in mean cephalometric
curves and patients profile curves. OnyxCeph has various image based tools to acquire
patients data from digital cameras, x-ray units and other scanners. It helps
manipulation like SQL database system, finally delivering output in visual format.
OnyxCeph works only on photographs but cannot generate 3D model. Proposed facial
reconstruction system will be able show critical orthodontic measurements of specific
person from photographs and at the same time can generate 3D facial model of
unknown person also.
2.4.2.3. FaceFilter Studio
http://www.reallusion.com/FaceFilter/
FaceFilter Studios 3D photo morphing technology that lets you import any portrait
photo and enhance the facial feature either subtle to improve characters.
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Fig.2.76 Screen Shot of FaceFilter Studio software
Unlike FaceFilter, proposed facial system can work on 3D input and deliver 3D model
of an individual.
2.4.3. Police and Security System (Facial Identification/ Detection/
Reconstruction)

Fig.2.77 User Interface of typical Facial Reconstruction software
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A crime lab computer shows the process of digital facial reconstruction, which
provides a high level of speed, accuracy, and flexibility that is impossible to achieve in
sculptures or hand drawings. Proposed system can be used by police department for
generating 2D sketches or 3D models of criminals from given description.
2.4.4. Other (Predictions on the basis of Facial Features)
2.4.4.1. Digital Physiognomy
http://www.uniphiz.com/physiognomy.htm

Fig.2.78 Screen Shot of Digital Physiognomy software
Digital Physiognomy uses a sophisticated neural network to identify correlations
between facial features and psychological characteristics using photo identification
techniques recognized by law enforcement professionals. Only facial features that can
be interpreted by physiognomy were used. You select eyes, eyebrows, foreheads,
cheekbones, chins, noses, mouths and ears to assemble a face. Proposed system can be
enhanced to generate 3D models of famous people. Proposed system can further
enhanced by programs to give psychological characteristics based on established
theory. Currently this topic lies out of scope of study.
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2.5. Review of Related Research
2.5.1. Review of Facial Reconstruction Related Researches
Facial reconstruction process can also be called as facial approximation as it predicts
the face based on the inputs and doesnt guarantee the perfect match. It is the process
of recreating the face of an unidentified individual through an amalgamation of artistry,
forensic science, anthropology, osteology, and anatomy. The vast scope for various
information inputs, wide variety of techniques and absence of standardized testing of
results makes it more subjective. General strong belief is that skull is the detailed
blueprint of the face. Among the various approaches most famous is forensic facial
reconstruction. The technique is recreating face based on skull with the help of laying
variable tissue layer and finally wrapping skin on it. In 19
th
century lie the roots of
various Facial Reconstruction techniques. In 1989 French anthropologist Alphonse
Bertillon demonstrated his method of determining identity through the measurement
of specific features and body parts, which are unique to each person. Ref: Forensic Art,
pg 10. With the advent of medical advances and collaborative scientific and artistic
efforts added many dimensions to the field of facial reconstruction. Many forensic
artists and practitioners found out various techniques with the help of forensic
anthropology. Even though some of them have unproven independent technique still it
claimed promising success. Many forensic experts have experimented and documented
results which challenge others theories. Despite this controversy, facial reconstruction
has yielded frequent successful results enough that research and methodological
developments continue to be explored. Inadequate anthropological data, insufficient
forensic data are the major reasons for the failure in predicting the perfect target face.
The use of facial anthropology, forensic odontology knowledgebase makes an attempt
to fill up the unknown gaps to reveal the facial topology.
3D Facial reconstruction is superset of facial proportion, facial modeling and to a little
extent, facial detection. In the proposed thesis, Facial expression is not necessary and
may mislead the objective to predict a target face.
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The taxonomy of Facial Reconstruction Researches is shown in following figure.

Fig. 2.79 Taxonomy of various Facial Reconstruction Systems
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Superimposition involves the process of making montage of available images of the
subject and then its comparison with skull. The proper match of the superimposed
image and the unidentified skull can be used as the successful use of technique even
used as good evidence.
Forensic anthropologists concentrate on human biological characteristics at the
population level, with special attention to uncovering the uniqueness that sets one
individual apart from all others. This focus on isolating each human being as a unique
entity is the essence of forensic anthropology. Study extracts will help us to build
Jeevak system (Section 3.6.8) for reconstructing the faces of the dead.
2.5.1.1. 2D Facial Reconstruction
Forensic artists and forensic image experts are often the ones who create sketches or
facial reconstructions, enhance photos or perform age progressions.
a. Image Modification
b. Image Construction
c. Composite Images

Fig.2.80 Composite drawing by Karen Taylor
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As shown in fig. 2.80, a composite drawing based on a victims verbal description (left)
and photo of subject identified (right)., Forensic Art and Illustration, Pg. 4

Fig.2.81 Example of Image Superimposition technique
Ref: Skull-to-Photo superimposition Introduction to Forensic Sciences, 2nd Edition,
William G. Eckert, CRC Publication, pp 369
Depending on input 2D facial reconstruction is done in 2 ways
2.5.1.1.1. Localize (Individual features first and final outline of face)
As age progression plays major role in visualization, constructing facial features is based
on old photograph or other concrete information. Widely practiced composite drawing
approach can be thought of mix of both the processes. For an artist, Eyes may be of
utmost importance.
The countenance is the portrait of the soul, and the eyes mark its intentions. ~Cicero
2.5.1.1.2. Holistic
(First face outline and then fit all features with relationship)
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Researcher believes that restoration of human face in memory depends on the
psychological distance. If target human face is well known or closely associated then
that face is restored with more interrelated proportions and feature information tagged
with emotional keys thus retained for longer term. In contrast, face without any
prominent feature and emotion or incident tag may be erased quickly from memory by
subconscious mind, eventually difficult to recall. Every individual has different style of
remembering human faces and capability to communicate those faces. Gestalt principle
of totality plays important role while drawing human face with holistic approach. Most
vague and error prone input is verbal information. It all depends on the witness and
information processing system to interpret and derive the facial model from given
input. Main thrust is given on proportion and shapes, not on actual dimensions.
Although it is widely practiced and proven approach for facial reconstruction, it has
some inherent disadvantages.
i. Third dimension not considered - whole head in space and muscle thickness
given least importance.
ii. Forensic Artist should have a understanding of cognitive psychology and
behavioral science
iii. Interview techniques play an important role to extract information
2.5.1.2. 3D Facial Reconstruction
2.5.1.2.1. Tissue Depth Based
In Tissue Depth based facial reconstruction, forensic artist glues depth markers onto
skull landmarks of deceased persons to determine the average shape. Then Plasticine
strips are used to join these markers. Finally facial features sculpted with great detail to
give final real life look. Fig 2.82 shows typical tissue depth based facial reconstruction
technique.
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Fig.2.82 Example of Facial Reconstruction using Tissue Depth technique
Ref: Modeling the face with clay on top of the skull using the tissue depth method.
(Images [Taylor 2001]) and Forensic art, Crime scene Investigation, by Jenney MacKay,
2009 Lucent Books, GALE CENGAGE Learning., pp. 38.
Researcher intends to use this technique in 3D environment to derive facial topology
from skull. Researcher ideated Jeevak concept discussed in section 3.6.8 is based on the
same philosophy.
2.5.1.2.2. FEM Based
Researcher has already discussed FEM based facial modeling in Section 2.3.4.5.
2.5.1.2.3. Scanned Range Data Based
Scanned ranged data based facial modeling is mentioned in Section 2.3.4.7.
3D Facial Modeling is superset of 2D sketching. Evidently 3D system has many
advantages over 2D. Only disadvantage with 3D is that it is unable to isolate specific
feature from entire face. Basically it works on holistic approach. Special programs can
be written to implement localize approach in 3D which currently lies out of scope.
Proposed system develops facial model in 3D environment so it also inherits all the
pros and cons of 3D system.
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Researcher would like to throw a light on few distinguishing factors of proposed
system from existing solutions.
i. Most of the systems are restricted to work on some specific approach or
technology which may turn into bane or boon with time and technology factor.
Proposed philosophy is reinforced with concepts like Jeevak and Vyaktirekha
(Section 3.6.8) to make design more flexible and dynamic. This makes
proposed philosophy independent of specific technology and approach.
ii. Review of literature suggests that various fields require 3D human face but
have different criteria. Presently there is no single solution which will deliver
3D face for medical and entertainment industry and police department at the
same time. There is requirement of a flexible and adaptive liaison between
these growing streams. Proposed methodology designed by Researcher is
unifying approach that deals with translated inputs from different streams.
Proposed facial reconstruction system can deliver same 3D facial surface for all
these sectors conforming to their standards.
iii. As we have seen a few products were shut down, may be due to lack of
understanding of future needs. Many face related streams are still evolving and
many experts are documenting their findings. Most of the solutions available in
industry do not deal with these technical innovations. In Proposed system
Researcher stated methodology for reconstruction of Facial model in 3D
environment that fits in current technological scenario, at the same time made
room for future developments which is major advantage.
iv. Review of various paths and industry solutions revealed that medical industry
solutions are highly expensive. Those products often require expensive
scanning machines to capture data, expensive software programs and high end
workstations for data processing. Proposed system is inexpensive solution that
delivers required output with mere human input.
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v. Entertainment industry requires human face models for 3D movies and games.
Entertainment industry success stories are skill and experience dependent and
often take long time to develop specific human face. Proposed system is very
fast and does not require high level skills for processing.
vi. Most of the approaches work on specific type of input and thus inherently get
attached with pros and cons and characteristics of input. Physically based
systems are accurate but require intensive processing and thus only feasible
when applied to special case. Proposed system imitates the physically based
system with dynamic approach and does not require intensive data processing
power.
vii. Anthropometry supplies various databases for human population but lacks in
morphometrics analysis. Proposed system covers morphometric shapes along
with anthropometric dimensions for all facial features.
viii. Although 3D scanning gives accurate results, the technology is quite expensive
to use as mass input. Another disadvantage with 3D scan model is that it often
delivers undesirable humongous information which requires immense amount
of time and skill to refine and reuse for facial reconstruction. Proposed system
is based on predefined AdarshMudra and not 3D cloud of points. Thus 3D
scanned data is used only for tracing and not for building 3D facial surface.
ix. Photo based system can be cheap and widely appreciated but lack in dimension
and may not generate correct topological modulation. Researcher identified
that images should be calibrated and aligned properly before use. Researcher
has given guidelines to use photo inputs and aligning technique to use as
perfect input (Section 7.3). Proposed facial reconstruction system uses refined
photographs along with some more information to validate inputs.
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x. 2D composite facial reconstruction does not offer flexibility and largely
depends on individual artists skill set. Proposed system can be used to generate
2D output with great flexibility.
xi. 3D sculpting is heavily used for facial reconstruction but depends on artistry of
an individual to reflect inputs into believable facial model. Researcher
confirmed that computer based 3D Facial modeling will eventually capture 3D
facial reconstruction sector with its inherent strengths and has capability to
deliver easy, efficient, skill independent, most scientifically accurate facial
reconstruction system. Proposed system is designed with utmost care to reflect
these qualities.
xii. Researcher also confirmed that forensic inferences should be independent of
tools which will give various forensic experts the freedom to explore their
visualizations. Proposed system does not restrict user to extract only one
solution but allows multiple layered flexibility to test inferences by manipulating
various parameters. So proposed system can also be viewed as kaleidoscope for
forensic expert.
In gist, proposed system can be viewed as
1. fast facial modeling framework for modeler in entertainment industry
2. 3D face visualization tool for a forensic expert
3. intelligent 3D simulated facial surface for surgical planning
4. 3D head model with medical annotation showing rich content for medical
student
5. quick sketching 3D canvas to generate face from explanation for police
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6. It is fast, easy, robust and dynamic methodology which can be quickly adopted
in any 3D environment. It is result oriented accurate system that can work with
the help of any vague and/or accurate inputs and attempts to deliver
competitive results confined to industry standards.