TROPICAL METEOROLOGY

FOR 33
rd
LND OURSE
By
Masood Akhtar Khan, Deputy Director
INTRODUCTION TO THE TROPICS
In geographical terminology the tropics refers to the region of the earth bounded by the Tropic of
Cancer (lat. 23.5! and the Tropic of Capricorn (lat. 23.5"!. These are latitudes #here the sun
reaches the $enith %ust once at the summer solstice.
&n alternati'e definition #ould be to choose the region 3(" to 3() thereby di'iding the earths
surface into e*ual hal'es. +efined in this #ay the tropics #ould be the source of all the angular
momentum of the atmosphere and most of the heat.
But is this meteorologically sound,
"ome parts of the globe e-perience tropical #eather for a part of the year only . southern /lorida
#ould be a good e-ample.
0hile To1yo (32! fre*uently e-periences tropical cyclones) called typhoons in the orth#est
3acific region)
"ydney (34"! ne'er does.
5iehl (6787! chooses to define the meteorological tropics as those parts of the #orld #here
atmospheric processes differ significantly from those in higher latitudes.
0ith this definition) the di'iding line bet#een thetropics and the e-tra.tropics is roughly the
di'iding line bet#een the easterly and #esterly #ind regimes. 9f course) this line 'aries #ith
longitude and it fluctuates #ith the season. :oreo'er) in reality) no part of the atmosphere e-ists in
isolation and interactions bet#een the tropics and e-tra .tropics are important.
/igure abo'e sho#s a map of the principal land and ocean areas #ithin 4( latitude of the e*uator.
The mar1edly non.uniform distribution of land and ocean areas in this region may be e-pected to
ha'e a large influence on the meteorology of the tropics.
Bet#een the 0estern 3acific 9cean and the Indian 9cean) the tropical land area is composed of
multitude of islands of 'arious si$es.
This region) to the north of &ustralia) is sometimes referred to as the ~Maritime Continent, a term
that #as introduced by 5amage (672;!.
"ea surface temperatures there are particularly #arm pro'iding an ample moisture supply for deep
con'ection. Indeed) deep con'ecti'e clouds are such a dominant feature of the Indonesian 5egion
that the area has been called the boiler.bo- of the atmosphere. The Indian 9cean and 0est 3acific
region #ith the maritime continent delineated is sho#n in /ig. 6.2.
In fact) it is difficult to fi- any rigid limit to the boundary because of the fact that the atmosphere
#hich is considered in tropical meteorology is not bounded by any rigid barrier. /rom our
1no#ledge of the primary pressure system and the upper air structure #e 1no# that there are t#o air
current flo#s < one is easterly and the other is the #esterly) these are related in the lo#er atmosphere
#ith the surface pressure system. The boundary between these westerlies and easterlies may be
conveniently taken as the boundary of the tropical meteorology. These primary pressure belts or
the #esterlies and the easterlies do not remain fi-ed but they oscillate #ith seasonal oscillation of the
sun.
"o #e can ta1e the abo'e stated oscillating $one as the $one or boundary of tropical meteorological
area. But no part of the atmosphere can be considered as independent of each other. "o to understand
the tropical meteorological aspects #e ha'e to ta1e into consideration of the middle latitude aspects.
Tropical meteorology is characteri$ed by higher temperature) higher humidity and ma- #eather
intensity (CB formation is ma-imum!. ot the #eather as occur mostly in mid=higher latitude
regions #here fre*uency of #eather is higher) it occurs fre*uently.
Brief Planetary scale tropospheric systems
Planetary scale systems are atmospheric phenomena which last from several days to weeks,
extending over several thousand kilometres.
Zonal Pressure Belts:
If >rath had a uniform surface) t#o attitudinally oriented belts of
high and t#o of lo# pressure #ould e-ist in each hemisphere.
Equatorial low: The area near the e*uator #here ascending)
moist air leads to abundant rain. Inter Tropical Con'ergence ?one
(ITC?! is another name for this area) since it@s also #here the trade
#inds con'erge at the e*uator.
Subtropical Highs: The $ones of high pressure at 25.3(A and
". Bome to calm) clear) deserts. These features shift about a little
from season to season) but are considered semi.permanent.
Subpolar low: 0here the polar easterlies and mid.latitude
#esterlies clash to form a con'ergent $one.
Polar highs: ear the earth@s poles #here the air is incredibly cold) and continually sin1ing) there are more.
or.less permanent high pressure systems.
The annual $onal pressure belts ha'e been generali$ed in abo'e figure. In fact these belts are not continuous
but are composed of series of highs and lo#s) the a-es of #hich are elongated attitudinally.
Atmospheric Circulation
9ne #ay to get done the transfer of heat from the e*uator to the
poles #ould be to ha'e a single circulation cell that #as up#ard in the
tropics) pole#ard aloft) do#n#ard at the poles) and e*uator#ard at the
surface. This is the single-cell circulation model first proposed by Badley in
6835.
The single cell model can be true if and only if #hen #e assume thatC
6. The earth@s surface is uniformly co'ered #ith #ater
(so that differential heating bet#een land and #ater does not come into play!.
2. The sun is al#ays directly o'er the e*uator (so that the #inds #ill not shift seasonally!.
3. The earth does not rotate. (There is no Coriolis force!.
Coriolis Force
.#inds don@t appear to blo# in a straight line due to the >arth@s rotation
.Coriolis force is a deflection of #inds caused by the earth@s rotation
In the southern hemisphere the #inds deflect to the left
In the northern hemisphere the #inds deflect to the right
This is important because this is #hat sets storms into spinning.
Coriolis /orce can ta1es a cluster in the tropics and start them spinning) not along e*uator
D >*uator there is no Coriolis /orce
Eo# latitude ha'e #ea1 Coriolis force e*uatorial air into subtropics
"uch a simple cellular circulation does not actually e-ist on the earth. &ctual obser'ations sho# that a closed
circulation of air bet#een the e*uator and the poles is not the proper model for a rotating earth. But this model
does sho# us ho# a non.rotating planet #ould balance an e-cess of energy at the e*uator and a deficit at the
poles. &s #e 1no# in rotating >arth) Coriolis force deflects the mo'ing surface air to the right in the orthern
Bemisphere and to the left in "outhern Bemisphere.
Three Cell Circulation Model:
In the 672(s a three cell circulation model (for each Bemisphere! is proposed. &lthough this model
has been modified to fit upper air obser'ation) it remains a useful #ay to study global circulation.
In this model) the e*uator still remains the #armest location on the >arth. This area of greater heat
acts as $one of thermal lo#s 1no#n as the intertropical con'ergence $one (ITC?!. The Intertropical
Con'ergence ?one dra#s in surface air from the subtropics. 0hen this subtropical air reaches the e*uator) it
rises into the upper atmosphere because of con'ergence and con'ection. &fter reaching tropopause it begins
flo#ing hori$ontally to the orth and "outh 3oles. Coriolis force causes the deflection of this mo'ing air in
the upper atmosphere) and by about 3(A of latitude the air begins to
flo# from #est to east. The $onal flo# causes the accumulation of
air in the upper atmosphere as it is no longer flo#ing pole.#ard. To
compensate for this accumulation) some of the air in the upper
atmosphere sin1s bac1 to the surface creating the subtropical high
pressure $one. /rom this $one) the surface air tra'els in t#o
directions. & portion of the air mo'es bac1 to#ard the e*uator
completing the circulation system 1no#n as the Badley cell. This
surface mo'ing air is also deflected by the Coriolis effect to create
the ortheast Trades (right deflection! and "outheast Trades (left
deflection!. The surface air mo'ing to#ards the poles from the
subtropical high $one from 3(
o
latitude to 2(
o
is also deflected by
Coriolis acceleration producing the 0esterlies. 9n the >arthFs
surface at 2(A orth and "outh latitude) the subtropical 0esterlies
collide #ith cold air tra'eling from the poles. This collision results
in frontal uplift and the creation of the subpolar lo#s or mid.latitude cyclones. :ost of this lifted air is
directed to the polar 'orte- #here it mo'es do#n#ard to create the polar high.
& circulation thus de'elops bet#een 2(o and orth 3ole) #hich is called polar Cell. & similar polar
cell de'elops in the southern hemisphere. 9b'iously it may be concluded that bet#een the polar and Badley
Cells there may be also e-ist a middle latitude cell in each hemisphere called /errel Cell.
Planetary winds
The surface #inds forming part of the general tropospheric circulation are called 3lanetary #inds
because these flo# at the surface of planet earth. These are also called $onal #ings because these are
distributed $onally under the influence of $onal pressure belts.
Doldrums: (5
o
N - 5
o
S):
+oldrums is the area encircling the earth near the e*uator #here #inds) originating in the northern and
southern hemispheres come together. &t doldrums the #inds remain calm for a long period of time. The
doldrums appears as a band of clouds) usually thunderstorms) #hich circle the globe.
Trade Winds OR Tropical Easterlies (5
o
- 30
o
N/S):
This #inds blo# from subtropical high to#ards e*uator. The trade #inds blo# predominantly from the
northeast in the orthern Bemisphere and from the southeast in the "outhern Bemisphere. Bistorically)
because of their steadiness) the trade #inds ha'e been used by captains of sailing ships to cross the #orldFs
oceans for centuries.
Trade #inds blo#s from comparati'ely less #arm middle latitudes to more #armer tropical latitudes)
so these become more #armer and hence more capable to absorb 'apour i.e. more dryer (Trades losses its
ma-imum moisture on rising at e*uator!. "o these #inds are basically are dry) produce 'ery little
precipitation. This is #hy Trades are sometime called +eserty 0inds and #orld@s greatest deserts are found in
the areas under the influence of these #inds.
0hile mo'ing o'er the large oceans these #inds carry #ith huge amount of 'apour and gi'e plenty of
precipitation on eastern coasts but interiors and #estern coasts of continents remain depri'ed of any
significant rainfall.
Because these #inds blo# from less to more #armer regions) Trade #inds bring pleasant #eather and
clear s1ies #ith them. 5egions under the influence ha'e little rainfall but light pleasant #inds blo#s almost all
the times.
Westerlies (30
o
- 60
o
N/S)
The 0esterlies) anti.trades) or 3re'ailing 0esterlies) are pre'ailing #inds in the middle latitudes bet#een 3(
and 2( degrees latitude) blo#ing from the subtropical high pressure area to#ards the poles. 0inds are
predominantly from the south#est in the orthern Bemisphere and from the north#est in the "outhern
Bemisphere.
Because 0esterlies blo# from #arm lo# latitudes to#ards cool higher latitudes) they are #arm. 0hile
crossing the oceans) these #inds absorb a large amount of 'apour and on reaching cool landmasses gi'e huge
precipitation on 0est coasts. But interiors of continents remain dryer.
The 0esterlies are particularly strong) especially in the southern hemisphere) #here there is less land in the
middle latitudes to cause the flo# pattern to intensify. The strongest #esterly #inds #ith ra# chilly #eather
cloudy s1ies and high sea #a'es) are some to referred as the 5oaring /orties) or screeching fifties according
to their latitudes.
Polar Winds (65
o
N/S to Pole)
These #inds originate from the polar highs #hich ha'e 'ery cold) dense air and 'ery lo#) slanting solar
radiation. The air chilled by the cold polar surface) sin1s and flo#s out#ard to sub.polar lo#s) mainly as
northeasterly surface #ind in the northern hemisphere) as southeasterly in the southern hemisphere.
+ue to the presence of large oceanic #ater and 'ast &ntarctic glaciers) these #inds are much intense in
southern hemisphere. In the northern hemisphere) polar easterlies remain under the influence of different
season e.g. during #inter easterlies gi'e plenty of sno#fall and affect a large area.
Cross section of tropospheric circulation
The inter-tropical convergence zone( ITCZ) and the Hadley cell
The trade #inds con'erging at a high angle at the e*uatorial trough) the "doldrums") form the inter-
tropical convergence zone GITC?H. The air in the trade #ind belts is forced to rise in the ITC? and
large *uantities of latent heat are released as the #arm) moist maritime air cools to its condensation
temperature. &bout half the sensible heat transported #ithin the atmosphere originates in the ( <
6(A beltI and most of this sensible heat is released by condensation in the to#ering cumulus rising
#ithin the ITC?
A secondary convergence zone of trade-wind easterlies, the South Pacific convergence zone,
branches off the ITCZ near Paua-!ew "uinea e#tending south-easterly and showing little seasonal
change in location or occurrence$
9'er land masses the trade #inds bring con'ecti'e cloud #hich de'elops into hea'y layer cloud
#ith embedded thunderstorms #hen the air mass is lifted at the ITC?.
The ITC? is the boiler room of the Hadley tropical cell #hich pro'ides the circulation forming the
#eather patterns) and climate) of the "outhern Bemisphere north of 4(A". The lo#er le'el air rises in
the ITC? then mo'es pole#ard at upper le'els < because of the temperature gradient effect < and is
deflected to the east by Coriolis) at heights of 4( ((( < 5( ((( feet) #hile losing heat to space by
radiati'e cooling.
The cooling air subsides in the sub.tropic region) #arming by compression and forming the sub.
tropical high pressure belt. 3art of the subsiding air returns to the ITC? as the south.east trade #inds
thus completing the Badley cellular cycle. %The syste& is na&ed after "eorge 'adley ()*+,-)-*+.,
a /ritish &eteorologist who for&ulated the trade wind theory0
&t latitudes greater than about 3(A" the further southerly mo'ement of Badley cell air is limited by
instability due to conser'ation of momentum effects and collapses into the 5ossby #a'e system
described in section 4.8 belo#. The Badley cell and the 5ossby #a'e system) combined #ith the the
cold) dry polar high pressure area o'er the ele'ated &ntarctic continent) dominate the "outhern
Bemisphere atmosphere. /ifty per cent of the >arthFs surface is contained bet#een 3(A and 3(A" so
the t#o Badley cells directly affect half the globe.
The sub-tropical anticyclones
The subsiding high le'el air of the Badley cell forms the persistent sub.tropical high pressure belt) or
ridge) encircling the globe and usually located bet#een 3(A" and 5(A". 0ithin the belt there are
three semi.permanent year.round high pressure centres in the "outh Indian) "outh 3acific and "outh
&tlantic 9ceans. In summer anticyclonicity also pea1s in the Jreat &ustralian Bight.
In #inter the high pressure belt mo'es north#ard #ith the high o'er the Bight e-tending and
migrating into a large semi.permanent #inter anticyclone o'er "outhern &ustralia.
The Indian 9cean centre produces about 4( anticyclones annually #hich) as they de'elop) slo#ly
pass from #est to east #ith their centres at about 3;A" in /ebruary and about 3(A" in "eptember. The
anticyclones) or warm-core highs) are generally large) co'ering 6(A of latitude or more) roughly
elliptical) 'ertically e-tensi'e and persistent) #ith the pressure gradient #ea1ening to#ards the
centre. The anticyclones are separated by lo#er pressure troughs each containing a cold front.
0inds mo'e anticloc1#ise around the high) #ith easterlies on the northern edge and #esterlies on
the southern edge. &ir mo'ing e*uator#ard on the eastern side is colder than air mo'ing pole#ard
on the #estern side. The high le'el subsiding air spreads out chiefly to the north and south of the
ridge due to the higher surface pressures in the east and #est. Thus the position of the sub.tropical
high belt dominates &ustralian #eather. In summer) #hen it is centred %ust south of the continent)
sub.tropical easterlies co'er much of &ustralia) #ith monsoonal mo'ement in the north. In #inter the
belt being further north allo#s the strong cold fronts) embedded in the #esterlies) to affect "outhern
&ustralia < refer section 5.2
The Antarctic polar high and the sub-polar low belt
The lo#est surface temperatures on >arth occur at the &ntarctic continent) minus ;( AC or less) the
'ery dry air allo#ing any long #a'e radiation to escape #ithout any appreciable atmospheric
#arming. The cold.core Antarctic polar high is *uite shallo#) 5((( to 6( ((( feet deep) decreasing
in intensity #ith height) #ith a 'ery steep in'ersion and an e-tensi'e upper le'el lo# aloftI the
combination of high pressure and lo# temperatures producing 'ery dense air.
The air mo'ing in an anti.cloc1#ise direction around the anticyclone produces the surface outflo#
belt of polar easterlies) but o'er the high altitude icecap) tropospheric circulation consists of mid and
upper le'el inflo# and 1atabatic outflo# in a shallo# surface layer. %A &onthly &ean 1atabatic wind
of ,+ 1nots has been recorded at Co&&onwealth /ay0$ Kery cold air masses) and minor highs) can
split off the main &ntarctic air mass) follo#ing passage of a ma%or cyclone) and mo'e north#ards in
#inter bringing the 'ery cold &ntarctic continental=maritime air to#ards &ustralia. By contrast) due
to the &ntarctic ice cap ele'ation of 2((( to 63 ((( feet) "outhern 9cean storms usually due not
penetrate the &ntarctic region south of &ustralia and surface pressure mainly depends on ele'ation.
& series of deep lo#s) usually centred bet#een 5(A" and 2(A" and tending further south during the
e*uinoctial periods < the Antarctic sub-polar low belt < surround the the &ntarctic polar high #ith
the boundary bet#een the t#o systems being formed by the polar easterlies. This boundary bet#een
the intensely cold continental air and the #armer) moister polar maritime air is termed the Antarctic
5ossby #a'e
Atmospheric Rossby waves are giant meanders in high.altitude #inds that are a ma%or influence on
#eather.
G6H
They are not to be confused #ith oceanic Rossby waves) #hich mo'e along the
thermoclineC that is) the boundary bet#een the #arm upper layer of the ocean and the cold deeper
part of the oceanfront.
One can identify a Rossby wave in that its phase velocity (that of the wave crests)
always has a westward component. However, the wave's group velocity
(associated with the energy flux) can be in any direction. In general, shorter
waves have an eastward group velocity and long waves a westward group
velocity.
Rossby waves and the westerly wind belt
Lpper #esterlies blo# o'er most of the troposphere bet#een the ITC? and the upper polar front but
are concentrated in the #esterly #ind belt #here they undulate north and south in smooth broad
#a'es #ith one) t#o or three semi.stationary) long #a'e) pea1s and troughs occurring during each
global circumna'igation and a number of distinct mobile short #a'esI each about half the length of
the long #a'es.
The amplitude of these mobile Rossby waves) as sho#n on upper atmosphere pressure charts) 'aries
considerably and can be as much as 3(A of latitude. Then the airflo# rather than being
predominantly east=#est #ill be a#ay from or to#ards the pole. The gradient #ind speed in the
e*uator#ard s#ing #ill be super.geostrophic and the speed in the pole#ard s#ing #ill be sub.
geostrophic.The pole#ard s#ing of each #a'e is associated #ith decreasing 'orticity and an upper
le'el high pressure ridge and the e*uator#ard s#ing associated #ith increasing 'orticity and an
upper trough.
+o#nstream of the ridge upper le'el con'ergence occurs) #ith upper le'el di'ergence do#nstream
of the trough. This pattern of the 5ossby #a'es in the upper #esterlies results in compensating
di'ergence and con'ergence at the lo#er le'el) accompanied by 'orticity and the subse*uent
de'elopment of migratory surface depressions < lo#s or cyclones %cyclogenesis0 and the
de'elopment of surface highs or anticyclones %anticyclogenesis0.
The long #a'es do not usually correspond #ith lo#er le'el featuresI being stable and slo# mo'ing)
stationary or e'en retrograding. Bo#e'er they tend to steer the more mobile mo'ement of the short
#a'es #hich) in turn) steer the direction of propagation of the lo# le'el systems and #eather.
The s#ings of the 5ossby #a'es carry heat and momentum to#ards the poles and cold air a#ay
from the poles. The crests of the short #a'es can brea1 off lea'ing pools of cold or #arm air)
assisting in the process of heat transfer from the tropics. 0a'e disturbances at the polar fronts
perform a similar function at lo#er le'els.
&n upper le'el pool of cold air) an upper low or cut-off low or upper air disturbance) #ill lead to
instability in the underlying air. The ter& cut-off low is also alied to an enclosed region of low
surface ressure which has drifted into the high ressure belt, i$e$ cut off fro& the westerly strea&, or
is cradled by anticyclones and high ressure ridges$ Si&ilarly the ter& cut-off high is also alied
to an enclosed region of high surface ressure cut off fro& the &ain high ressure belt %refer
2bloc1ing airs2 section ,$30 and to an uer level ool of war& air which is further south than
nor&al 4 also ter&ed upper high.
The upper air thickness charts) used in a'iation flight planning) sho# the 'ertical distance bet#een
t#o isobaric surfaces) usually 6((( h3a is the lo#er) and the upper may be 8(( h3a) 5(( h3a or 3((
h3a. The atmosphere in regions of less thic1ness) upper lo#s) #ill be unstable and colder #hereas
regions of greater thic1ness) upper highs) tend to stability. 9n these charts #inds blo# almost
parallel to the geopotential height lines.
Upper level jet streams
Lpper air flo# in the Badley cell is mo'ing to about 3(A" latitude #hile cooling and e'entually
subsiding) forming the sub.tropical high pressure belt or ridge. &pplying the principle of
conser'ation of momentumC the rotation at the e*uator is 424 metres=second #hile at 3(A" the
surface rotation is 4(2 m=sec) thus at 3(A" a molecule of upper air transported from the e*uator has a
surplus momentum of 22 m=sec or 622 1nots. This surplus momentum forms the #esterly sub-
tropical jet stream) #hose a'erage 'elocity is 62( 1nots.
The polar front jet streams are embedded in the upper le'el #esterlies) sna1ing north and south
daily and seasonally #ith the mo'ement of the polar front depressions. They e-ist because of the
strong thermal gradient in that area and they are regions of ma-imum upper.le'el air mass transport.
&s they meander pole#ards and e*uator#ards #ith the general upper air #a'es they tend to steer) by
their sheer mass) the mo'ement of ma%or lo#.le'el air masses) encouraging de'elopment of surface
pressure features) and intensification of pre.e-isting features) by the concentrated
con'ergence=di'ergence #ithin the %et stream. The %et streams are stronger in the #inter #hen the
polar front is closest to the e*uator.
Met streams are not continuous but can be as much as 3((( < 5((( 1m long) 6(( < 3(( 1m #ide and
8((( < 6( ((( feet deep. &bout 2(N of the #idth tends to be on the e*uatorial side of the core #hich
is located near the tropopause. 9'er &ustralia core #ind speeds normally range from 2( < 65( 1nots)
but occasionally reach 2(( 1nots. The #ind speeds usually decrease by 3 < 2 1nots per 6((( feet
abo'e and belo# the core but the rate may reach 2( 1nots per 6((( feet. Bori$ontally the #ind
speeds are diminished by about 6( 1nots per 6(( 1m distance from the core. Met stream cirrus may
form on the e*uatorial side of the core.
The centre of activity in tropical area:
The centre of acti'ity lies in .B. #hen there is summer in the .B. and #inter in) ".B. and it lies in
".B. #hen there is summer in the ".B. and #inter in the .B.
Briefly #e can say the centre of acti'ity of tropical area lies in the summer hemisphere. It is because
of the shift the pressure pattern all o'er the globe due to the sun@s position.
Meteorological equator
It is the line #here the center of acti'ity of tropical meteorology lies either in .B. or ".B.
Difference between mid and high latitude and tropical latitude:
:id and Bigh Eatitude Tropical Eatitude
6 Temperature is lo#
"mall e'aporation
.. lo# rain also sno#.
Temperature is high
>-cessi'e e'aporation
e-cessi'e rain (in *uality usually no sno#
(e-cept hills!
2 /orecasting &nalysisC /rontal fails useful
in e-tra tropical $one.
/orecasting &nalysisC
/rontal fails in tropics
"urface and C.3. chartsC In e-tra tropical
these are good enough
3IE9T charts are not used
In e*uatorial region) countries li1e Indai
:alasaya Indonesia do not use C.3. charts
as an aid in forecasting
In 3a1istan 0e need surface) C.3. and
contour for #eather analysis in tropical
region.
3 The coriolis factor is dominant in mid and
high latitude
Coriolis factor is not 'ery effecti'e and is
$ero at e*uator
4. +ifferent airmasses (&)3c)3m etc.! are
present in these regions) so the frontal
acti'ity is ma- (li1e cold) #arm fronts
etc.!. >-tra tropical cyclones are common
features.
&ir masses are almost of same in
characteri$es (i.e. Tc) Tm) >!. Therefore)
the frontal acti'ity is not present in this
region.
5. The temp gradient in mid and higher
latitude region is much higher (O 6(
o
C!
latitude #ise.
In tropical region) the temp gradient is not
much (O5
o
C! latitude #ise as there is mostly
one air mass present.
2. In this region periodicity found in #eather
systems) i.e. it repeats on daily or #ee1ly
basis it occurs 'ery fre*uently.
3eriodicity is absent in tropics) It may
occurs in months or in other #ords.
no periodicity
In tropical region) the #eather li1e rain)
thunderstorm) dust storm and etc. occur at
the same time is different days. It may
repeat itself periodically.
8 +iurnal #eather absent in e-tra tropical. +iurnal repetition of #eather is in tropics
; The change in pressure in 24 hours is
about 6( h3a in #inter #hene'er a front
crosses a region. I is because of this that
presence change is ta1en for 3 hours.
The pressure change is about 6 h3a in 24
hours. In tropical region t#o terminology
are used for pressure changeC
(i! 24 hours change (day #ise!
(ii! 24 hours departure (from normal!
The change and departure #ill combinely
help in forecasting a system=#eather
appearance and mo'ement or dissipation.
7. In mid latitude regions (3 hours change in
pressure is recorded due to the mar1ed
change in it #hich may be as high as e*ual
to 6(h3a in 24 hours.
In tropical regions) 24 hours pressure
change is recorded because the change in
pressure is nominal (6h3a in 24 hours! in
this region.
6( The #ind ad%usts itself #ith the change in
pressure. In mid and higher latitude the
time of ad%ustment is *uic1ly as compared
to tropical area.
In tropical area) the time ad%ustment is
much more than mid and higher latitude. It
ta1es more time (#.r.t. pressure change!
about 4.2 hours.

1. Pressure and wind -climatological aspects.
2.6. 3ressure < main /eatures.
/rom the primary pressure system of the earth@s surface #e 1no# that the t#o subtropical areas in
the t#o hemispheres are the high pressure areas 1no#n as subtropical anticyclones #hose a-is
loosely ta1en as 3(
th
parallel. The e*uatorial area from the boundary of these subtropical
anticyclones is 1no#n as equatorial trough@ commonly 1no#n as doldrums.
This equatorial trough also oscillates #ith apparent seasonal oscillation of the sun and the mean
a-is of the trough is at 5A" in Manuary and at 62.65A in Muly. Thus the trough migrates = through
2(A latitude as bet#een the seasons. It is this mo'ement the equatorial trough #ith smaller
mo'ement of the subtropical anticyclones lead to the seasonal 'ariation of #eather.
+ue to the une*ual distribution of the land sea in the t#o hemispheres the annual mean position of
the equatorial trough is not on the Jeographical e*uator i.e. (A but around 5A this position is
called the thermal e*uator or the meteorological e*uator.
The a-is of the ". t. anticyclones appro-imately 3(A or " are symmetrical #ith the thermal e*uator
and also mo'es north or south #ith the sun out only through 5A latitude appro-imately.
The mean sea le'el pressure can be represented graphically as follo#s.

Figure
Mean Sea level pressure
a! The inter'ening belt bet#een the ridges and >. T. is much broader in #inter than in summer
hemisphere.
b! The sub tropical ridge pressure is practically the same in both the hemisphere 'arying
from 6(65 hpa in summer and 6(2(hpa in #inter.
c! The atmospheric mass in the tropics decreases from #inter to summer but does not
escape completely to the polar regions.
The belt bet#een the sub tropical anticyclones in the t#o hemispheres occupies by the #inds
1no#n as Trades. The #inds bet#een ". T. &. and e-ist of the >. T. in the orthern
hemisphere is 1no#n as > Trades and similarly the "outhern hemisphere is "> Trades. The
mean #idth of these belts in both the hemisphere is appro-imately the same and roughly the
latitudes on 3(A and 25A".
The mean surface #ind flo# in . B. in summer and in #inter is sho#n.

Figure
Trade winds
2.3 The resultant surface winds (vector means)
The #ind analyses in the follo#ing diagram is meant only for the ocean areas. &s it is difficult to
treat the continental #ind in this #ay because they are effected by topography and friction.
Figure
5esultant ". 0. direction for Manuary ("olid ! P Muly (+ashed ! 3.0. pre'ailing
#esterlies
(a! Direction .
If may be seen form the diagram that the #ind direction ta1es abrupt change form the temperature
$one to tropical $one across the subtropical anticyclones. The #esterlies lie at the top and bottom of
the diagram e-tending up to 35A in Muly3(A Manuary and 33A" in Muly and 4(A" in Manuary
appro-imately.
The #ind changes from #est to east through orth in the . B. and through "outh in ". B. This
implies a net flo# of air to#ard the e*uator in both the hemispheres.
The trades are >> ((5(A.(8(A! in . B. and >"> (66(A.63(A! in ". B.
(b! Speed .
(6! it may be seen that there are four belts
of high #ind speed in each season < the trades
#esterlies in each hemisphere.
(2! The #ind speed is stronger in #inter hemisphere
Than in summer hemisphere because the length of tra'el is
longer in #inter that in summer.
(3! The lo# #ind speed may be "een to occur o'er the regions of
"ubtropical anticyclones P >*uatorial trough.
2.4 Constancy of wind.
The abo'e diagram is also 1no#n as 'ector.mean #ind speed (light! 5eihl.It may be noted that the
'ector mean does not necessarily tell us 'ery much about the actual #ind speeds at any place. /or
e-ample a 'ector mean #ind speed of $ero could mean either
(a! calms or light 'ariable #inds or
(b! e*ual number of alternating > P 0 #inds of considerable strength (#hich cancels each other out
in the 'ector resultant!..
The character of climate in these t#o cases #ould be *uite different and it #ould sho# up if #e are
to compute the scalar mean #ind speed (the a'erage #ind speed regardless of direction!.
(>-erciseC gi'en the four #inds (7(=25) 28((3( (7(=25) 23(=2( #hat is the 'ector mean and "calar
mean!
/IJ
5esultant surface
#ind
9#ing to the 'arying #ind direction) the magnitude of the 'ector means (K5! of a series of #ind
obser'ation is lies than the scalar mean (Ks!. Then the *Qthe percentage constancy or steadiness of
the #ind direction is defined.
K5
* RSSSSSSSSSSSSS- 6((
K"
If * R 6((N the K5 R K" so the #inds are un'arying in direction
but not necessarily in speed . the #ind direction is 6((N constant.
If * R 6((N then K5 R) () no matter #hat is the 'alue of K" < and means that #inds are e*ually
strong in all direction < There can be no preferred direction and the constancy is ( N
The constancy of the Trade #inds is 74N and 8(N #ithin 5A of e*uatorial trough.
The constancy or steadiness of the #inds is a useful feature to ha'e in mind #hen forecasting the
#inds.
2.5 Mean wind in the troposphere.
&s #e go higher in the troposphere) the data becomes scare but 'arious month mean charts for the
tropic ha'e been produced.
Jenerally the #ind system is the tropics are much steadier than in the temperate latitudes.
/IJ
+iagram sho#ing the position ".T. &. in Muly at the surface and at 3(( = 2(( mb.
/rom abo'e diagram it may be seen that near the surface there is noticeable con'ergence to#ards the
e*uator but this becoming much less as #e go higher.
ear the surface the angle at #hich stream line cut the isobars in the Trade #ind belt 'aries bet#een
2(A . 5(A but at the higher le'els stream line follo#s the contour fairly closely.
The sub tropical highs are a feature of upper le'el as #ell as at the surface. The centers of the
anticyclones in both at the hemispheres are nearer the e*uator at high le'els than they are at the
surface.
/IJ
+iagram sho#ing the &'erage location of the sub tropical ridge along 3(A > P
88A>
Kery roughly the a-is of the high centers inclined to#ards the e*uator at a slope 6=3((from the
surface to the 8(( m and 6=6(( from 8(( to 3(( mb.
In the trade #ind latitudes the commonly occurring >asterly #inds near the surface changes
to #esterlies at some upper le'el. This le'el 'aries from day to day and is an important feature for
forecasting. The base of the #esterlies and the trend of any 'ariation) in its le'el can usefully be
follo#ed in a time section chart.
"ynoptic features such as rain belt or lines of thunderstorm tend to be steered by the
strongest or deepest flo# in their 'icinity in the lo#er layer and middle troposphere. This flo# may
be >asterly or 0esterly.
Cloud = rain systems building up in the lo#er hemisphere normally mo'e #est#ards #ith the
pre'ailing lo# le'el >asterly #inds.
But some times) the cloud build up to a great height or the base of the #esterlies gradually lo#ers
and the effect of #esterly #inds may become predominant and control the mo'ement of the rain belt
ma1ing it to more east#ards bac1.
9'er the e*uator itself) the tropospheric #ind patterns are rather comple- and 'ariable. an o'er the
#ide region of >*uatorial 9cean our 1no#ledge is still 'ery scanty.
Met streams are an important feature of the upper air #ind flo# in certain part of the tropics. 3olar
front %ets come do#n to the boundaries of the tropics. &t times) #ind o'er 2(Tt from a roughly
#esterly direction #ith 6(( 1ts) ma-imum at le'els around 3((.2((hpa may be found in latitude
do#n to 3(A) particularly in #inter (ma- speed 6;(1ts) in Manuary!.
The subtropical %et #ith strong steady 0esterly #inds f 6((1t or more mainly around 2((hpa. as a
semi permanent feature of the upper air from .&frica to India and China around 25A .3(A #inter.
(ma-. speed 65( 1ts in Manuary!.
In the orthern Bemisphere summer) #ith strong beating o'er orth India and ad%oining 3a1istan
and the resultant >asterly thermal #inds bet#een there and the e*uator < an >*uatorial >asterly %et
de'elop o'er the India 9cean #ith its core at 65(. 6((mb and speed about ;(.6((m M ma-. "peed
62(1t in Muly.
2.6 Mean Wind at stratosphere.
9ur 1no#ledge about #ind of the stratosphere is 'ery scanty.but at the present all records agree that
the #inds are easterly in the stratosphere of the summer hemisphere and that these easterlies
increases to great height. But in the #inter hemisphere there may be easterly or #esterly in the
stratosphere.
Bo#e'er e'en in #inter hemisphere reports of >asterly #inds are common) though their speed is
less and their direction more 'ariable than in summer.
/rom the T5&T&T9 2A " 6(5A> in 6;;3 'olcanic eruption sho#ed the mo'ement of 'olcanic
clouds in the stratosphere from east to #est. It too1 nearly one month for the cloud to spread
laterally #ithin the tropics but it too1 more than t#o months for crossing the subtropics in the
northern hemisphere. It pro'es that mass transfer from the tropics to temperate $one is slo#.
3almer found out from) atomic Bomb test during :arch to :ay 6756) bet#een e*uator and 8 that
the #esterlies in stratosphere #ere most steady at 8()((( ft. #hile the #inds from all directions
occurs at 2()((( and 7()((( feet.
"ome curious features ha'e been disco'ered in particular areas for e-ample o'er the e*uatorial
3acific at height around 5(hpa (2;((( ft.! the #ind e-hibit a roughly 22 month periodicity
alternately from #esterly for the first 63 months to easterly for the ne-t 63 months to easterly for the
ne-t 63 months and so on. The reason for that is yet to disco'er.
3. Temperature.
3.6 Seasons in the tropics.
In the tropics moisture is more important than temperature in determining the character of the
different seasons. Thus most places e-perience #et and dry seasons rather than hot summer and cold
#inters as in temperature latitudes. Bo#e'er in any gi'en latitude in the tropics the time of rainy
season 'aries around the globe and this is due to the strong different healing bet#een land and sea.
3.2 Surface Temperature.
The annual mean temperature over the equatorial zoneC
The mean annual range is e'ery #here small about 6AC in this area but in the desert regions in lat
bet#een 25.3(A and " the annual range increased to 65A . 2(AC.
The mean annual temperature is higher o'er the land than o'er the sea in any latitude since the
strong summer insolation o'er land.
The mean sea surface temps are generally higher in the #estern part of the ocean then in eastern part.
This is a conse*uence of the pattern of the mean surface #ind flo# around the permanent subtropical
anticyclones.
The highest mean temperatures are closely associated #ith the position of the e*uatorial trough..
"o the annual mean ma-imum temperature #ill be near the 5A < Muly ma-imum in 2(A and
Manuary ma-imum in 5A".
In Muly the highest temperature is at 2(A and not at62.65A i.e. slightly north of the e*uatorial
trough because of the intense heating of the e-tensi'e orthern. Bemisphere sub tropical desert.
The annual range of temperature at 3(A is 63AC P 3(A" the annual range is 8AC.
"outhern tropics is slightly cooler than northern tropics. The difference being 6.5AC at 6(A )2.3AC at
2(A and 6.7AC at 3(A.
Upper Air temperature.
The range of seasonal change in temperature is #ithin 6.2AC) nearly similar to the surface seasonal
temperature range. The free$ing le'el in the tropics is appro-imately 65.62((( ft. and the tropopause
temperature is bet#een 85 to ;(AC (55(((ft. appro-imately!.
The important feature of this upper air structure is pronounced in'ersion of temperature in the lo#er
troposphere o'er the eastern part of tropical oceans. This in'ersion is 1no#n as trade #ind in'ersion.
It is generally formed belo# 6()((( feet and 'ery often around 2(((.5((( feet. belo# this in'ersion
the air is 'ery moist and the lapse rate is steep. &bo'e the in'ersion the lapse rate is still steep but the
air dry.