1.

Introduction to High Voltage Technology

1. Discuss the different numerical methods available for estimation of electric field distribution in
dielectric media.
Some of the numerical methods used to find out potential distribution are
a. Finite difference method (FDM)
b. Finite element method (FEM)
c. Charge simulation method (CSM)
d. Boundary element method (BEM) or Surface charge simulation method (SCSM).
1 Finite Difference Method
Let us assume that voltage variations are in two dimensions only i.e. it varies in x-y plane and it does not
vary along z-coordinate and let us divide the interior of a cross section of the region where the potential
distribution is required into squares of length h on a side as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Figure 1.1: A portion of a region containing a two-dimensional potential field dividedinto square of side h.
Assuming the region to be charge free 0 . . E D
For a two-dimensional situation
0

y
E
x
E y
x
From equation (1.6) the Laplace equation is
0
2
2
2
2
2

y
V
x
V
V ...(1)
From figure 1.1 we can write it as
h
V V
x
V
a
0 1

and
h
V V
x
V
c
3 0

From the gradients

2
3 0 0 1
2
2
h
V V V V
h
x
V
x
V
x
V
c a
o
+

Similarly
2
4 0 0 2
2
2
h
V V V V
h
y
V
y
V
y
V
d b
o
+

Substituting values of
2
2
x
V

and
2
2
y
V

in equation (1)
0
2
4 0 0 2 3 0 0 1
2
2
2
2

+ +

h
V V V V V V V V
y
V
x
V
0 4
0 4 3 2 1
+ + + V V V V V
, )
4 3 2 1 0
4
1
V V V V V + + + ...(2)
From equation (2) it is clear that the potential at point O is the average of the potential at the four
neighboring points. The iterative method uses equation (1.8) to determine the potential at the corner of every
square sub-division in turn and then the process is repeated over the entire region until the difference in values
is less than a prespecified value.
2 Finite Element Method
Voltage distribution under given conditions of electrode surface should make the enclosed energy
function to be a minimum for a given dielectric volume v.
Electrostatic energy stored per unit volume is given by
2
2
1
E W
Electric energy over the complete volume is given as
, ) dv V W
v

2
1
2
1
...(3)
Let us assume an isotropic dielectric medium and an electrostatic field without any space charge. The
potential V is determined by the boundaries formed by the metal electrode surfaces.
Equation (1.9) can be rewritten in Cartesian co-ordinates as
dxdydz
z
V
y
V
x
V
W

,
_

,
_

,
_

2
2
2
2
1
...(4)
Assuming that potential distribution is only two-dimensional and there is no change in potential along z-
direction, then 0

z
V
and hence equation (1.10) reduces to
dxdy
y
V
x
V
Z W
A

,
_

,
_

2
2
...(5)
Here z is constant and WA represents the energy density per unit area and the quantity within integral
sign represents differential energy per elementary area dA = dxdy.
In this method also the field between electrodes is divided into discrete elements as in FDM. The shape
of these elements is chosen to be triangular for two dimensional representation and tetrahedron for three
dimensional field representation.
The shape and size of these finite elements is suitably chosen and these are irregularly distributed
within the field. It is to be noted that wherever within the medium higher electric stresses are expected e.g.
corners and edges of electrodes, triangles of smaller size should be chosen.
Let us consider an element e1as shown in Fig. 1 as part of the total field having nodes i, j and k in
anticlockwise direction. There will be a large no. of such elements e1, e2..... eN.
Figure 1: Triangular finite element
Having obtained the potential of the nodes of these elements, the potential distribution within each
element is required to be obtained. For this normally a linear relations of V on x and y is assumed and hence the
first order approximation gives
, ) y a x a a y x V
3 2 1
, + + ...(6)
Equation 6 implies that electric field intensity within the element is constant and potentials at any point
within the element are linearly distributed. The potentials at nodes i , j and k are given as
i i i
y a x a a V
3 2 1
+ + ...(7)
j j j
y a x a a V
3 2 2
+ + ...(8)
k k k
y a x a a V
3 2 3
+ + ...(9)
Equations 7,8 and 9 can be rewritten in matrix form as

3
2
1
1
1
1
a
a
a
y x
y x
y x
V
V
V
k k
j j
i i
k
j
i
...(10)
By using Cramers rules, the coefficient a1, a2, a3 can be obtained as follows
, )
k k j j i i
e
V V V a + +

2
1
1
...(11)
, )
k k j j i i
e
V V V a + +

2
1
2
...(12)
, )
k k j j i i
e
V V V a + +

2
1
3
...(13)
Where
j k k j i
y x y x ,
k i i k j
y x y x ,
i j j i k
y x y x
k j i
y y ,
i k j
y y ,
j i k
y y
j k i
x x ,
k i j
x x ,
i j k
x x
i j j i k j i e
+ + 2 ...(14)
Where e represents the area of the triangular element under consideration. The nodes must be
numbered anticlockwise, else e may turn out to be negative.
From equation 1.12 the partial derivatives of V are given by
, )
k j i
V V V f a
x
V
, ,
2

...(15)
, )
k j i
V V V f a
y
V
, ,
3

...(16)
For obtaining the voltage at various nodes we have to minimize the energy within the whole system for
which derivatives of energies with respect to potential distribution in each element is required.
For the element e under consideration, let We be the energy enclosed in the element, then energy per
unit length in the z-direction is
Z
W
e
denoted by We can be obtained by using equation 1.11 is written as
e
e
e
y
V
x
V
e
Z
W
W

'

,
_

,
_

2
2
2
1
...(17)
Where


e
dxdy e
To obtain condition for energy minimization differentiates equation 17 partially with respect to Vi, Vj and
Vk separately. Thus partially differentiating equation 1.23 with respect to Vi and making use of equations 11, 12,
13, 1.14 and 15
, )
, ) , ) , ) , |
k k i k i j j i j i i i i
e
i i
i i
e
i
e
V V V
a a
V
a
V
a
a
V
W

+ + + + +

,
_

2 2
3 2
3 2
2
4
2
1
2
2
1
...(18)
Similarly, finding partial derivatives of equation 1.23 with respect to Vj and Vk and following the
procedure outlined above for partial derivative with respect to Vi and arranging all the three equation in matrix
from we have
, ) , ) , )
, ) , ) , )
, ) , ) , )

+ + +
+ + +
+ + +

k
j
i
k k k j k j k i k i
k j k j j j j i j i
k i k i j i j i i i
e e
e
V
V
V
V
W
2 2
2 2
2 2
4

(19)
, ) , ) , )
, ) , ) , )
, ) , ) , )
, | , |
e e
k
j
i
kk kj ki
jk jj ji
ik ij ii
e e
e
V C
V
V
V
C C C
C C C
C C C
V
W

(20)
After considering a typical element e, the energy associated with all the elements in the area under
consideration is given by
, |, | , |

N
e
T
e
V C V W W
1
2
1
(21)
Where
, |

n
n
V
V
V
V
V
1
2
1
.
.
.
If n is the total number of nodes in the system and N is the no. of elements and [C] is called the global
stiffness matrix which is the sum of the individual matrices.
In general
h
V
W

leads to
0
1

n
i
ik i
C V (22)
The solution of the above equations gives voltage distribution in the region.
A computer program can be developed and accuracy of the result can be obtained depending upon the
convergence condition fed into the computer. A suitable initial guess for the solution can always be made
depending upon the system configuration and during every iteration the voltage can be updated till all the
boundary conditions are satisfied and the energy function is minimized that is when the change in the energy
function between two consecutive iterations is less than a pre specified value.
The finite element method is useful for estimating electric fields at highly curved and thin electrode
surfaces with composite dielectric materials especially when the electric fields are uniform or weakly non-
uniform and can be expressed in two dimensioned geometrics. The method is normally not recommended for
three dimensional non-uniform fields.
3 Charge Simulation Method
In this method, the distributed charges on the surface of a conductor electrode or dielectric interfaces is
simulated by replacing these charges by n discrete fictitious individual charges arranged suitably inside the
conductor or outside the space in which the field is to be computed. These charges could be in the form of point,
line or ring, depending upon the shape of the electrode under consideration. The position and type of simulation
charges are to be determined first and then the field on the electrode surface is determined by the potential
function of these individual charges. In order to determine the magnitude of these charges n no. of points are
chosen on the surface of the conductor. These points are known as contour points. The sum of the potentials
due to fictitious charge distribution at any contour points should correspond to the conductor potential Vc which
is known apriori.
Suppose qi is one of the fictitious charges and Viis the potential of any point Pi in space which is
independent of the coordinate system chosen, the total potential Vi due to all the charges is given as

n
j
i ij i
q p V
1
(23)
Where pij are known as potential Co-efficient which are to be determined for different types of charges
by using Laplaces equation. We know that potential at a point P at a distance a from a point charge q is given
as
a
q
V
4

The potential co-efficient p is

a
q
4
Similarly, these coefficients for linear and ring or circular charges can also be obtained. It is found these
are also dependent upon various distance of these charges from the point under consideration where potential is
to be obtained and the permittivity of the medium as in case of a point charge and hence potential coefficients
are constant number and hence the potential due to various types of charges are a linear function of charges and
this is how we get the potential at a point due to various charges as an algebraic sum of potential due to
individual charges.
A few contour points must also be taken at the electrode boundaries also and the potential due to the
simulated charge system should be obtained at these points and this should correspond to the equipotential or
else, the type and location of charges should be changed to acquire the desired shape and the given potential.
Suppose we take n number of contour points and n no. of charges, the equations can be written as

n n nn n n
n
n
V
V
V
q
q
q
p p p
p p p
p p p
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
2
1
2
1
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
(24)
The solution of these equations gives the magnitude of the individual charges and which corresponds to
electrode potential (V1 ....... Vn) at the considered discrete points.
The field intensity at a point due to various charges is obtained by vector addition of intensity due to
individual charges at that point. However, it is desirable to obtain the individual directional components of field
intensity separately. In Cartesian coordinate system, the component of electric field intensity along x-direction
for n number of charges is given as
, )

n
j
n
j
j
x
ij j
ij
x
q f q
x
p
E
1 1
(25)
where , )
x
ij
f are known as field intensity coefficients in x-direction.
4 Boundary element method
The boundary element method (BEM) is a relatively new technique for solving Laplaces and Poissons
equations. The unknown function u is first solved on the boundary of the domain, the value of u and its partial
derivatives are then calculated by integration of the number of elements on the boundary. In this way, the
number of elements and thus the number of unknowns of the resulting linear equations is greatly reduced
compared with domain approaches such as finite element and final difference methods. The boundary approach
also makes it possible to handle problems with infinite domain.
2. Explain briefly the algorithm of charge simulation method for estimating the potential
distribution.
The algorithm for CSM is
1. Choose a suitable type and location of simulation charges within the electrode system.
2. Select some contour point on the surface of the electrodes. A relatively larger no. of contour points should
be selected on the curved or corner points of the electrode.
3. Calculate the pij for different charges and locations (contour points) and assemble in the form of a matrix.
4. Obtain inverse of this matrix and calculate the magnitude of charges (simulation).
5. Test whether the solution so obtained is feasible or not by selecting some check points on the conductor
surface. If the solution is feasible stop and calculate the electric field intensity at requisite point. If not,
repeat the procedure by either changing the type or location of the simulation charges.
3. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of different numerical methods used for
solution of field problems.
Out of the various techniques FDM is the simplest to compute and understand but the computation effort
and computer memory requirements are the highest. Also, since all difference equations are approximation
to the actual field conditions, the final solution may have considerable error.
Finite element method is a general method and has been used for almost all fields of engineering. The
method is suitable for estimating fields at highly curved and thin electrode surfaces with different dielectric
materials. However, this method is more useful for uniform or weakly non-uniform fields and which can be
represented by two dimensional geometries. This method is recommended for three dimensional complicated
field configurations.
Charge Simulation Method (CSM) is considered to be one of the most superior and acceptable method for two
and three dimensional configuration with more than one dielectric and with electrode systems of any desired
shape since this method is based on minimization of the energy function which could be subjected to any
operating constraints e.g. Environmental condition, it has proved to be highly accurate method. Because of
inherent features of the technique, this method also helps in optimizing electrode configuration. In electrode
configuration optimization problems the objective is to have field intensity as low as possible subject to the
condition that constant field intensity exists on the complete electrode surface. With this optimization, a
higher life expectancy of high voltage equipment can be achieved.
However, as mentioned earlier this method cannot be used for thin electrodes e.g. foils, plates or coatings due
to the requirement of a minimum gap distance between the location of a charge and electrode contour. Also,
this method is not suitable for highly irregular electrode boundaries.
The Boundary element method or surface charge simulation method even though takes into account the
actual surface charge distribution on the electrode surface, this method is not normally recommended for
solution of field problem due to some practical difficulties. An important difference between the various
methods is that the FDM and FEM can be used only for bounded field whereas CSM and BEM can also be
used for unbounded fields.
4. Discuss about surge voltage and their distribution and control in high voltage power apparatus.
The design of power apparatus particularly operating at high Voltages is governed by their transient
behavior.
The transient high voltages or surge voltages originate in power systems due to Lightning and switching
operations.
The effect of the surge voltages is severe in all power apparatuses.
The response of a power apparatus to the impulse or surge voltage depends on the capacitances between
the coils of windings and between the different phase windings of the multiphase machines.
The transient voltage distribution in the windings as a whole are generally very non uniform and are
complicated by travelling wave voltage oscillations set up within the windings.
In the actual design of an apparatus, it is, necessary to consider the maximum voltage differences
occurring, in each region, at any instant of time after the application of an impulse, and to take into
account their durations especially when they are less than one microsecond.
An experimental assessment of the dielectric strength of insulation against the power frequency voltages
and surge voltages on samples of basic materials, on more or less complex assemblies, or on complete
equipment must involve high voltage testing.
Since the design of an electrical apparatus is based on the dielectric strength, the design cannot be
completely relied upon, unless experimentally tested. High voltage testing is done by generating the
voltages and measuring them ina laboratory.
When high voltage testing is done on component parts, elaborate insulation assemblies, and complete
full-scale prototype apparatus it is possible to build up a considerable stock of design information;
although expensive, such data can be very useful.
However, such data can never really be complete to cover all future designs and necessitates use of large
factors of safety.
A different approach to the problem is the exact calculation of dielectric strength of any insulation
arrangement. In an ideal design each part of the dielectric would be uniformly stressed at the maximum
value which it will safely withstand.
Such an ideal condition is impossible to achieve in practice, for dielectrics of different electrical
strengths, due to the practical limitations of construction.
A survey of typical power apparatus designs suggests stress concentration factors ranging from 2 to 5can
occur in practice; when this factor is high, considerable quantities of insulation must be used.
Generally, improvements in manufacturing the electrical apparatus can be effected in the following
ways:
i. By shaping the conductors to reduce stress concentrations.
ii. By insertion of higher dielectric strength insulation at high stress points.
iii. By selection of materials of appropriate permittivities to obtain more uniform voltage gradients.
5. Discuss in detail about the features and properties of solid dielectrics and its composites.
If the solid insulating material is truly homogeneous and is free from imperfections, its breakdown stress
will be as high as 10MV/cm.
This is the intrinsic breakdown strength, and can be obtained only under carefully controlled laboratory
conditions.
However, in practice, the breakdown fields obtained are very much lower than this value. The
breakdown occurs due to many mechanisms.
In general the breakdown occurs over the surface than in the solid itself and the surface insulation
failure is the most frequent cause of trouble in practice.
The breakdown of insulation can occur due to mechanical failure caused by the mechanical stresses
produced by the electrical fields. This is called "electromechanical" breakdown.
On the other hand, breakdown can also occur due to chemical degradation caused by the heat generated
due to dielectric losses in the insulating material. This process is cumulative and is more severe in the
presence of air and moisture.
When breakdown occurs on the surface of an insulator it can be a simple flashover or formation of a
conducting path on the surface. When the conducting path is formed it is called "tracking", and results in
the degradation of the material.
Surface flashover normally occurs when the solid insulator is immersed in a liquid dielectric.
Porcelain insulators for use on transmission lines must therefore be designed to have a long path over
the surface.
Surface contamination of electrical insulation exists almost everywhere to some degree.
In porcelain high voltage insulators of the suspension type, the length of the path over the surface will
be20 to 30times greater than that through the solid. The failure of solid insulation by discharges which
may occur in the in internal voids and cavities of the dielectric, called partial discharges, is receiving
much attention today, mostly because it determines the life versus stress characteristics of the material.
The energy dissipated in the partial discharges causes further deterioration of the cavity walls and gives
rise to further evolution of gas. This is a cumulative process eventually leading to breakdown.
In some applications, the effect of the partial discharges can be minimized by vacuum impregnation of
the insulation.
For high voltage applications, cast epoxy resin is solving many problems, but great care should be
exercised during casting. High voltage switchgear, bushings, cables, and transformers are typical devices
for which partial discharge effects should be considered in design.
It is the intensity of the electric field that determines the onset of breakdown and the rate of increase of
current before breakdown.
Therefore, it is very essential that the electric stress should be properly estimated and its distribution
known in a high voltage apparatus.
Special care should be exercised in eliminating the stress in the regions where it is expected to be the
maximum, such as in the presence of sharp points.
6. What are the gasses mainly used in insulating medium at high pressures? What is more suitable?
Why? What about its dielectric strength? Explain?
Air at atmospheric pressure is the most common gaseous insulation. The breakdown strength of air is of
considerable practical importance to the design engineers of power transmission lines and power apparatus.
Breakdown occurs in gases due to the process of collisional ionization. Electrons get multiplied in an
exponential manner, and if the applied voltage is sufficiently large in magnitude, breakdown occurs.
In some gases (Such as SF6 Sulphur Hexa Flouride), free electrons are removed by attachment to neutral
gas molecules; the breakdown strength of such gases is substantially large.
The breakdown strength of gases increases steadily with the gap distance between the electrodes; but the
breakdown voltage gradient reduces from 3MV/m for uniform fields and small distances to about 0.6MV/m
for large gaps of several metres.
For very large gaps as in lightning, the average gradient reduces to 0.1 to 0.3MV/m. High pressure gas
provides a flexible and reliable medium for high voltage insulation. Using gases at high pressures, field
gradients up to 25MV/m have been realized.
Nitrogen(N2) was the gas first used at high pressures because of its inertness and chemical stability, but
its dielectric strength is the same as that of air. Other important practical insulating gases are
carbon-dioxide(CO2), dichlorodifluoromethane(CCl2F
2
) popularly known as Freon , and sulphur
hexafluoride(SF6).
SF6 has been found to maintain its insulation superiority, about 2.5 times over N2 and CO2 at atmospheric
pressure, the ratio increasing at higher pressures.
SF6gas was also observed to have superior arc quenching properties over any other gas.
The breakdown voltage at higher pressures in gases shows an increasing dependence on the nature and
smoothness of the electrode material. It is relevant to point out that, of the gases examined to-date, SF6has
probably the most attractive overall dielectric and arc quenching properties for gas insulated high
voltage systems.
Ideally, vacuum is the best insulator with field strengths up to 10
7
V/cm, limited only by emissions from the
electrode surfaces. This decreases to less than 10
5
V/cm for gaps of several centimeters.
Under high vacuum conditions, where the pressures are below 10
-4
mm of Hg, the breakdown cannot occur
due to collisional processes like in gases, and hence the breakdown strength is quite high. Vacuum insulation
is used in particle accelerators, x-ray and field emission tubes, electron microscopes, capacitors, and circuit
breakers.