1

Loss of soil resistance or soil rigidity during or after

earthquakes due to an excessive pore pressure
generation

2
• Overturned buildings with no structural damages

Niigata, Japan (1964) 3

• Sand boils or sandy fine materials at the level ground

Kobe, Japan (1995) 4

• Generalised subsidences

Kobe, Japan (1995) Anchorage, Alaska (1964)

5
• Generalised subsidences

Izmit, Turkey (1999)

6
• Large lateral spreadings

Kobe, Japan (1995)

7
• Dry soils : movements with shearing
densification ∆V ⇓

• Saturated soils : ∆V = 0 u⇑

« Floating »
grains in the
water

Reduction of contact
8
forces between grains
 ′
σv = σv + u with u = u static + ∆u
u

′
σv ⇓ u⇑
Zone where
while liquefaction can starts

depth σv

u profile at the instant t1 u profile at the instant t1 9

 ru = u σ v

Liquefaction for ′
ru = 100% σv = 0

Superstition Hills, USA (1987) 10

 Sand boils

Liquefied zone
reconsolidation
Dissipation of ∆u

settlement
σv

depth
11
Profil de u à un instant t1
• Sandy soils in a loose or medium dense state

alluvional or wind borne deposits

• if FC >50 %, non plastic fine materials

• Low permeabiliy

• Recently deposited materials (no cimentation)

12
 Behaviour of sands
Drained triaxial tests (1/3)
Stage 1 : Isotropic Consolidation

σ1 = σ0
Critical State

σ3 = σ0 σ3 = σ0

Stage 2 : Deviatoric test

σ1

dεv/d ε1 = 0

σ3 = σ0 Transformation
σ3 = σ0 State
13
 Behaviour of sands
Drained triaxial tests (2/3)

• Loose sand (contractive) • Dense sand (dilative)

(q-ε1)
- Rise of resistance
- A steady state is reached
(q-ε1)
- Rise of resistance
- Presence of a peak of resistance
- Softening
- A steady state is reached

(q-εv)
- Contrative phasis
- A steady state is reached
(q-εv)
- Contratant phasis
- State of maximum contractancy
- Dilative phasis
- A steady state is reached 14
 Behaviour of sands
Drained triaxial tests (3/3)
Loose sand Dense sand
Critical state
Failure : Mohr-Coulomb
q q
Failure : Mohr-Coulomb

dilatancy

3
3
contractancy 1 contractancy
σσ00 1 σ0
p p

Isotropic
consolidation
15
 Behaviour of sands
Undrained triaxial tests
Transient loss of resistance

Material behaving like a fluid

Total stress path = LC

∆u
ε1 %

σ0 p’

σ0
ε1 % a : essentially contractive sand
b : poorly dilative sand
c : dilative sand 16
• Contractive sands :

ru=100% is obtained and large induced deformations

17
• Poorly dilative sand (cyclic mobility) :

almost ru=100% while large transient large induced deformations

18
• Dilative sand (cyclic mobility) :

ru=100% never obtained and limited deformations

extent of the dilative phasis similar to the extent of the dilative phasis

19
• In situ geotechnical tests (SPT, CPT)… to forbid any building construction

• Drainage devices (drains, drain wells, gravel columns)

• Soil densification (dynamic compaction)

• Devices with drainage and densification (vibroflottation, gravel columns)

• Soil improvement (injections)

20
• Drain wells / gravel columns (digging and drain installation (PVC) or filling
with gravels)

• Dynamic compaction (superficial soil improvement)

Mass of 8 - 50t
Falling mass heigth : < 40m
Several mass falling
Depth action < 10m

21
• Vibroflottation (or vibrocompaction)

– Addition of densified sand/gravel with the vibration

– Addition of large gravel (gravel column)
– Column diameter : < 4m

22
• Injection (grouting)

Product : water+sand+cement
Soil rearrangement around the bulb

densification of the surrounding soil

zones with good mechanical properties

23
 Kobe harbour

Port Rokko
Island Island

24
 Kobe harbour

• Subsidence during Kobe earthquake (1995)

25
Simplified method (so-called Seed’s method, (1971)) (2001)

Method valid for soil layers ubicated at a depth z < 20m

• Answer to the seismic shaking (at a given depth z)

CSR : cyclic stress ratio

• Resistance of the investigated layer (at a given depth z)

CRR : cyclic resistance ratio

• If CRR/CSR <1
liquefaction

FS =CRR/CSR Liquefaction safety factor

26
• CSR

a   σ v 0 
CSR = = 0.65 max .
τ av
′  g 
  σv0 ′ 
.rd
σv0

amax : accélération maximale en surface (%g)

rd : coefficient de réduction de contraintes

rd = 1 − 0.00765z avec z ≤ 9.15 m

rd = 1.174 − 0.0267z avec 9.15 m ≤ z ≤ 23 m

High depths -> high scatter levels 27

• CRR
obtained after correlations with in situ tests (SPT)
= CSR value leading to liquéfaction

Back analysis of sites where liquefaction

took place
Validitity : M=7.5 (magnitude)
clean sand

Computation of the seismic answer with

real seismic recordings
CSR

In situ test to assess (N1)60

Identification of FC (Fine Content) 28
• Correction (MSF) for earthquakes which magnitudes differents than 7.5

10 2.24
MSF = 2.56
Mw

29
• Correction (Kσ) for high overburden pressures

30
• Correction (Kα) to take into account initial shearing stress field (near
slopes)

Poorly reliable so far (
take Kα=1)

• Liquefaction safety factor

 CRR7.5 
FS =  .MSF .Kσ .Kα
 CRS 

31