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An Overview . . .
Basic components of a biomedical system
Electrodes
Amplifiers
ECG
EEG
EMG
ERG
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o
o
o
o
o
Biological
System
Transducer
Signal
Processor
Feedback
Transform
Surgical
Tool
Measurement
Monitoring
Diagnosis
Surgery
Therapy
Block Diagram of a Generalised Bio Medical Instrument System
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Each switch position connects an instrument for measurement, for
monitoring, for diagnosis, for therapy or for surgery with the signal
processor
Transducer converts one form of energy or signal to another, its
output is always an electrical signal
Signal Processor amplifies, modifies or changes the electrical
output of the transducer
In the case of therapy, the signal is fed back to the biological system
through the feedback transform
In the case of surgery, a surgical tool is in contact with the biological
system
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Electrodes
Employed to pick up the electrical signals of the body
Hall cell potential voltage developed at an electrode electrolyte interface
Perfectly polarised electrodes no net transfer of charge occurs across the
metal electrolyte interface
Perfectly non polarisable electrodes unhindered exchange of charge is
possible across the metal electrolyte interface
Electrolyte paste - used to reduce the contact impedance
Types
Microelectrodes
Depth and Needle Electrodes
Surface Electrodes
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Microelectrodes
Have smaller diameter
No damage to the cells during insertion
To measure the potential they, located within the cell
Reference electrode is outside the cell
Types
Metallic
Non Metallic (Micropipet)
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R
FA
E
A
E
C
( t)
R
IN
R
EX
C
WA
R
WA
A
B
R
FB
R
WB
C
WB
R
A
R
B
R
S
C
D
o
o
Metal Microelectrode
E
B
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R
A
denotes the resistance of the connecting wire (negligible)
R
S
denotes the resistance of the shaft of the microelectrode (also negligible)
R
FA
, R
WA
and C
WA
constitute the impedance of the microelectrode tip
intracellular fluid interface
R
IN
is the resistance of the intracellular fluid
R
B
denotes the resistance of the connecting wire to the reference electrode
(negligible)
R
FB
, R
WB
and C
WB
constitute the impedance of the reference electrode tip
extra cellular fluid interface
R
EX
is the resistance of the extra cellular fluid
C
D
is the distributed capacitance between the insulated shaft of the
microelectrode and the extra cellular fluid
The capacitance between the tip of the microelectrode and the intracellular
fluid is negligible
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o
o
E
C
E = E
A
- E
B
R
FA
C
WA R
WA
C
D

A
B
Equivalent Circuit
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Since the area of the reference electrode is many times greater than
the metal electrodes tip whose area of cross section is very small, its
impedance is negligible
The impedance of the microelectrode tip is inversely proportional to
the area of the tip and frequency
When the electrode output is coupled with an amplifier, the low
frequency components of the bioelectric potential will be attenuated
if the input impedance of the amplifier is not high
Thus when the input impedance of the amplifier is not high enough,
it behaves as a high pass filter
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o
o
R
T
E
D
E
C
R
IN
R
EX
C
D
E
B
R
FB
R
WB
C
WB
E
A
R
FA
R
WA C
WA
R
A
R
B
A
B
Micropipet
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R
A
denotes the resistance of the connecting wire
R
FA
, R
WA
and C
WA
constitute the impedance of the electrode
electrolyte interface in the stem of the micropipet
R
T
is the resistance of the electrolyte filling the tip of the micropipet
(very large)
R
IN
is the resistance of the intracellular fluid
R
B
denotes the resistance of the connecting wire to the reference
electrode
R
FB
, R
WB
and C
WB
constitute the impedance of the reference
electrode electrolyte interface
R
EX
is the resistance of the extra cellular fluid
C
D
is the distributed capacitance between the fluid in the pipet and
the extra cellular fluid
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E
C
E
R
T
C
D

A
B
Equivalent Circuit
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C
D
is the equivalent of distributed capacitances
When the micropipet is coupled with the amplifier terminals A and
B, the membrane potential EC is coupled with it via a high series
resistance R
T
and a moderate shunt capacitance C
D
along with
electrode potentials
The impedance of the electrode places a limit on the response time
of the circuit
It behaves as a low pass filter when the input impedance of the
amplifier is not high enough
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o
o
o
o
Vo
V
2
V
1
.
.
e
1
e
2
R
i
R
i
R
f
R
f
Simple Differential Amplifier
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Since the input current to an ideal amplifier is zero and by the principle
of superposition, the voltage existing at the input terminal 1 is,
e
1 =
R
f
R
i
+ R
f
V
1 +
R
i
R
f
+ R
i
V
o
Voltage at input terminal 2 is,
e
2 =
R
f
R
f
+ R
i
V
2
Since the potential difference between the two input terminals of an
ideal amplifier is forced zero by the feedback through R
f
, the voltage e
1
must be equal to e
2
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Therefore,
R
f
R
i
+ R
f
V
1 +
R
i
R
f
+ R
i
V
o =
R
f
R
f
+ R
i
V
2
R
i
V
o
=
R
f
(V
2
- V
1
)
(or)
Thus the circuit amplifies the difference of the input signals V
1
and V
2
There is no virtual ground at the input to the amplifier in this circuit
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Modes of operation of the differential amplifier
Single ended mode either V
1
(non inverting mode) or V
2
(inverting) equal to zero
Differential mode the two input signals are equal but have
opposite polarity
Common mode the input signals are identical both in amplitude
and phase
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Isolation Amplifier
Used to increase the input impedance of the monitoring system in
order to isolate the patient from the bio medical instrument
Used so that any electrical fault in signal conditioning or other
circuits does affect the patient
Some isolation amplifier circuits . . .
Darlington Pair
Bootstraping Circuit
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o o
o
o
.
.
Q
2
Q
1
R
B
R
L
- V
BB
- V
CC
X
Y
Z
Z
i
Darlington Pair
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Darlington Pair
High input impedance with high current gain
Two transistors Q
1
and Q
2
are connected in common emitter
compound connecting circuits
The emitter terminal of transistor Q
1
is directly connected to the
base of transistor Q
2
The collectors of both transistors share a common load R
L
Q
2
provides negative feedback that serves to gain stabilize the
composite circuit
The input impedance is very much higher greater than that of a
single common emitter stage
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o
o
o
o
INPUT
OUTPUT
Q
1
Q
2
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
C
R
e
R
e
+ V
BB
Bootstraping Circuit
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Bootstraping Circuit
A feedback network is connected in between the emitter of Q
2
and
the collector of Q
1
The feedback voltage created b the bootstrap voltage dividing
network R
1
and R
2
is injected into the collector circuit of Q
1
An increase in signal level at the input of the circuit causes an
increase in signal through the divider at the collector, changing the
transistors bias point
This further increases the input impedance
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.
.
.
RA
LA
LL
RL
Electrosurgery
Filter
High Voltage and
Over Voltage
Protection
Lead Selector
STD
1mV
D.C.
Amp
Guard
Synchronous
Modulator
Modulator
Driver
Transformer
Synchronous
Demodulator
100 kHz
Oscillator
Rect.
&
Filter
Floating
Common
+ V
- V
Isolated Power
Transformer
ECG Isolation Amplifier Circuit
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The signals from the different leads are given to the low pass filter having a
cut off frequency of about 10 kHz
This is followed by high voltage and over voltage protection circuits
The signals are now into the lead selector switch which is used to derive the
required lead configurations
Its output is given to a d.c. amplifier ( also used for calibration purposes )
The primary of an isolated low capacitance power transformer is connected
with the 100 kHz oscillator
The secondary of that transformer along with the rectifier and filter is used to
obtain isolated power supply of + 6V
The synchronous modulator modulates the ECG signal from the d.c. amplifier
Another transformer is used to deliver the output from the modulator to the
synchronous demodulator
Its output is input to the power amplifier
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o
o
o
o
V
out
V
1
V
2
R
1
aR
1
aR
1
bR
2
bR
2
R
2
R
2
1
2
3
-
-
-
+
+
+
V
o
V
o
Medical Preamplifier Circuit
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Amplifies the differential signal and rejects the common mode signal
Consists of three operational amplifiers
First two are working in non inverting mode, but their inverting terminals
are not grounded
The feedback loops are connected with the inverting terminals
The third acts as a differential amplifier
With this configuration we get
High Stability
High Fidelity
High CMRR
High input impedance
By means of virtual ground, the inverting terminal of op amp 1 is fed by
voltage V
2
through R
1
and the inverting terminal of op amp 2 is fed by
voltage V
1
through R
1
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Chopper Amplifier
Used to convert the d.c. or low frequency signal into a high
frequency signal
Then this modulated high frequency signal is amplified by
conventional a.c. amplifier
The amplified signal is demodulated and filtered to get amplified
d.c. or low frequency signal
Types
Mechanical Chopper Amplifier
Non Mechanical Chopper Amplifier
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o
o
o
o
A
C D
S
1
o
o
V
o
V
i
P
Q
Chopper Amplifier Using a Mechanical Switch
M
N
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The chopper S1 is an electromagnetically operated switch or relay
It connects alternatively the input terminal of the a.c. amplifier A to the
reference terminal Q, which is usually connected to ground
When the amplifier input terminal is connected with Q, it is short circuited
and the input voltage is zero
When the chopper S1 is open, the amplifier receives the signal voltage from P
Therefore the input to the amplifier consists of an a.c. voltage varying from
zero to the value of the input voltage
A steady d.c. or slowly varying signal is chopped into a train of square wave
pulses having a frequency equal to the rate of the chopper
After amplification the chopped signal is rectified with a diode D
The rectified signal is then filtered and amplified d.c. is obtained at the
output terminals M and N
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Photo Diodes
Low Level
DC Input
o o
Amplified
DC Output
Oscillator
AC
Amp.
Modulator
Demodulator
PC
1
PC
2
PC
3
PC
4
Neon Bulb
(1)
Neon Bulb
(2)
Low Pass
Filter
Non Mechanical Photoconductive Chopper Amplifier
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The photoconductors or photodiodes are used as non mechanical
choppers for modulation and demodulation
When there is no light on the photoconductor, its resistance is so many
mega ohms, it is in the reverse bias and no current is allowed to flow
through it
When there is incident light on the photoconductor its resistance is very
low, it is in the forward bias and current can easily flow through it
Thus it acts as a switch by means of incident light
An oscillator is present which drives two neon bulbs into illumination on
alternate half cycles of oscillation
The neon bulb (1) gives flash of light on photoconductors PC
1
and PC
2
which are respectively connected at the input and the output
The neon bulb (2) gives flash of light on photoconductors PC
3
and PC
4
Low level d.c. is present at the input
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Whenever light falls on PC
1
its resistance decreases and input capacitor
charges
When there is no light on PC
1
and there is light on PC
3
, the input flows
through PC
3
By the alternate incident light, a square wave is produced across the
capacitor
Its amplitude is proportional to the input and frequency is equal to the
frequency of the oscillator
An amplified square wave voltage is obtained at the output of the amplifier
The two photoconductors PC
2
and PC
4
in the amplifier output circuit
recover the d.c. signal by their demodulating action and the output
capacitor becomes charged to the peak of the output voltage
Then this d.c. voltage is passed through a low pass filter to remove any
ripples and finally amplified d.c. output is obtained
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Electrocardiography
ECG deals with the study of the electrical activity of the heart muscles
Heart is divided into four chambers
The top two are atria and the lower two are ventricles
The right atrium receives blood from the veins and pumps it into the
right ventricle
The right ventricle pumps the blood into the lungs where it is purified
and oxygenated
The oxygen enriched blood enters the left atrium from which it is
pumped into the left ventricle
Then the left ventricle pumps the blood into arteries through aortic
valve for circulation throughout the body
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Each action potential in the heart originates at the Sino - Atrial (SA)
node which is situated in the wall of the right atrium and near the
entry of the vena cava
Also called as Cardiac Pacemaker and generates impulses at the
normal rate of the heart, about 70 beats per minute at rest
The action potential contracts the atrial muscle and the impulse
spreads through the atrial wall during a period of about 0.04 second
to the Atrio Ventricular (AV) node
The AV node acts as a delay line to provide timing between the
action of the atria and the ventricles
Then a special conduction system carries the action potential to the
ventricular muscles
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This system consists of a short common part (the bundle of His),
two bundle branches on each of the septum and fine Purkinje fibers
which arborize in the ventricular muscle
The atria and ventricles are functionally linked only by the AV node
and the conduction system
The AV delay is provided so that the atrial contraction can complete
the ventricular filling before the contraction of ventricles
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Physiological Nature of ECG Waveform
Origin Amplitude
(mV)
Duration
(seconds)
P Wave Atrial depolarisation or contraction 0.25 0.12 to 0.22
(P R interval)
R Wave
(QRS
complex)
Repolarisation of the atria and the
depolarisation of the ventricles
1.60 0.07 to 0.1
T Wave Ventricular repolarisation
(Relaxation of myocardium)
0.1 to 0.5 0.05 to 0.15
(S.T interval)
S T
interval
Ventricular contraction
U Wave Slow repolarisation of the
intraventricular (Purkinje fibers) system
< 0.1 0.2
(T U interval)
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ECG Lead Configurations
Usually surface electrodes are used with jelly as electrolyte between skin
and electrodes
The potentials generated in the heart are conducted to the body surface
The potential distribution changes I a regular an complex manner during
each cardiac cycle
So standardised electrode positions are chosen
Types of electrode systems
Bipolar Limb Leads (or) Standard Leads
Augmented Unipolar Limb Leads
Chest Leads (or) Precordial Leads
Frank Lead System (or) Corrected Orthogonal Leads
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Bipolar Limb Leads
In standard leads, the potentials are tapped from four locations
Right Arm
Left Arm
Right Leg
Left Leg
The right leg electrode is used as ground reference electrode
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. .
V
out
V
out
+
-
+
-
Lead I
Lead II
Standard Bipolar Limb Leads
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.
V
out
+
-
Lead III
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Lead I Position gives voltage drop from the left arm to the right arm
Lead II Position - gives voltage drop from the left leg to the right arm
Lead III Position gives voltage drop from the left leg to the left arm
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-
+ +
+ -
-
Lead I
Lead III
Lead II
Right Arm Left Arm
Left Leg
The Einthoven Triangle
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The closed path RA to LA to LL and back to RA is called the
Einthoven Triangle
According to Einthoven, in the frontal plane of the body the cardiac
electric field vector is a two dimensional one
The ECG measured from any one of the three limb leads is a time
variant single dimensional component of that vector
Along the sides of this triangle the three projections of ECG vector
are measured
Further the vector sum of the projection on all the three sides is
equal to zero
Thus, following Kirchoffs law, the R wave amplitude of Lead II is
equal to the sum of the R wave amplitudes of leads I and III
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. .
V
out
V
out
+
-
+
-
Lead aVR
Lead aVL
Augmented Unipolar Limb Leads
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.
V
out
+
-
Lead aVF
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Augmented Unipolar Limb Leads
The ECG is recorded between a single exploratory electrode and the
central terminal which has a potential corresponding to the center of
the body
Two equal and large resistors are connected to a pair of limb electrodes
The center of this resistive network acts as central terminal and the
remaining limb electrode acts as the exploratory electrode
A slight increase in the ECG voltage can be realized
The lead connections are
augmented Voltage Right arm (aVR)
augmented Voltage Left arm (aVL)
augmented Voltage Foot (aVF)
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o o
Defibrillator
Protection
Circuit
Lead
Selector
Bioamp
CM Reduction
Amplifier
Isolation
Transformer
Isolated
Power
Supply
Power
Supply
Output
Unit
o
o
a.c.
Power
1 mV
Calibration
1 k
1 M 1 V
aVR
aVL
aVF
C OFF
1
2
3
ECG Recording Set Up
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Electroencephalography
Deals with the recording and study of electrical activity of the brain
By means of electrodes attached to the skull of a patient, the brain
waves are picked up and recorded
Helps to diagnose
Level of consciousness
Sleep disorders
Brain tumors
Epilepsy
Brain death
Multiple sclerosis
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Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
Driver
Amplifier
Control
Unit
Pre
Amplifier
Input
Input
Input Trace Amplifier Writer
Block Diagram of EEG Recording Set Up
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Electromyography
Science of recording and interpreting the electrical activity of
muscles action potentials
The electrical activity of the underlying muscle can be measured by
placing surface electrodes on the skin
To record the action potentials of individual motor units, the needle
electrode is inserted into the muscle
The EMG indicates the amount of activity of a given muscle or a
group of muscles and not an individual nerve fiber
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.
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Input
EMG
Amp.
Oscilloscope
Tape
Recorder
A.F.
Amp.
Speaker
Block Diagram of EMG Recording Set Up
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The surface or needle electrodes pick up the potentials produced by
the contracting muscle fibers
Types of electrodes
Bipolar two surface electrodes
Unipolar one surface and one needle electrode
The signals are displayed on a cathode ray oscilloscope
The signals are also recorded in the tape recorder for future
reference
The sounds from the loud speaker can be used to diagnose the
neuromuscular disorders
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Determination of conduction velocities in motor nerves
The nerve function is examined directly at the various segments of the nerve by means of
stimulating it with a brief electric shock
By measuring the latencies the conduction velocity is calculated
Latency elapsed time between the stimulating impulse and the muscles action potential
Procedure
The EMG electrode and the stimulating electrode are placed at two points on the skin,
separated by a known distance l
1
A brief electrical pulse is applied through the stimulating electrode
When the excitation reaches the muscle, this contracts with a short twitch
The elapsed time t
1
, between the stimulating impulse and muscles action potential, is
measured
Process is repeated for distance l
2
< l
1
, the duration is t
2
seconds
The conduction velocity, v = l
1
l
2
t
1
t
2
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Electroretinography
Recording and interpreting the electrical activity of eye
All sense organs are connected to the brain but the eye has a special
relationship as the retina is the extension of the cerebral cortex
Potentials within the eye can be easily recorded because of its
exposed position
If the illumination of the retina is changed, the potential changes
slightly in a complex manner
The recording of these changes is called the electroretinogram
When light falls on the retina, the absorption of photons by photo
pigments localized in the outer segment of the retinas
photoreceptors takes place
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This causes the breakdown of photo pigments which results in the
liberation of ions that cause a change in the membrane potential
This in turn results in the development of action potential that is
transmitted down the optic nerve
This action potential is picked up by the electrodes and fed to the
bio amplifier and recorder
The recording set up is similar to ECG
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