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An Overview of Accquired Brain Injury (ABI)

Acquired brain Injury (ABI) is damage to the brain that occurs after birth. *Damage that is caused by
congenital or degenerative diseases is not included in this category (Answer for A). It may be caused by an
external or an internal force. An external force is anything that directly causes damage to the brain that is
not found within the human body; an example of this is Traumatic Brain Injury. An internal force is anything
within the human body that is the direct cause of damage to the brain; one example of this is
Cerebrovascular Accidents (Hibdard, Martin, & Cantor, 2006).
Common causes of ABI include:
1. Physical Injury
2. Cerebrovascular Accidents (CVA)
3. Tumors
4. Infection


Physical Injury

E.g. Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)* (A)
Traumatic Brain Injury is injury to the brain that is caused when there is impact or rapid movement
of the head. This results in the brain slamming into the skull, causing bruising, bleeding, swelling, distortion,
and or tearing of brain matter and neurons. Thousands of neurons can be damaged (Farmer, Donders, &
Warschausky, 2006; Donders, 2006). Neurons are one of the most important types of brain matter; these are
nerve cells that are responsible for processing and transferring information in the brain (Carlson, 2005).


Activities that are associated with the acquisition and increased risk of TBI include:
Falls
Motor Vehicle Accidents
Physical Abuse
Contact Sports
Baby Shaking

*Cerebrovascular Accidents (A)
There are two main types of Cerebrovascular Accidents (CVA): Ischemic and Hemorrhagic.

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An Ischemic accident is damage to the brain that is caused when there is blockage of the blood
vessels that supply the brain tissue with blood. This results in tissue death due to the lack of oxygenation.
Cholesterol plaques and blood clots are some common entities that cause the occlusion of blood vessels
(Carlson, 2005).
A hemorrhagic accident is damage to the brain that is caused when blood vessels in the brain rupture,
damage is also caused when the brain is compressed by this blood that accumulates within the brain tissue.
High Blood Pressure is a leading factor in the rupture of blood vessels (Carlson, 2005).
A report from the Ministry of Health in Trinidad and Tobago noted that in 2004, 965
residents of Trinidad and Tobago were hospitalized for CVAs (Ministry of Health, 2005).

Tumors

Brain Tumors (Answer for A)

Brain tumors are a mass of useless cells that grow out of control. Neuron cells do not form tumors
because they are unable to replicate in this manner; many of these cells originate outside of the brain.
Tumors cause damage to the brain by compressing or infiltrating the tissue (Carlson, 2005).
The exact cause of this type of cell mutation is unknown but the following have been implicated:
Toxins
Genetics
Tobacco
Radiation
The Trinidad and Tobago national Cancer Registry reported that Brain tumors were the
second leading type of cancer among persons 0-14 years old, and in the top four for persons 15-24 years old
for the period of 2000-2002 (Quamina, 2004).
Infections

Encephalitis(Answer for A)
Encephalitis is acute inflammation and irritation of the brain that may be caused by infective agents
such as: viruses, toxins, bacteria.
Contentious Issues
From the presenters review of online public education websites that offer information on ABI, it was
noted that there were some inconsistencies in defining ABI. Some of these inconsistencies included using
ABI and TBI interchangeably. Some sites have acknowledged this mistake and have sought to amend their
definitions while others remain the same. This brings to mind some interesting questions which include:

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How much does the general public really know about ABI?
Should public education focus on ABI as opposed to focusing
separately on the individual causes of ABI?
Could this integrative approach lead to better prevention measures?

Description of the Assessment and Diagnosis of ABI
In order to conclude that a person has been affected with an ABI there needs to be some type of
assessment to diagnose the problem. A team approach is often used with persons with ABI; an example of
this is where neurological investigative test and neuropsychological assessments are used to complement
each other (Bokde, Meaney, Sheehy, Reilly, Abrahams, & Doherly, 2011)

Neurological Investigations

Neurological tests such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Single Photon Emission
Computerized Tomography (SPECT)* (Answer for B) are often used to assist the diagnosis of specific
diseases, identify the anatomical location of neural damage, and to track subtle changes in brain pathology.
In addition, they aid to add credibility to neuropsychological findings (Allen, 2002).

MRI
MRIs are one of the leading investigative tools that are used today in diagnostics. A MRI can
produce detailed images of the brains tissue, nerve cells and bones, by using radioactive waves and
magnetic fields. It is frequently used in the diagnosis of tumors, infections, inflammation, and vascular
abnormalities in the brain. This technique can assist in diagnosing all of the ABI that have been identified in
this presentation (Allen, 2002).

SPECT
SPECTs are used to assess how the brain functions by using nuclear imaging to monitor cerebral
blood flow. This test may be used to assist in the reporting of MRI findings in the diagnosis of tumors and
inflammation. These images are fed into a computer which presents a three dimensional image of brain
activity and perfusion (Carlson, 2005; Bokde et al, 2011). Areas of damage usual show absent or reduced
perfusion.

Neuropsychological Assessment
Neuropsychological assessment can also be used to identify those changes in brain function which
may indicate brain injury. Hence, referrals can be made to the relevant expert so that the appropriate
neurological investigations can be done and a diagnosis given (Picard, & Stewart, 2007).
A comprehensive neuropsychological assessment is also conducted to indentify:
impairment in relation to the injury
individual strengths and weaknesses
coexisting disorders

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and plan rehabilitation
The neuropsychological assessment is very comprehensive because it is based on the premise that
psychological, social and biological factors have reciprocal relationships in client care. However, for the
purpose of this presentation the focus will be on some of the parts of testing that are more associated with
assessing cognition (Picard, & Stewart, 2007).
The testing Process includes an interview, observations and practical testing.

The Interview

A detailed history from the client and relatives is collected. This history includes:
+ developmental milestones + childhood experiences
+ occupation + education
+ social + family
+ substance use + biographical information
+ medical + mental health

Behavioral Observations

These observations occur in a variety of settings and ways, including:
Open conversations Structured Conversations
Controlled Environments Uncontrolled Environments
Familiar Settings Unfamiliar Setting

Neuropsychological Test
Neuropsychological test are based on a comparative foundation where the clients performance on a
test is compared to that of persons his or her age, education, and or sex. One must bear in mind that these test
have limitations, especially when being used on populations on which they have not been standardized. As a
result the findings of the test need to be interpreted with caution and in conjunction with the other
components of the neuropsychological assessment (Kaplan, 2009). Some researchers have questioned the
use of some of these tests because they have not been for use with the ABI population.
Some commonly used neuropsychological test and the associated functions that they assess are
presented in slide 18-19 of the power point presentation.

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There are no laws in Trinidad and Tobago to regulate who are involved in psychological
testing. In addition, Psychological assessment is often expensive, and the hope of obtaining public services
remains an idea for many of the parents of children who are on the long waiting list, due to the limited
number of trained professionals who are employed in public service.
Contentious Issues
Considering the variety of ways that a person can become at risk for ABI, it is interesting to ponder
on its reality. Many people may be walking around and unaware that they are being affected by a brain
injury that has occurred from being knocked in the head by books, balls, walls, and even dates. Do the
benefits of routine neuropsychological screening outweigh the costs? Or, what you do not know cannot hurt
you? Does the value of neuropsychological test overshadow issues with the validity and reliability of these
tests? (Reliability- the consistency with which the tests measure and what it is supposed to measure.
Validity- the extent to which it measures what it is to measure.)

Identifying the Impact of ABI
Now that we know what ABI is and how to assess for ABI, lets examine how ABI affect the
individual. ABI can have far reaching effects, on the individual as well as their family. It can result in: 1)
family problems, 2) loss of employment, 3)physical disability, 4) emotional instability, 5)psychosis,
6)social instability, 7)personality changes, 8)sensory alterations and 9)cognitive defects. Any of these
can impact on the other to produce additional changes in the individual, so all are relevant to understanding
the cognitive impact of ABI. However, because of time constraints this presentation will focus on some of
the common Cognitive effects of ABI.
Cognitive defect is any impairment in intellectual function. These include attention, memory loss,
impaired concentration, altered perception, and problems processing information, difficulty with planning
and organization, and difficulty sequencing. These deficits are considered to be essential in determining if
the individual can live independently and their readaptation in to society (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993).
The symptoms and signs that are manifested are determined by the cause, location, severity of brain damage
as well as the persons age (Seynoe, Kara, & Hunt, 2007).
How ABI affects children may vary from how it affects adults because the childs brain is immature
and therefore at risk to more damage (* Answer for C) (Seynoe, Kara, & Hunt, 2007). In addition,
abnormalities in children who are affected by ABI may not be evident until a developmental delay is
noticed (Farmer, Donders, & Warschausky, 2006).
Memory loss is common with persons who have damage to the cerebral cortex of the brain. Problems
with memory range from deficits with long term or short term memory. These deficits may be related to how
the individual encodes, stores or retrieves information (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993).
Frontal lobe damage is often associated with alterations in executive functions (planning, working
memory, attention, problem solving, verbal reasoning, personal inhibition, mental flexibility, multi-tasking,
task initiation and self monitoring) as well as narrative speech. Therefore, when it is damaged in childhood
there is longer disability than with adulthood. Strangely, researchers have noted that more cognitive defects
are seen in the older age groups; the reason for this is unknown (Seynoe, Kara, & Hunt, 2007)
Research has also shown, a link between the following cognitive functions and damage to these areas
of the brain:

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Location of Damage Function Effected
Prefrontal abstract reasoning, feelings, personality
*(Answer for F)
Frontal Thalamic planning, motivation
Anterior temporal perception, learning, memory
Mild temporal/ Diencephalon learning, memory, personality
Tempo Parietal complex perception, comprehension
Deeper Parietal cognitive and perceptual integration
Occipital primary and secondary visual processes
Inferior Temporal memory, learning, visual discrimination
Posterior Temporal visiospatial, processing information, verbal
visiospatial
Brain Stem/ Limbic system/Deep Frontal
Temporal Connections
learning, memory, personality
Fiber Systems in Hemispheres slight subjective changes
(Meier, Strauman, & Thompson, 1987)
These findings show that cognitive changes may not be localized to one specific area of the brain.
Furthermore, they suggest that the neural connectivity and structural organization of the brain is such that
damage to the brain can result in a complex set of results.

Case Presentation
A well known case in the area of neuroscience is that of Phineas Gage. He was injured when a steel
rod penetrated into his cheek, through his brain, and out through the top of his head. The Injury mostly
caused physical damage that could be seen to the orbitofrontal cortex (Fleischman, 2007; Carlson, 2005).
However, one must bear in mind that the technological advances such as the MRI that is now available today
was not in the 1848 when this occurred. Therefore, possible damage to other areas of the brain cannot be
narrowed out; but the significance of this case is relevant to understanding the brain-behavior relationship.
Dr. Harlow, the doctor who took charge of the management of Gage, reported that Gage had lost the
ability to balance his intellectual capacity and his natural animal inclinations. In essence, the frontal lobe
damage caused by the external force resulted in problems with verbal reasoning, personal inhibition,
problem solving, mental flexibility, multi-tasking, task initiation, and self monitoring (Fleishman, 2007).
The results from review of this case concur with the research findings.
On average, doctors at St Anns Hospital are visited by one person every three months, who has a
psychological impairment with a history of head injury (Marajah, K., 2011)

Contentious Issue
Since, adults with ABI are more at risk than children for cognitive problems, should the public
resources that are available be more focused on providing care to adults? Is there benefit in providing more
money to conduct research on brain- behavior when so much research has been conducted already and so
many questions remain unanswered? Or could this money be better used by providing those affected, with
the necessary care?

Theoretical Principles for Using Rehabilitation

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Now that we know what ABI is, how to diagnose and assess it, as well as its impact; we must
now help the person to overcome this impact. However, before we arrive at the point where we take action,
we must seek to find some type of theoretical principles or constructs to justify why we do, what we do.
Luria (1963) recognized that the Central Nervous System (CNS) spontaneously recovers after acute
injury. This recovery may extend from 1-2 years after injury. During this time it is said that there is
functional reorganization and new neural pathways are generated to replace the ones that were damaged. In
addition to these structural changes, functional changes also occur (Farmer, Donders, & Warschausky,
2006). On the other hand, Seynoe, Kara, & Hunt (2007) reported that after injury the recovery process
reaches its peak at about 2-4 years. However, additional research has shown that even persons with chronic
brain injury who are exposed to rehabilitation show improvement.
The process and outcomes of the rehabilitative process have been addressed by three major theories:
Substitution, Compensation, and Relearning. The overreaching premise among these three theories is that
once there has been damage to the CNS, there will be some permanent and or irreversible damage.

Substitution
Substitution, explains rehabilitative outcomes seen, when brain tissue that has been slightly damaged
or not damaged at all take over the roles of those tissues that have been damaged. One example given was
that by maintaining the environment the brain was able to bypass brain damaged areas and get another part
of the brain to solve the problem. It suggests, that the brain is flexible in the way that it communicates with
its structures. Another premise is that the brain has reserve tissue that is either not utilized or underutilized.
This tissue that is not utilized or underutilized is then able to take up the role of those areas of the brain that
are lost * ( Answer for E) (Ruff, & Baser, 1990).

Compensation
Compensation theory, proposes that parts of the brain that are responsible for lower level functions
take over higher levels of functioning when there is brain damage (Ruff, & Baser, 1990).

Relearning
Relearning theory, proposes that when individuals are exposed to activities and feedback is given, the
person can learn new behaviors despite how severe the brain is injured. In addition, new ways of doing
things can compensate for lost functions. This is the main principle behind rehabilitative treatment (Ruff, &
Baser, 1990).
There is an absence of local research or compiled statistics that deals specifically with ABI.
There are no support groups for Trinidadians who are affected by cognitive deficits associated by ABI.
Contentious Issue
Theory supports the use of rehabilitative processes with person living with ABI. However, there is
limited documented empirical evidence to support some of the techniques that are used in rehabilitation. *
(Answer for C) Should professionals continued to use these methods, despite the obvious lack of empirical
evidence?

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Rehabilitation of Persons living With the Cognitive Effects of ABI
Finally, how does one go about rehabilitating an individual who has been cognitively affected by
ABI? One aspect of Rehabilitation from cognitive impairment is done primarily by exercising the brain. This
may be done initially on an inpatient basis and then transition into a community process. Other aspect of
rehab focuses on improving the clients quality of life by increasing independence, and facilitating
readjustment.
Although cognitive deficits in people with brain injury are similar rehabilitative strategies must be
individualized. This is why there is a dire need for neuropsychological assessment, so that the individuals
strengths, weaknesses, and needs can be met (Farmer, Donders, & Warschausky, 2006; Seynoe, Kara, &
Hunt, 2007).

Pharmacological Intervention
Pharmacological interventions have been used as part of the rehabilitation process. Stimulants such
as methyphenidate hydrochloride have been shown to improve concentration and behavior in children. Some
professionals believe that pharmacological interventions are a significant part of the rehabilitation process.
For the financially challenged, it may be the most affordable option. One drawback is that a medication can
have a range of side effects depending on its chemical composition. Other classes of medications are also
used, but their use is dependent on the presenting problem (Farmer, Donders, & Warschausky, 2006). Below
is a list of some of the types of medications and their use:
>Anxiolytic- anxiety >Hypnotics - insomnia
>Antidepressants- depression >Stimulants- concentration and impulsivity

Social Worker Intervention
Another rehabilitation aspect for persons living with cognitive deficits may involve the access to
financial and social support. Social workers are involved to assist the person in assessing social services such
as housing and finance. People need to meet their basic physiological needs, such as food, clothing, and
shelter, in order to recover and survive. Although this is not directly related to changing brain function,
research has shown that when persons with cognitive defects are under stress, this increases the severity of
the cognitive symptoms.

Occupational Therapy
Occupational therapy helps clients to improve their social skills, and assist to reintegrate clients back
into the community. This is an important part of rehabilitation. Memory loss may cause individuals to have
to relearn how to be social (Sapezinskiene, L,. Svediene, L,. & Guscinskiene J, 2003) .

Family Therapy
Family therapy is a necessary part of the rehabilitative process for persons living with cognitive
defects. *( Answer for D) The family needs to resolve emotional issues, such as guilt, shame, and anger, so
that they are able to offer the client a supportive and nurturing environment. In addition, the burden of caring

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for a person with a cognitive deficit can be overwhelming. Having a supportive family unit or member can
aid in the clients improvement because the client can be assisted with certain rehabilitative modalities, as
well as general support to reduce stress and improve the quality of life (Farmer, Donders, & Warschausky,
2006).

Biofeedback
This is a new method that is being used by psychologist who have specialist training in this area. It
uses reinforcement to alter brain activity. The patient is given information about how his or her body is
functioning. The person then uses this feedback to train their reaction (Glanz, Kwlawansky, & Chainer,
1997). This can be used with clients with mild to moderate cognitive deficits who can understand the
procedure; it is especially useful for treating the physical effects of ABI.

Methods to Improve Memory
The psychotherapeutic methods that are used to improve memory are retraining and compensatory
strategies (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993).
Retraining
Retraining methods include written and verbal rehearsal, acronym formation, visual imagery,
chunking, association and rhyme formation.
Rehearsal
In written rehearsal the client is taught to repeatedly write the information that he or she needs to
remember. This is done as often as it is necessary for the person to remember. It cannot be used if the
individual has severe gross motor skill impairment, or is unable to read. Verbal rehearsal would be more
effective for these persons (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993).
Verbal rehearsal is done where the client repeatedly states, aloud or whispering, the information that
he or she needs to remember. Clients who cannot self initiate may need family members to prompt them.
Verbal rehearsal has the benefit of being easier to implement than written rehearsal because the activities are
spoken. However, written rehearsal has the benefit of providing the client with cues.
Both methods are also suitable for remembering a small number of daily activities, and more suited
for clients who can self initiate. Neither can be used effectively in severe cognitive impairment.

Acronym Formation
The client is taught how to use letters to make codes for information that he or she needs to
remember.

Chunking
The client is taught how to group information together.

Visual Imagery

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Visual Imagery is one of the most widely researched and used strategies. The client is taught to make
mental pictures of the information that he or she need to remember. Information that is important, unusual,
or humorous is easier to remember using this method. This takes a lot of time to implement and research
had not shown that the client can use this method by themselves (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993).

Association
This is a behavioral method that is used to link old or familiar information to information that the
client wants to remember. One limitation is that the client must remember to use it.

Rhyme Formation
The client is instructed on how to make rhymes that are formulated from the information that the
client wants to remember.
Common limitations of many of these methods are that clients may be unable to self initiate
techniques and so family members may have to prompt them, they do not facilitate remembering large sets
of information. Learning occurs but clients may not be able to apply it to other situations. Clients with sever
deficits fail to learn from these methods (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993).

Compensatory
Compensatory methods aid to eliminate some of the limitations of the rehearsal strategies and are
more suited for person with severe memory deficits.
External memory sources or aids help to supplement deficits in memory. People with ABI who have
been thought retraining strategies tend to prefer the use of compensatory strategies such as lists, appointment
books and diaries. In addition, the training for using aids is simpler than that for retraining. It was noted that
because the use of memory aids are more generalized it makes it easier for the client to transfer the learning
to other situations. The long term result is the learning of problem solving as well as increased memory
(Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993).
There are three main types of compensatory strategies: 1) storage devices such as checklists, memory
notebooks, calculators and computers 2) cueing devices such as clocks, bells, alarms, and timers 3)
restructured environment such as the use of labels and rearrangement of furniture.

Written Checklist
These are used to outline steps, tasks, and skills that are necessary to complete a particular task.
Checklists have three main components that make them effective:
1) A Column for information that is to be remembered
2) A blank column for crossing off completed items
3) A title and date at the top
The therapist models the use of the checklist, checking off each step after its completion. Then the
client practices the process. The reliance on the checklist can be gradually faded out by removing one step at
a time; at the end the skill is acquired.

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Memory Notebooks
The first step in using this technique is to explain why the technique is being used. The next step is to
model the use of the notebook and have sessions to review how to use it. The client is given feedback and
praise on his or her use of the technique. One disadvantage of this technique is that the client has to
remember to use the notebook. However, it is suitable for remembering large quantities of information
(Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993). The therapist must motivate and reinforce the use of the notebook, help the
client to organize and practice using it, and teach how to use the device. The client is taught how to rely on
the device by being given homework that calls for the use of the device. The client must be aware of what is
in the notebook. One disadvantage is that this cannot be used with people who cannot read.

Visual Cues
Visual cues can be written or graphical objects such as pictures or maps. They signal to the client to
remember information. Some common ones include labels. This has been effectively used by Burke (1990)
to reduce the use of profanity with a patient with ABI.

Environmental Restructuring
The environment is restructured so that it prompts the client to react in a certain way. Changes can be
made to the clients physical environment or schedule. Examples of this includes grouping specific daily
activities. This is effective when it is used in a familiar environment (Farmer, Donders, & Warschausky,
2006).

Orientation Methods
Orientation Groups
Daily orientation groups may be facilitated by occupational therapist. This is suited for the
institutional setting and is usually the first session on the day. Clients are oriented, and the daily scheduled is
reviewed. The first step is to assess the clients orientation and schedule by asking the client to write it down,
the clients share their responses and feedback is given (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993).

Individual Orientation
Individual orientation is used on a one on one basis when there is sever disorientation. This method
allows for more material to be covered, and the giving of immediate feedback. The therapist asks about one
aspect at a time. The client is given about three seconds to reply. If the reply is incorrect or she or he does
not answer, the therapist provides the cues and another 3 seconds is given. If it is incorrect or unanswered
the therapist provides the correct answer and then asks the client to repeat the correct response. Appropriate
reinforcement is given for correct answer (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993). s. This is done until the client is
oriented.

Attention Methods

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Attention methods center on the persons ability to focus on stimulus, task or situation. It is
comprised of three components: alertness, vigilance/ capacity, and selection (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993).
. Alertness is a persons readiness to react to a stimulus. Vigilance is the amount of mental effort. While
selection is focused on what the person attends to. Attention training strategies include: 1) environmental
restructuring, 2) salience of target stimuli, 3)checklists, 4)self monitoring, 5)self talk, 6)altering
consequences, 7)feedback, and 8) cueing devices.

Environmental Restructuring
The environment is manipulated by increasing, decreasing, or totally eliminating stimuli. This
facilitates behavior change and adaptation. Some examples include reducing noise and or lighting, changing
colors, and reducing the number of people in a room (Farmer, Donders, & Warschausky, 2006).

Salience of Target Stimuli
This involves changing the location or color of an object or item on a list.
Self Monitoring
The client learns to monitor their own behavior. It is believed that when people monitor their own
behavior their behavior changes. The client is taught to note when he or she is attending to their own
behavior by placing a tick in the appropriate chart, when the cue is presented. Bells, timers and recorded
messages can be used as cues (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993).

Self Talk
The client observes his or her own behavior and then talks aloud or whispers to themselves. This can
be used with self monitoring. The client asks themselves questions, as well as gives the answers aloud to
themselves (Farmer, J Donders, & Warschausky, 2006).

Over learning
The client repeats the task over and over, after it has been demonstrated. The client must show some
capacity to learn in order to use this method.

Altering Consequences
Task completion and positive behavior, is reinforced and the opposite is reprimanded. The stimulus
that is given must be reinforcing for this to be effective and the one used for failure of the task should reduce
the number of times that the task is not completed.

Feedback
Feedback can be given in a written or verbal form. The therapist makes positive contact , and then
feedback is given.

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Cueing Devices
Cueing devices are those which prompt the client to react. These devices include clock, bells and
timers. The client is trained how to use the device and given frequent opportunities to practice it.

Self Awareness
Self awareness strategies include education, personal adjustment groups, team integration, goal and
journal groups, natural consequences and video therapy (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993).

Video Therapy
In video therapy clients learn by watching video recording of themselves in a variety of situations.

Natural Consequences
The client is allowed to experience the natural response to the effects of his or her behavior. This aids
people to be aware of unrealistic goals.

Personal Adjustment Groups
The individual is given feedback from the group, on his or her abilities and limitations.


Problem Solving Strategies
Problem solving strategies include problem solving groups, problem solving vignettes, flow sheets,
current event groups, and scheduled problem (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993). s .

Scheduled Problems
Scheduled problems allows the client to problem solve in a structures and controlled environment.
The client is trained as to how to respond if he does not know how and is given feedback. This strategy is
suitable for training a person for a new environment.

Current Event groups
Current event groups are involved in reviewing current events via the television, newspaper or
documentaries. They then go through the problem solving process of identifying the problem, looking at the
advantages and disadvantages, and the selecting the best possible options (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993).


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Flow Sheet
A flow sheet is a tangible reminder that gives steps for resolving a problem. The rationale for using
this method is given to the client, then the therapist models the activity, after which the client tries it, and the
necessary feedback is given.

Problem Solving Groups
The therapist takes a small group, of not more than five people, through the problem solving process.
Then they apply it to real situations.
Planning Disorders
Planning disorder strategies include planning groups, planning checklists, repeated exposure and
current event groups (Wesolowski, & Zenicus, 1993). . These methods involve identifying the problem,
gathering the relevant information, exploring possible solutions and then structuring a plan.

Current Event Groups
Current event group are used to formulate plans for specific problems.

Repeated Exposure
The individual is given the opportunity to be repeatedly exposed to planning. The procedure is
practiced repeatedly and feedback is given by the therapist.
Many of the rehabilitative services are not covered or inadequately covered by insurance
companies in Trinidad, and so persons are often unable to bare the cost of such services. A session with an
Occupational Therapist in Trinidad starts at $200 TT, while the price for neuropsychological testing can be
thousands of dollars (Garcia, L., Edwards, R., Green, R., & Sthepens, S, 2007).
Contentious Issue
Do the benefits of rehabilitation outweigh the cost, considering that that there is no guarantee that the
individual will return to a higher level of functioning? It is better to be cost effective and stick with
pharmacological methods which are much more reasonably priced?

Overreaching Contentious Issues
Should private service providers lower their cost so that more people can afford to access their services?
Is the quantity of money that these professionals are asking for on par with the standard of service that
they provide?


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The Six Multiple Choice Questions

A) Examples of Acquired Brain Injury include all the following except:
1. Encephalitis
2. Cerebrovascular Accidents
3. Traumatic Brain Injury
4. Alzieimers Disease *
5. Brain Tumors

The answer can be found in slide number 2 with supporting evidence in slide 3, 4, 6, 8. They have
also been identified in yellow in this handout.

B) Examples of Neurological Investigations include:
1) Magnetic Resonance Imaging and
2) Myelograph and Single Photon Emission Computerized Tomography and
3) Single Photon Emission Computerized Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging *

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4) Mediastinoscopy and Amniocentesis
5) Thoracentesis and Mediastinoscopy
The answer can be found in slide number 13 and had also been identified in green in the handout.

C) Most Rehabilitative strategies:
1) Can produce 100% recovery
2) Are easy to access in Trinidads Public Health System
3) Are available at a reasonable cost
4) Are based on sound empirical evidence
5) lack of empirical evidence *
The answer can be found in slide number 33 and had also been identified in red in the handout.

D) Family therapy:
1) Is not important in rehabilitation
2) is a necessary part of the rehabilitative process *
3) Can only benefit persons with mild cognitive impairments
4) Ss
5) Ss
The answer can be found in slide number 39 and had also been identified in pink in the handout.
E) The substitution theory of rehabilitation explains that the brain is:
1) Flexible and has unutilized tissue *
2) Incapable of alerting the way that it communicates
3) Able to regenerate new cells
4) Minimize injury by increasing blood flow
5) Resistive to change
The answer can be found in slide number 29 and had also been identified in grey in the handout.

F) Injury to the prefrontal cortex of the brain has been associated with changes in:

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1) Comprehension, learning, visual discrimination
2) Complex perception, learning, memory
3) Memory, perceptual integration, personality
4) Abstract reasoning, feelings, personality *
5) Visual discrimination, comprehension, planning

The answer can be found in slide number 25 and had also been identified in blue in the handout.