Chapter 3

Radar receiver
'Little Sir Echo, how do you do?'
3.1 Scanner - receiving
As reciprocal devices, scanners receive incoming signals from the same volume of
space illuminated on transmission. The receive and transmit gains, radiation patterns,
sidelobes and polarisation are identical. Gain benefits both the transmit and receive
legs, so increased gain is doubly beneficial to detection of weak targets.
Most marine radars use linear polarisation in which the electric field exists in
one plane, sometimes vertical but usually horizontal. Antennas can always efficiently
receive the polarisation which they transmitted. Passage through the atmosphere does
not significantly affect ray polarisation; most targets and sea clutter also more or less
preserve the incident polarisation when they reflect. Any depolarisation to plane
polarised signals is allowed for by a reduction of the nominal radar cross section
(RCS) of the target or clutter. Targets and sea clutter are therefore received by plane
polarised scanners without ostensible polarisation loss.
A circularly polarised (CP) electric vector proceeds corkscrew fashion. The nearly
spherical shape of raindrops causes CP rays to be reflected at the opposite hand so, in
principle, rain clutter is rejected by the scanner. In practice the drops wobble between
oblate and prolate spheroidal as they fall and are imperfect spheres, so scanners have
some residual ellipticity and CP does not entirely eliminate rain clutter. To CP, target
depolarisation reduces RCS of many ship targets by a few decibels, so stronger echoes
are received with linear polarisation. Overall, a good CP scanner can give very useful
improvement of signal to rain clutter ratio, 20-30 dB, completely outweighing the
reduction in target RCS. Snowflakes are by no means spherical so CP is inferior to
plane polarisation except in rain.
3.2 Receiver input
3.2.1 Rotating joint or sliprings
The scanner is connected to the remainder of the radar by a rotating joint or by
sliprings. Although used on transmit as well as receive, any defects in these com-
ponents have more effect on the receive function. Waveguide rotating joints contain
short vertical lengths of coaxial transmission line on the axis of rotation, with tran-
sitions to waveguide above and below. Metal to metal contact is obviated by choke
sections, an open-circuit a quarter-wavelength distant appearing as a 'conductor',
on the principle of a mismatched feeder. Coaxial feeders also use contacting or non-
contacting coaxial rotating joints. When the receiver mixer andpre-amplifier are aloft,
the sliprings also carry LO, IF and power feeds. Alternatively, a transformer may be
used with rotating primary and static secondary windings to obviate noise from dirty
sliprings. Rotating joint losses are incorporated within published scanner overall per-
formance figures when the scanner forms part of the scanner/turning gear assembly,
the usual case except in some VTS systems. Rotating joints and sliprings, particularly
the contacting variety if in poor mechanical condition, can introduce cyclic or random
signal fluctuation or noise which interferes with the detection process. The effect is
difficult to quantify.
Ohmic losses in the scanner, rotating joint and feeder (if used) introduce thermal
noise as well as attenuation.
3.2.2 Receiver protection
The receiver must be protected from transmitter pulse breakthrough. Not only would
it be swamped, paralysing it from reception for many microseconds and spoiling
short-range performance, but the high power would also burn out the input stage,
which will safely withstand only about a watt instantaneous maximum, or 10~
7
J
(joule; = 1 erg) integrated through the pulselength. Alternative protection and duplex-
ing arrangements are shown in Figure 3.1. Low-power radars may use a PIN diode
switch in the receiver path. Positive, Intrinsic, Negative are the forms of silicon
comprising the device. The transmitter pulse drives the diode to a low-impedance
state, short-circuiting the receiver terminals to keep transmitter power out. More
powerful modern radars may have twin PIN diodes, tuned respectively to magnetron
frequency and magnetron principal spurious output frequency, for example, E2V
Technologies' Dupletron arrangement.
Within older powerful radars, breakthrough is controlled primarily by a transmit-
receive (TR) cell in the receiver input. The cell is a section of waveguide a centimetre
or so long, sealed by quartz windows at its ends and containing a 'gas' of particularly
short de-ionisation time (~2 |xs), such as water vapour at absolute pressure M).O1 bar.
Relatively weak incoming echoes pass unscathed but the strong transmitter pulse strips
electrons from the gas molecules. The resulting negative electrons and positive ions
conduct freely, short-circuiting the guide to shut the receiver off from the transmission
circuit; Figure 3.1 (a). A mild source of radio-activity and/or a 'keep-alive' d.c. low-
current discharge speed initiation, but may introduce some additional noise. About
Figure 3.1 Duplexer and receiver protection. If the magnetron is buffered from load
long line' mismatch by an isolator (not shown), POM is referenced to
the isolator rather than the magnetron
50 mW leaks through, preceded by a stronger leakage spike during the 10 ns taken for
the cell to fire, so the TR cell may be backed by a fast spike protection PESf switch.
After the transmission, the gas takes a few microseconds to de-ionise, meanwhile
protecting the receiver against feeder ring signals (Chapter 2, Section 2.6.4). While
de-ionising, TR cell attenuation (incorporated within the swept gain attenuation) and
the noise generated by the ionised gas affect reception of short range echoes. Unless
the TR cell is failing, recovery is complete within a few tens of microseconds, before
full receiver performance is needed to detect weak targets at moderate range. The
TR cell and in particular the PIN switch also protect the receiver from powerful
transmissions picked up from other radars as interference.
About 0.5 dB of transmitter power is lost to the arc. Un-ionised, insertion loss
in the receiver arm is similar. These design losses are included within the published
radar performance parameters. TR cells gradually deteriorate. The gas 'cleans up' ,
being partially adsorbed by the metal walls, particularly when severe scanner or feeder
mismatch has been working the cell hard. De-ionisation time increases and protection
is impaired. Spike energy breakthrough may then permanently damage the detection
efficiency of the receiver, whose noise factor deteriorates, spoiling detectability of
distant weak targets. This slow and insidious process may not be recognised by
the operator, and is a main reason why it is essential to make routine performance
checks; Section 3.13. Such losses are allowed for in calculations by a service loss
term, typically 2 dB two-way.
3.2.3 Duplexer
The scanner is connected to the transmitter and receiver by a duplexing device, often
a circulator. This non-reciprocal multiport device uses molecular spin properties
of a ferromagnetic material within the field of a built-in permanent magnet.
(a) Circulator; transmitting (b) Tee duplexer; transmitting (c) Tee duplexer; receiving
Receiver protected Receiver protected Echo to receiver
Magnetron firing Magnetron firing
Magnetron short-circuit
at POM
Effective short-circuit
nX/2 from POM
Return from scanner
Several us to de-ionise
with loss and noise, then
acts as plain waveguide
Swept gain
d.c. control current
can vary attenuation.
To scanner
Arcs across waveguide
Short-circuit TR cell
PIN diode
TR cell leakage energy
causes short-circuit
Quick acting
Protection
PIN diode
PIN diode
Incident energy low
TR cell
Circulator
Echoes flow from
Port 2 to Port 3
Reflections from 2 to 4 via 3
To scanner
Duplexer
Effective
short-circuit
nX/2
Reflections shown dotted
Various feeder mismatches
TR cell
if used
Fourth-port load
(if used)
Figure 3.1 (a) shows input to port 1 (transmitter) emerges at port 2 (scanner); input at
2 emerging at port 3 (receiver). A fourth port, not always provided, may be connected
to a resistive load and improves the match seen by the magnetron, benefiting its
spectrum. When the transmitter fires, energy reflected from the inevitable scanner-
circuit mismatches are routed to the receiver port, firing the receiver protection
device, which then presents a short-circuit, reflecting the mismatch energy to the
fourth-port load, whose good match absorbs it all. Circulator loss (0.25 dB) is usually
included within transceiver published parameters. The circulator routes echoes to port
3, feeding the receiver.
Alternatively, a waveguide tee junction duplexer may be used. A TR cell or
PIN diode placed an integral number of half-wavelengths away causes the duplexer
receiver port to appear short-circuited, routing all the transmitter power to the scanner;
Figure 3.1(b). The position of minimum impedance (POM) of the magnetron is
similarly spaced, so when it presents a bad match after firing, it too appears as
a short circuit, routing echoes to the receiver; Figure 3.1(c).
3.3 Receiver and filter
3.3.1 Overview
After traversing the rotating joint, feeder and protection circuits, the echo and
clutter signals enter the receiver proper, all at transmitter frequency except for a
few specialised racon targets discussed in Chapter 8, which can respond at an offset
frequency. Each scatterer delivers a packet of several pulses each scan; Figures 3.2(a)
and (b).
If number of pulses in packet = n, scanner azimuth beamwidth = 0 rad and
scanner rotation rate = r rpm,
Of 60 \ 0
n = prf x scan time x = I prf x I x
2TT y r J 2n
n
= 9.55 x prf x - pulses per packet. (3.1)
For example, Figure 3.2(b) is drawn for lOOOpps, 30rpm and 1 beamwidth, 0 =
0.0175 rad, n = 5.57. The prf is not synchronised with scanner rotation and non-
integral n signifies individual packets fluctuate between 5 and 6 pulses. The figure
excludes environmental effects such as target roll which may make individual pulses
fade quasi-randomly, either sweep to sweep or scan to scan.
It is often sufficient to assume that all pulses within the beamwidth have full
scanner gain on transmit and receive, with scanner gain zero elsewhere; Figure 3.2(c).
This rectangular assumption introduces the beamshape loss discussed in Chapter 2,
Section 2.7.15, targets slightly off-axis being credited too much gain.
The functions of the receiver are to amplify echoes to a level easily handled by the
signal processor, convert them to baseband or video frequency, preserve information
content represented by pulse shape and spectrum, introduce as little distortion and
(c) Rectangular beam approximation to (a)
Figure 3.2 Echo pulse packets. Packet received as each scan sweeps across target.
Number of pulses in packet proportional to prf. Rectangular approxi-
mation assumes all returns in beamwidth encounter full scanner gain,
all other returns being ignored
additional noise as possible and control bandwidth by filtering, so delivering the
optimum signal to noise ratio (SNR).
Target and clutter scatterer motions have similar velocities, giving similar Doppler
frequency spectra and precluding use of the moving target indication (MTI) technique
so common in aeronautical and military radar. The signal to clutter (but not signal to
noise) ratio is almost independent of receiver bandwidth, but not of transmitter pulse-
length, which alters the illuminated footprint. The echo spectrum replicates that of the
transmitter, possibly trivially modified by dispersion in a waveguide feeder, Chapter 2,
Section 2.6, which would cause the higher frequency components to lead slightly.
Echoes may be as low as -12OdBW (10"
12
W, 1 pW), 16 orders of magnitude
feebler than transmitter power, a huge ratio equivalent to a penny to a major State's
gross domestic product for a century.
Chapter 4 will show that, speaking very generally, echo strength follows the
inverse fourth power law, rising as range is halved by a factor of 2
4
= 16(12 dB).
n pulses per beamwidth, here n = 5.57
Azimuth beamshape loss (shaded)
(b) Short range, high prf 2000 pps, rotation 30 rpm
Pulse envelope
set by scanner pattern
Scanner half-power
0 First scan
(a) Long range, low prf
15 ms 1000pps, rotation 30 rpm 2.0 s Second scan Time
P
o
w
e
r
P
o
w
e
r
P
o
w
e
r
For example, a 0.001 m
2
target at 1 km returns the same echo power as a 10 m
2
target
at 10 km. To reduce the dynamic range of echoes, overall gain is made to rise with time
from the instant of pulse transmission, full gain being reached at fairly long range, say
10-20 km, equivalent to 65-130 |xs. Swept gain, discussed further in Chapter 12, is
introduced by insertion early in the receiver of a swept gain attenuator, often formed
by a PIN diode attenuator preceding or immediately following the initial microwave
amplifier, to prevent later stages developing cross-modulation output components
when a small echo is surrounded by high clutter spikes.
Conventional printed circuit boards are too lossy at microwave frequency, so
the input circuits use microstrip, a form of transmission line printed as a metal-
strip conductor pattern, with surface-mounted components, on a low-loss sapphire or
alumina substrate backed by a metallic ground plane. The substrate is about the size
of a couple of postage stamps and a millimetre thick. Microstrip propagates rather
like an opened-out coaxial cable.
The TR cell recovery characteristic, if applicable, is also utilised and sometimes
the protective PIN diode is biassed. Swept gain is adapted to the current clutter input,
augmented by the operator's swept gain or sensitivity time control (STC, Chapter 12,
Section 12.7.2). The control is advanced to reduce sea clutter, which primarily occurs
at short range.
The microwave amplifier is specially designed for low noise, usually using
a pair of GaAs FET (gallium arsenide field effect transistor) stages. It feeds
the mixer. Complete receiver front ends, sometimes integrated with the transmit
microwave components, are often procured by radar manufacturers from specia-
list suppliers. After the initial microwave low noise amplifier (LNA, alternatively
known as a microwave integrated circuit, MIC) and the mixer, the IF signal is
further amplified, then detected to give an output at baseband, as shown in Chapter 2,
Figure 2.10(c).
Although several controls, Figure 3.3, are provided to optimise target detection,
we cannot always assume that they have been set to suit the target in question. For
example, the operator may be primarily concerned with a nearby echo, while keeping
an eye on more distant traffic, accepting some reduction in its detectability.
3.3.2 Receiver noise
If targets reflected steady echoes and no noise or interference returns intruded, we
could increase receiver amplification until targets of interest at indefinitely long range
registered a strong echo, or we could reduce transmitted power and save money. As
usual, life is less easy. Thermal noise can never be avoided. Together with unwanted
clutter from precipitation and the sea, noise limits the smallest echo detectable by any
given radar. The noise limit is dictated by the fundamental laws of physics. Design
imperfections may prevent achievement of the theoretically possible performance, but
under no circumstances can that performance be exceeded. Nonetheless, the Writer
of the laws of physics has been kind to the marine radar community, enabling small
and relatively cheap effective radars to be produced with sufficient performance for
most purposes.
Figure 3.3 Main controls of a modern radar. Simplicity of use, with all settings
shown on alpha-numeric panels of display. Reproduced by permission
of Kelvin Hughes Ltd, Ilford UK
Beside noise fluctuations, the echo usually fluctuates also. The detection task
boils down to maximising detection of wanted targets while minimising unwanted
false alarms from the intruders; both usually fluctuating in strength.
The fundamentals of thermal noise summarised here are fully discussed in
Chapter 11, Section 11.2. Thermal noise arises when current flows in a resistor of
any kind, including semiconductors and feeders, so all the receiver components con-
tribute some noise. The first amplification stage dominates the noise performance of
the whole system because its noise is amplified most. Great care is therefore taken
to minimise noise sources prior to amplification, and the noise generated within the
first stage of the receiver.
Noise is a random variation of voltage, hence power, uniformly distributed
through all frequencies as 'white noise' unless restricted, as it always is in practice,
an observation bandwidth being implicit in all statements of noise. The sine wave,
pulse or pulse train waveforms already considered follow definite patterns. Once we
have 'cracked the code' we can state with confidence the instantaneous voltage at any
time, past or future. Noise is different; it is random and there is no 'code'. Noise is
often best described in terms of power density - power per unit bandwidth. Figure 3.4
shows (a) a sample of noise within a wide bandwidth, (b) the same sample after fil-
tering to a narrow bandwidth (with the same noise power density), and then (c) after
re-amplification to the former power level, event X being represented by Y after a
bandwidth-dependent delay. The number of separate noise events per second is the
reciprocal of the bandwidth; the rounded form of (c) shows the event rate to be less
than (a). Another sample would look the same in general form but quite different in
detail, just as no two sea waves are identical. The instantaneous voltage amplitude
has Gaussian or normal statistical distribution; Figure 3.5 is the probability density
function, discussed further in Chapter 11, Section 11.2. Occasionally spikes have
several times the rms amplitude. Noise is the antithesis of a sine wave's -Jl times rms
Voltage relative to rms
Figure 3.5 Probability, Gaussian noise or clutter. There is a small but finite
probability that noise and clutter events may substantially exceed the rms
voltage. Until the statistics are detailed in Chapter 11, noise powers and voltages are
to be understood to be average or rms values, subject to Gaussian distribution unless
specifically stated otherwise.
Because noise is random, all that can be said is that, averaged over a time interval
much longer than the event rate:
power, measurable on a wattmeter, will average a certain amount;
the statistical distribution of instantaneous voltage will be Gaussian.
Figure 3.4 Noise voltage waveform. Passage of wide-band noise (a) through
a narrow-band low-pass filter (b) reduces amplitude. When amplitude
is restored (c), the original amplitude distribution is restored, although
the narrow bandwidth makes changes sluggish. Events such as X
occasionally considerably exceed the rms, irrespective of bandwidth.
Bandwidth reduction imposes a short delay, to Y
True range of event Apparent range Time (proportional to range)
(b) After narrow-band filter (right-hand scale)
(Series of 840 events, Gaussian distribution)
(c) Narrow-band noise amplified to 1V rms (heavy line)
(a) Wide-band noise, 1 V rms
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
It can never be quite certain whether any event such as X represents a noise
spike or a target echo. Precipitation clutter amplitude is noise-like with Gaussian
distribution, although the spectrum is set by the transmitter. Sea clutter is also rather
similar. Under adverse conditions clutter power far exceeds noise.
At the receiver input average noise power, P
n
, is
P
n
= HkT
0
BW (3.2a)
where k is Boltzmann's constant (1.381 x 10~
23
J/K), T
0
is absolute temperature
(conventionally taken as 290 K, 17C. K stands for Kelvin; measured from the abso-
lute zero of temperature. Degrees Celsius or centigrade = Kelvin 273.3; degrees
Fahrenheit = 1.8 K 460) and B is the bandwidth under consideration, hertz. Excess
over the lowest noise power theoretically attainable for the bandwidth is described
by the receiver noise factor, n. The equation is frequently put in decibel terms, where
noise figure N= lOlogn:
P
n
= N + 10 log B - 204 dBW. (3.2b)
Because clutter rather than noise often dominates detection performance, the
bother of cryogenic cooling to reduce T
0
has not been found worthwhile. Increasing
amplifier gain to increase a weak signal also increases the noise and does not improve
SNR. Great care is therefore taken to minimise the noise factor of the first amplifier
stage. Although noise sets a definite limit to the useful sensitivity of all amplifiers,
even before bandwidth is limited, noise power is never remotely high enough to
damage the amplifier. Putting = 10
6
MHz (1000 GHz) gives JcT
0
B = 4 x 10~
9
W,
whereas the most sensitive electronic devices can generally withstand 1Ox 10~
3
W
without difficulty.
Beside internally generated noise, the scanner gathers galactic noise, approxi-
mately equal to the noise contribution of a resistor of the same value as the radiation
resistance of the scanner (a few hundred ohms) and usually insignificant.
Mixers have rather poor noise figure so are often preceded by a specialised
microwave low noise amplifier with N ~ 3.5 dB. The noise contributions of the
mixer and succeeding stages, and of the scanner, feeder protection system and swept
gain attenuator at its maximum gain setting, are usually accounted for by assuming
the input stage has a rather poorer noise figure and generates all the noise. The noise
figure so defined is properly the system noise figure, 'system' often being omitted.
Although radar data sheets usually quote the system noise figure less the installation-
specific feeder, sometimes called the overall noise figure, occasionally the first stage
noise figure is given; if so, the overall figure will be slightly (~ 1.5 dB) higher. Attain-
able noise figures are mildly frequency dependent, the 14 GHz band being a couple of
decibels worse than the 3 GHz band, with the 9 GHz band intermediate. Placing the
low noise amplifier adjacent to the scanner in effect prevents the feeder receive-leg
attenuation from degrading the system. Reducing receiver gain by insertion of swept
gain attenuation of course increases the system noise figure. This is immaterial since
only relatively large echoes need be detected at such times. If radar has to share its
frequency allocations with telecommunication services, additional telecomms mod-
ulated continuous wave signals will be received. Their format will appear noise-like
and may degrade the radar system noise figure by about 1 dB.
As an example of practical performance, a receiver having 5 dB overall noise
figure and bandwidth 13 MHz (10 log 13 = 11.1) has equivalent input noise power
5 - 144+11.1 = -127.9dBW.
3.4 Superhet receiver and mixing
3.4.1 Superheterodyne principle
Direct microwave amplifiers are inconvenient and expensive. Modern radars usually
have a low noise microwave pre-amplifier, containing a simple microwave ampli-
fier, gain ~ 1OdB, followed by frequency conversion or mixing to an intermediate
frequency (IF) of around 50MHz where the lower frequency makes amplification
much easier, cheaper and controllable. Finally, the signal is demodulated to give a
unidirectional pulse replica of the echo at video frequency or baseband, with spectrum
resembling that of the transmitter modulator. Video voltage is of the order of a volt,
suitable for digital processing; Chapter 2, Figure 2.10 refers.
3.4.2 Mixing
Mixing shifts the signal bodily down to a much lower frequency, where it is easier
to process. The mixer is sometimes called a down-convertor, first demodulator or
first detector. Figure 3.6 illustrates one of its simpler forms. At (a) a weak microwave
echo signal, / M, is shown connected by centre-tapped transformer Tl so that when its
primary drives secondary terminal (x) +ve, the other terminal (y) goes ve. Tl feeds
a network of diodes and thence another centre-tapped transformer, T2, and an output
bandpass filter. Tl centre-tap is driven with a strong continuous sine wave from a
microwave free-running local oscillator (LO) whose frequency is / LO- Its power is a
few mW, much higher than the signal power, (b) shows that when the LO output is
positive diodes Dl and D4 are driven into the linear conduction region, connecting
Tl to T2 directly; D2 and D3 are reverse biased and cannot conduct. But on negative
LO half-cycles (c), Dl and D4 are biased off and D2, D3 conduct, reversing the signal
connection to T2. The diodes act as reversing switches and do not rectify the signal.
Transformer Tl is not wire-wound but realised in microstrip or within a waveguide
'magic tee'. The LO waveform always contains some phase and amplitude noise,
manifested as jitter in the switching instants and variation in the 'on' resistance of the
diodes, but fully symmetrical mixer circuits such as the one shown, called balanced
mixers, keep LO noise out of the signal channel. Because originally mixer diodes used
crystalline compounds like the old 'cat's whisker' radio detectors, they are sometimes
still called detector crystals, not to be confused with quartz oscillator crystals.
Balanced mixers have a noise figure around 8 dB, so receivers without LNAs
have slightly worse system noise figures, say 9 dB.
Figure 3.6(d) is the microwave signal burst voltage waveform /
m
, (e) is the LO
voltage / LO and (f) is the signal at T2 output. A much lower frequency component
/ I F is clearly visible, emphasised at (g) by passage through a simple low-pass filter.
Because the LO merely switches, IF amplitude must be proportional to the microwave
Figure 3.6 Mixer. The weak microwave signal beats (is mixed) with a microwave
local oscillator to give a difference-frequency signal at intermediate
frequency suitable for amplification and filtering. Diagrammatic
signal strength. The two waveforms are multiplied within the mixer (hence sometimes
called a multiplicative mixer), beating together to produce sum and difference fre-
quencies. The microwave sum frequency is discarded. The difference at IF, shown
bold in the following equation, is accepted. Note that with the narrow pulselength
shown there are less than three cycles of IF.
If the signal and LO reference voltages are, respectively, A sm{27rst + 0) and
1.0 sin (2jrrt),
output voltage = signal x reference = A cos(2nst -f 0) x sin(27rrO
= ^[sin(2;r(r + s)t + 0] - ^[sin(27r(r - s)t + 0)]. (3.3a)
Note that signal amplitude, A, and phase, 0, information are preserved. However, the
latter is in fact lost when LO frequency is non-coherent and r is not exactly known.
(g) Filtered IF output /
I F
High frequency components filtered out, difference frequency accepted
Polarity reversed whenever LO negative
(f) Mixer output
(e) Local oscillator f
LO
Continuous wave Continues
(d) Signal /
c
plus sidebands Time (Pulse width ~ 0.05 us)
Pulse finish
Pulse start
(a) Circuit diagram
Local oscillator, 9360MHz
(b) Signal path, LO +ve
P o l a r i t y r e v e r s e d
(c) Signal path, LO -ve
Signal
Difference
frequency
output
Low-pass filter Centre-tapped transformers
/ LO may be higher or lower than /
m
. Where operator | | denotes the modulus
of the expression:
/lF = l / m- / LO| . (3.3b)
3.4.3 Local oscillator
The LO may be a Gunn oscillator containing a special-purpose gallium arsenide
(GaAs) diode fed at d.c. via a radio-frequency blocking inductor. The Gunn diode char-
acteristic includes a current fall as voltage is raised. This negative resistance cancels
the loss in a tuned circuit, causing continuous oscillation at a frequency determined
by the tuned circuit and the diode transit time. Alternatively, a FET transistor may be
used in an oscillating positive feedback amplifier. Formerly, reflex klystron valves
were used. In non-coherent systems the LO frequency is subject to similar but smaller
frequency shifts to some of those in the magnetron. The LO is electronically tuned,
often by application of a quasi d.c. voltage to a varactor variable-capacitance diode in
its resonant circuit, keeping it approximately in step with magnetron frequency. Error
is detected within a double balanced mixer integrated circuit, which performs as a
frequency-determining phase sensitive detector in the processing section. Beside this
automatic frequency control (AFC) servo loop, a manual tuning control and indicator
are sometimes provided. Error cancellation is not perfect. The AFC has a limited
range, which if exceeded, may throw off to a large error, grossly degrading receiver
performance. The AFC loop must be reset when the magnetron or LO is renewed.
Performance calculations implicitly assume correct AFC operation.
Because in non-coherent systems the phasing of the LO relative to the magnetron
was neither controlled nor measured at time of transmission, echo phase cannot
be measured relative to that of the transmission and this information component is
irretrievably lost. This is immaterial when there is only one pulse, but integration gain
of non-coherent systems relative to their coherent cousins is lower, increasing more
slowly with N
9
the number of pulses in the packet. The integration loss (relative to
perfect integration) approaches A/TV numerically or 5 log Af dB, so is greatest when
there are many pulses in the packet, on short-range scales where prf is the highest;
Chapter 12, Section 12.6.
3.5 IF amplifier, demodulator and video sections
3.5.1 IF section
The intermediate frequency subsystem or strip contains several amplification stages
with gain stabilised by feedback, utilising transistor integrated circuits, interspersed
with the bandpass filters. The demodulator or second detector converts the signal to
a unidirectional video or baseband pulse, which after further amplification feeds the
processing system.
For the typical frequencies shown in Figure 3.6(a) and Chapter 2, Figure 2.10,
the IF is a line spectrum at 50 MHz. This bearer represents the microwave carrier.
A sideband component of the modulation /
m
, say +10 MHz on the 9410 MHz centre
frequency, would cause an IF sideband at 60MHz, also offset 10 MHz from the
IF bearer, confirming that the spectrum and pulse shape of the microwave signal
are preserved, shifted bodily down in frequency by the mixing process. There is
a tendency to raise intermediate frequency above 50MHz as better amplifier chips
become available, as signal processors become more elaborate and when very short
pulses may be transmitted.
Echo strength varies very widely between, say, a small buoy at long range and
a large ship at short range. Unless the receiver has enough dynamic range, strong
signals overload its later stages, causing saturation and unwanted stretching of the
pulse, destroying some of the information in the echo and introducing range error.
Very strong echoes may give the receiver such a bout of indigestion that reception is
paralysed for a few microseconds, spoiling reception of nearby targets.
Automatic gain control (AGC) sets gain at long range to maintain maximum
tolerable noise and clutter, which optimises detection of weak targets, helping
to reduce dynamic range to manageable proportions. At short range, even small
targets return strong echoes and full sensitivity is not needed. A manual gain control
enables the operator to optimise performance on the target of greatest current interest.
Dynamic range is usually improved by inclusion of a non-linear logarithmic amplifier
(Section 3.5.7).
3.5.2 Filter
Unless the target is long enough to cover a significant range bracket, the echo reach-
ing the radar receiver reproduces the pulse shape and spectrum of the incident signal,
at drastically reduced amplitude. All the timing information, essential for determina-
tion of target range, is carried in the sidebands. The receiver must therefore deliver
substantially all the sideband energy to the demodulator.
When a noisy signal passes through a wideband amplifier the noise is also ampli-
fied - SNR can only be reduced by reduction of bandwidth (P
n
oc B, Eq. (3.2a));
magnifying a photograph does not improve its contrast. For efficient echo detec-
tion SNR must be optimised, using a frequency selective filter to pass frequencies
containing some noise but also most of the signal, hence preserving most of the timing
information within it, while blocking those frequencies with noise but little signal.
Two or more successively narrower IF band-pass filter stages are usually included,
so bandwidth reduction is gradual, reducing the risk of strong signals causing ringing
and ghost echoes behind the displayed echo pulse. Stand-alone filter blocks in the
signal path are often aided by frequency-dependent feedback within the amplifiers.
If filter bandwidth is too wide, all the frequency components of the signal are
indeed accepted but with much noise, noise being proportional to bandwidth. If
bandwidth is too narrow, signal and noise are both attenuated, letting the baby out with
the bathwater; the pulse is also broadened, spoiling range accuracy. Matched filters
in which the attenuation/frequency characteristic matches the pulse spectrum give
best signal to noise ratio but may slope the echo pulse edges too much to determine
the exact instant of arrival, introducing navigationally undesirable range error to
displayed plots, degrading ARPA or ATA track prediction and demanding extra AFC
accuracy. The amplitude/frequency transfer function is the complex conjugate of the
Fourier transform (in frequency domain) of the signal pulse shape.
However, there is little loss of SNR when the filter response shape differs consid-
erably from the matched case. Extra IF bandwidth also has to be retained to cover the
residual tuning error, degrading SNR. On long-range scales, where receiver band-
width is least, residual tuning errors may cause some loss of receiver sensitivity,
further spoiling SNR. IF bandwidth is therefore often made rather wider than the
matched value, some loss of SNR being accepted in return for preservation of as much
signal data as possible to better preserve timing information. Such a filter is termed
a matching filter. The minimum necessary bandwidth, B
n
, which must be retained
to preserve the shape of the echo pulse, length r, to permit range determination is
similar to Chapter 2, Eq. (2.2d):
Bn- . (3.4)
In practice, somewhat wider receiver bandwidth is often used at the expense of
a dB or so poorer SNR
to preserve signal data and avoid loss of ranging accuracy;
to facilitate operation of twin displays set to differing range scales;
to ease local oscillator tuning accuracy.
When pulselength is restricted to permit highest available prf on short range scales,
IF bandwidth is occasionally made somewhat less than necessary bandwidth.
In system performance calculations, where the filter shape is in general not
known, the receiver passband is usually assumed rectangular, called an abrupt or
hard filter. Frequency components away from band centre are then credited with too
much gain, introducing a bandshape loss in the same fashion to the beamshape loss
of Section 3.3.1 (Figure 3.2). Figure 3.7 shows the similar spectra of rectangular and
Gaussian (minimum spectral width) pulses and a hard filter response. The beamshape
loss is shaded for the rectangular pulse; the Gaussian pulse loss is similar.
For most transmitted pulse shapes the matched filter bandwidth is quite close to
1/r. For purposes of system performance calculation, rather than entering detailed
analysis of pulse shape and filter shape, the following simplifying assumptions are
usually made, with little error:
filter is hard, with zero loss in passband and infinite loss at all other frequencies.
Although not manufacturable, the concept is useful;
signal pulse is rectangular;
filter output contains all the signal energy;
filter output contains noise power equivalent to filter bandwidth;
filter bandwidth is assumed to be 1/r (some prefer to use 1.2/r) unless actual
value is known;
Figure 3.7 Filter responses
reduced noise pick-up just within the passband does not fully offset additional
noise just beyond, so filtration introduces a filter weighting loss to account for
the earlier approximations; Figure 3.7. Loss is somewhat dependent on assumed
bandwidth as well as shape but is between 1 and 3 dB when bandwidth is near 1 / r .
3.5.3 Linear and square-law demodulators
The second demodulator determines whether the IF amplifier output contains a can-
didate echo. Figure 3.8(a) shows a diode current/voltage characteristic curve. An
alternating voltage applied to the anode gives positive half-cycles at the cathode, neg-
ative half-cycles being blocked, rectifying the input signal to d.c. with a residual a.c.
component. Following radio practice, the process is often called detection. We prefer
the alternative term demodulation, reserving detection for the overall determination
of whether a signal contains a candidate echo. Figures 3.8(b) and (c) are circuit dia-
grams of simple half-wave and full-wave demodulators. The latter uses centre-tapped
transformer Tl to collect information from negative as well as positive components
of the IF waveform. When the a.c. is an IF pulse burst (d), a unidirectional pulse is
produced at (e). The a.c. component is removed by a smoothing capacitor as shown
at (f). The capacitor accepts charge on peaks and holds the voltage intermediately.
It acts as a low pass filter, inherently introducing a small time delay. Radar second
detectors are generally driven well into the diode linear region, and here video output
voltage is proportional to microwave signal voltage, forming a linear demodulator.
Direct microwave rectification with no mixer or IF stage gives a video-frequency
pulse direct from a microwave pulse. Although inefficient, this may suffice within a
racon for direct demodulation of the transmissions of interrogating radars (Chapter 8,
Section 8.2.5). Near the origin, diode current rises proportional to V
2
, so diode
-0. 5/T IF frequency 0.5/T Frequency
Rectangular pulse
(heavy line)
Gaussian pulse
Rectangular approximation
Rectangular and Gaussian
spectra nearly identical
within 0.5/T of centre
Filter weighting loss represents
difference between vertically and
diagonally hatched areas
P
o
w
e
r
Figure 3.8 Diode demodulator. The smoothed output forms the video signal
rectifiers are called square-law demodulators. Video voltage is proportional to input
signal power, typical sensitivity into a 1 k2 load is 1 mV per 1 |xW input, efficiency
approximating 0.1 per cent. Efficiency is improved somewhat by a small forward
current bias (~50 |xA d.c), putting the signal on the most curved part of the V/I
characteristic and reducing the microwave characteristic impedance to a few hundred
ohms, matching the feed impedance. Receivers having direct microwave detection
are sometimes called crystal-video receivers. When biassed, typical 9 GHz minimum
detectable signal is 72 dBW for 2 MHz video bandwidth.
Demodulators of coherent systems take the form of multiplicative mixers, the
output frequency being the difference between IF and COHO frequencies, Chapter 2,
Sections 2.2.4 and 2.2.5, Figures 2.11(6) and (c). A pair of demodulators is used,
accepting in-phase and quadrature IF and COHO components (derived via 90 phase
shifters) and delivering in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q) video components, their
joint amplitude being proportional to echo amplitude, while their relative amplitudes
convey the signal phase information.
3.5.4 Factors affecting detection
Despite swept gain, the receiver input voltage/output voltage relationship or transfer
characteristic must support events when the noise and clutter are at their maximum;
(e) Demodulated echo Vy (light line, Cl not fitted)
(f) Smoothed video (heavy line)
Cl and Rl decay exponentially
Cl makes V
w
follow signal positive peaks after first few cycles
(d) Echo pulse
Duration 0.05-1.0 us
End Start
(a) Diode
At low voltage
l~V
2
~P
S i
g
n a l s o u r c e
Smoothing capacitor Cl
(b) Half-wave rectifier (c) Full-wave rectifier
Amplitude V
s
V, volts
Load Rl
Diode Dl
V
s
Anode Cathode
At high voltage I ~V
that is the receiver as a whole must have sufficient dynamic range to support strong as
well as weak signals without clipping off (limiting) which destroys the information
in large events. As well as provoking reflections from feeder mismatch (Chapter 2,
Section 2.6.2), excessively strong echoes or clutter can also drive the receiver into
paralysis or induce damped oscillation, dumping or repeating nearby targets. Severity
of these overload effects is a matter of detail design and difficult to quantify.
3.5.5 Detection cells
The signal processing system divides the surveillance area into a matrix of detection
cells, each covering an area of roughly pulselength x (range x azimuth beamwidth).
Big cells cover more surface area so pick up more sea clutter. They also cover more
atmospheric volume, getting more precipitation clutter. Thermal noise is indirectly
increased by small cell length, for receiver bandwidth has to be wider for short pulses.
Small cells, matched by narrow pulselength and large scanner aperture (narrow
beamwidth) are desirable to:
give crisp display of weak targets, somewhat improving the operator's perception;
improve signal to clutter ratio unless the target is big enough to overflow the cell;
resolve adjacent targets, which otherwise merge; often a main reason for giving
VTS stations such large scanners;
increase position accuracy, necessary for accurate ARPA/ATA track prediction;
but narrow cells have fewer hits available for integration, especially in the case
of fast crossing targets whose angular velocity changes azimuth bearing per scan
by more than a cell width.
3.5.6 Effect of range scale selection
At long range in benign clutter, the receiver can be operated at high gain to receive
weak echoes from distant targets. Bandwidth is minimised to suppress noise and
raise SNR, necessitating maximum available transmitter pulse length to satisfy the
necessary bandwidth criterion, some range accuracy being sacrificed. PRF is reduced
(a) to give unambiguous operation with only one pulse in flight at a time, (b) to avoid
transmitter on/off ratio or duty cycle overload.
Radars have 8-10 range scales, in 2: 1 ratio. At short range, echoes are stronger
and more noise is tolerable, so bandwidth is raised and pulselength reduced to improve
range resolution. The reduced SNR reduces the likelihood of reception of very distant
echoes, easing the range ambiguity problem and enabling transmitter prf to be raised,
partly restoring the duty. The additional pulses per packet partially restore sensitivity
by integration, somewhat offsetting the increased noise. The short pulses also illumi-
nate less clutter. PRF is not in fact always increased to the fullest possible extent as it is
often desirable to retain a long-range scale on the secondary viewing display for early
warning of new targets during a coastal passage, restricting prf to avoid ambiguity.
Also the ARPA or ATA must continue surveillance of distant undisplayed targets to
maintain their tracks. In severe clutter considerably exceeding noise, it is desirable
to minimise range cell size by retaining short pulse/wide bandwidth operation.
Table 3.1 Range scale comparison
Range scale setting Long Short
Pulselength Long Short
Cell size Large Small
Range discrimination Poor Good
PRF Low High
Pulses/scan Low High
Receiver bandwidth Low High
Receiver noise Low High
Signal to noise ratio High Low
Signal to clutter ratio Low High
Individual radars differ in their matching of pulselength/bandwidth to range scale,
and may include intermediate pulse length/bandwidth steps. Table 3.1 summarises
the broad effects on detection performance of the chosen range scale.
3.5.7 Video amplifier
The demodulator restores the signal to baseband. The output instantaneous video
voltage is proportional to the IF input voltage. The spectrum of any target is con-
verted back to that of the modulator, so necessary bandwidth reverts from the IFs
1/r to 0.5/r. Response need not extend down to d.c. but can roll off at ~50kHz,
simplifying detail design and rejecting semiconductor low-frequency flicker noise.
Phase information is only preserved in coherent systems, for which twin I and Q
video channels are required. Video amplifiers are usually contained on a couple of
semiconductor chips.
A conventional linear amplifier has output voltage proportional to the input volt-
age. Negative feedback is employed to improve linearity and stabilise gain. Supposing
the dynamic range has to be 100 dB and the maximum output the amplifier can give
before overload (i.e. within its dynamic range) is 1V, then a weak echo, 100 dB down,
has amplitude only 10 |xV. This voltage range of 10
5
:1 demands a 17-bit analog to
digital convenor (2
17
= 131072 :1 = 102.3 dB) followed by 17-bit (plus parity bits)
processing in the signal processor, which is profligate in computing power.
Usually a logarithmic amplifier or log amp is included. Here output voltage is
proportional to a x (logarithm of input voltage), so 10OdB (10
10
) range causes
only 10a : 1 output voltage variation, which can be handled by a smaller processor;
when a = 1,10OdB input change (equivalent to 10
5
: 1 voltage variation) gives
log 10
5
= 50 output change, which is less than 2
6
or 64, enabling 6-bit plus parity
processing. Logarithmic amplifiers sum the outputs of several successive limiting
stages; Figure 3.9(a). They can handle extremely wide dynamic range, but their chips
have to be precisely made to avoid error, placing the radar designer at the mercy of the
Figure 3.9 Receiver ancillary circuits showing waveforms, (a) Logarithmic ampli-
fier. As the signal voltage increases, the last stage saturates, followed
by the others in turn, (b) Fast time constant. Breaks up solid blocks of
clutter by extracting changes in signal + clutter level, (c) Pulse length
discriminator. Breaks up solid clutter by extracting signals matching
transmitter pulselength. Not applicable to large targets
chip supplier. Especially when used with a differentiator, they help to reveal echoes
within clutter. If used in a constant false alarm rate (CFAR) system which maximises
probability of detection, the first limiter stage must always be saturated by noise. The
gain control may actually control the clipping level rather than amplifier gain. The
human ear has a logarithmic scale, enabling us to handle an extreme loudness range.
When several displays are driven from the output of the main display's logarithmic
amplifier, each may be given its independent gain, swept gain and differentiator
controls, which may be set to suit each operator's requirements.
3.5.8 Fast time constant, differentiator
In areas of rough water or precipitation producing weather clutter (sea and particu-
larly precipitation clutter), solid clutter may return a substantial and near-equal signal
Video output only when
echo width matches delay (c) Pulse length discriminator
Inverter
Coincidence
Differentiator
as(b)
Delay
= Tx pulsewidth
Video
Fast time constant (FTC)
or differentiator
RC ~ pulselength
(b) Log FTC
Log amp as (a)
IF input
Video
Differentiated video
Main logarithmic video output
Delay lines
compensate amplifier delays
(a) Logarithmic amplifier
and demodulator
Limiting
amplifier
Diode
detector
Summation
Limited IF output for AGC etc
IF input
Figure 3.10 Differentiator in precipitation clutter Time domain for a single sweep.
Differentiation partially suppresses blocks of clutter to reveal the edges
of echo pulses
to all detection cells in the area, masking any echoes they may contain, as shown in
Chapter 2, Section 2.1.6, Figure 2.6 rain areas. The echoes can be enhanced by look-
ing not at signal amplitude, but its rate of change with time during each sweep. Rate of
change is mathematical differentiation and in analog systems is achieved by passing
the signal through a fast time constant (FTC) circuit, such as a series capacitor-resistor
high-pass network. Alternatively, an analog resistor-inductor combination or a digi-
tised functional equivalent may be used. Figure 3.9(b) shows a simple FTC circuit
following a log amp. Figure 3.9(c) shows a simple pulselength discriminator, which
can enhance detection of small area targets, but which is rarely applicable in marine
practice.
Figure 3.10 depicts detection of six targets having differing ranges and echo
strengths (a) represents the echoes, E1-E6. Part of the range bracket lies in rather
heavy precipitation (b) giving solid clutter. The narrow-band IF signal at (c) shows
the echoes, the envelope being rounded by the narrow bandwidth. E3-E6 are
buried in clutter; each echo being equivalent to echo S in Chapter 2, Section 2.2.1,
Figure 2.10(b). After the second detector (d), similar to T in Figure 2.10(b), the base-
band signal's detection threshold has to be set high to reduce probability of false
alarm (PFA) to an acceptable level. Waveform (e) shows echo E4 is lost and there
are false alarms at Fl and F2. The high threshold completely prevents detection of
weak echo El and moderate echo E2 is only just seen, although both lie outside the
clutter area.
Time (E = echo, F = false alarm)
(g) Di Terentiated det sctions
(f) Di Terentiated T mecom tant 0.5 El pul jewidth
B ock of clutter
(e) Declared (etections
(d) At baseband
Threshold
(c) Narrow-bend IF
(b) Precipitation
(a) Ec ioes
Waveform (f) shows baseband signal (d) after differentiation. Peak echo ampli-
tude has fallen, but clutter has fallen further permitting a lower threshold (g). All
echoes except E4 are now detectable, with a couple of false alarms. Strong echo E6
occupies considerable time, equivalent to radial length. It might represent an islet or
a racon response. When the radar is operated conventionally, all parts of the echo are
detected and displayed as an axial trace. Engaging the differentiator suppresses nearly
everything but the leading edge, perhaps with a faint suspicion of the remainder from
enhanced noise, E6'. Display quality is reduced. The extended nature of the echo is no
longer apparent, neither can the shape of its paint reveal the aspect of a large target. At
the end of the echo, voltage overshoot (not shown) in the baseband amplifier circuit
may cause a faint blip which might be mistaken for another target.
The figure is drawn for differentiator timeconstant half a pulselength to emphasise
the principle. In practice the timeconstant is usually about one pulselength. All radars
provide a differentiator or FTC on/off control, usually with control of timeconstant,
giving the operator more scope to balance detectability against display quality. As
differentiation degrades echo plots, it should be disengaged in clear conditions. Its
value lies in its ability to break up solid clutter. Sea clutter is less solid than that from
precipitation - the structure of individual sea-waves is often visible as striations on
the display - so differentiation is less effective against sea than precipitation clutter.
3.6 Signal processing basics
3.6.1 The task
The data stream at the receiver output contains a serial jumble of thermal noise and
clutter returns, mixed up with any target echoes. All modern radars use extensive
digital signal processing to remove as much noise and clutter as possible before
reaching the display. Processing optimises detection of wanted echoes and minimises
false alarms. Information theory sets definite limits to what can be achieved.
The processing strategies of individual radar suppliers are not normally disclosed
and doubtless differ in detail, but the competitive nature of the market dictates that they
all achieve performance close to the theoretical limit for the target and clutter scenario.
This section gives a broad outline of the signal processing section of the radar;
quantitative analysis following in Chapter 12. Automatic tracking aids, discussed
in Chapter 13, use the detected echo positions to form tracks of individual targets.
From these likely future positions are extrapolated and closest points of approach are
predicted.
The processor's task is to extract the maximum information - matter informative
to the user - from the undigested stream of data; that is, to maximise the probability of
detection, PD, and minimise the probability of false alarms, PpA- Data once discarded
is irretrievably lost, so must be retained until as much information as possible has been
wrung from it. PD and PFA are interlinked with the relative strength of the wanted
signal to unwanted noise, the all-important signal to noise and clutter ratio (SNR).
It is impossible to have high PD and low PFA with low SNR. The processor plays a big
part in the effort to maximise SNR. Detectability is affected by the random or partly
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