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Tr:OPO[-
:fonu-
:: basic CHAPTER SIXTEEN
:.-atlon-
--,i dies
Hindu Rock-cut Architectureof the WesternDeccan

E r r o n a ( R a s l n a x u l e P u asn )

-..-.lut the Control of the Deccan was taken from the
--. ot tlre Early Western Calukyas around 75o1 by the
::ce the Raptrakugas, who in this way began a hegemony
--ukyas, that was to last more than two hundred years,
:- of the until about 973. Although the political might of
- :itnova- this farnily has been widely acknowledged,very
: earlier litde is known about the artistic developments
.--'llouta that rook place during the period oi thcir
supremacy. The principal site associatedwith
these rulers is lllora, where several cave ex-
cavations were carried out, appalently under
their aegis. Without a doubt, the most ambi-
tious and impressive of these-indeed, perhaps
in all of South Asia-is Cave 16, the Kailasanetha
temple. One of the last important Hindu ex-
cavations,it representsnot only the most striking
cave temple of the more than thirty at the site,
but also the culmination of rock architecturein
South Asia. Its boldness suggestscenturies of
tradition in which carving techniques and an
understandine of the rock medium were de-
veloped, enabling craftsmen to push the archi-
tectural type to its limits. The Kailasanatha
ternple is more than simply a building; it
is a complex with all the essentialelements of
contemporaneous free-standing southern-type
temple units, including a main building, Nandi
shrine, gateway, surrounding cloisters,and sub-
sidiary shrines.
It is difficult to say how long it took to create
the main temple and its surrounding elements
or the precisesequenceof the excavations.Most
scholars today feel that the major portion of
the monument, including the central temple and
Nandi shrine, aswell asperhapsthe gateway, be-
long to the reign ofthe Rasrakota king Krsna I,
who ruled from around 757 to 773. However,
it is likely that the temple was planned and
begun under his predecessor,Dantidurga, since
the excavationnext to the Kailesanatha,Cave rj
(the misnamed"Dai Avrtar"). bearsan inscrip-
tion of the earlier monarch who reigned from

341
J42 DYNASTIES OI THE MIDDLE PETIIOD
16.r. Kailasanathstcrnple corlplex tiorn rvcst shorvins cltrance
wr1l rnd grtcrv:r,v.Ellori], Mahart:trr, L1dia. Rtitr:rku!e Pcriocl.
Mainly ca. third qu;rrtcrcighth ccnturv.
arouncl 73J to 7J7 and the tlvo cavc monuDlents
bear unr.nistakablestylistic ties to cach other.z
Generalconceptualrclations betr,vccnthis monu-
rncnt and the Virfipaksa tcmple at Pattadaka]
(Figs.r5.3-9), rvhich datcsfrom approximately
thc fourth dccadeof thc cighth century, further
s u g g c ' ta d . r t cn e " r f h e m i d d l e o f t l r e e i g h t h
centr,ry for the Kailasanatha, althougl.r thc
relationships betwccn the two teDrPles havc
been vastly overemphasized.Indeed, whilc thcy
. h c r c c e r r . r i nf e a r u r c ,b c c - , u s cr h c y r r e b o r h
r o r r t h c r n - . r y l cr n o n u n r c n t sd r t i n g f r o n r . L p -
proximatcly the samc time, the dilTerences
bets'een thcm are at least as significant as those
):ctwccn any othcr two crcatioirsin thc sPectrum
of lndic art.
From the exterior, thc templc compicx is
alnost complctcly screcncdby a rock-cut rvall
rvith a eateway in the centcr (Fig. 16.r). Al-
though now rnuch dantaged duc to surface
abrasion, the gatcway was an important feature
. .o'!
;:.'f,,'u;r*i
hcrc, just as it is gencrally in latcr south lndian-
stylc ternples. The southcrn dcrivation for the
forn.r is clearly seen in thc piiastcred niches
bearing rcprcscntationsof various dcities whosc
slendcr builds, ornanentatioll, pointed crowns,
and facial features furthcr indicate a southern
sourcc(Fig. 16.z).Most of thc deitiesshorvnto
thc lcft of the entrAncc are Saivite while those
t o t l r c r i g h t r r < p r i m , , r i l y V . r i . n a r i t e. r n r r -
rangcment also carried oLrt in the gallcry at
the rcar of the precinct.
After passingthrough the monurncntal gate-
way in the ccntcr of thc stone screenwall, the
visitor enters a pit, for Jike the Paldya ternple
at Kalugun.ralai (Fig. ra.37), thc Kailasanatha is
a totally free-standingten.rplcr','ithin a larsc Pit
that was excxvatcd to cleate a spaccaround the
c c n r r . ' lr n . , s '( F r g . r t , . 3 ) .H o w c v e r . i n ( o n t r J . l
to thc un{inished Pendya example rvith lvhich
the Kailasanathais approximately contempor-
aneous,the RastrakDtamonunlent is carvecland
HINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHTTTCTIIREOr THE r{/XSTERNDECCAN
343
r6.2. Detail, carvinsisto lefr of
cnirrnce to Kxiltsanatha tcmple
compourld. Ellore, Maherasrrx,
India. Rastrakntaperiod.Ca. third
quarter eishth ccntur,v.

16.3.Vicw of KailasanathxtcD-
ple from lorthwcst. El]ora,
Maharastn, India. Rrstraklta pc-
riod. MaiDty ca. third quartcr
cighrh century.
J44 DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDIE PERIOD

o1o3060

o 5 lo 15 21)
i
Mi

l#';'.*\lxlli'il:
t:;1;llTil:l:'iil:::l$-?,iiiTff
fiira quarter eighth century'
HINDU ROC(-CUT ARCHITICTURE OF THE WESTERNDECCAN J4J

0 r0 30 60

0 5 l0 t5 2a
 J46 DYNASTITS
oF THI MIDDTEPERIoD
completed both inside and out. Further, sub-
sidiary shrines, chapels, and gallerres wcre ex-
cavated in the surrounding rock wall, creating
a temple cor.nplexof ovcrwhelming scope and
ambition. Since thcse elements, as well as thc
temple parts, occur on lrforc than onc level, it
is best to study thc plan of the tenlple in two
stagcs,the lower and upper stodes (Fig. rrS.a).
The lower srory greatly resemblcsa typical
south Indian ternple complcx in its rcctangular
format, yet it diflcrs frorn both the Rajasirhhc-
ivara tenplc at K-iicipurxrll and the Virupaksa
temple xt Pattadakal in that the surrounding
wall does not contain cvenly spacedsubsidi:rry
shrincs.Instead,it has sevcralrather large shrincs
and a gallery:ilong thrcc siclesat the rear con-
taining huge sculptcclpanels. The monumental
ni;vo-storied gateway providing accessto the
t e m p i c c o r ) r p o u n do n r h c w e s ( i s o n a o a x i s
with :r detaclrcdNandi na4dapaand the ten.rple
propcr. The lowcr stories of both the Nandi
shrine and main tcmple are solid ancl cannot
be cntered. In plan, the lower story of rhc
main tcnlple seen-rs somervhat unusual, consist-
ing of a rectangular form lvith projections
at the sidesand rear, but the shape is clarified
in the upper story, for at dlat icvel, thc ten.rple,
which mry be crrrered.brc.rksinro ir, corn-
ponctlt parts: a. ldtrdaparvith sixtcen pillars
arrangcd in four groups of four to create a
kind of cruciforn.r effect for the aislcs, a pro-
jecting porch at the front (west) ancl one on
eithcr side, and an antechambcr and srnall
cubical slrrine cncased in in extremcly thick
rvall. Thc shrine may be circumambulatcd by
exiting at tlre rear of the nandapa atd snlkng
along an unroofed passagcway that has {ive
smallershrincs"garlanding" thc centrrl sancturn.
Except for the addition o[ thcse five shrincs,
and thc fact that the circumar.nbulatorypassage
is not encloscd,the plan of thc tcmple is quite
norrllal and n-raybc relatcd to nuncrous nrollu-
ments, both in southcrn and northern Indir.
On drc second icvcl, thc Nandi slrrine may
also be entered. The excavationsin the sccond
story of the surrounding wall do not reflect
those below, a {bature th:rt is fcasible in cave
architecture when the relationship berwccn the
two need not be stmcturrl. Ts,'o shrines occur
in the right wall of the pir .nd arorher templc,
rivaling the Kailasanathaitsel{ is located at the
left. The latter excavationJcalled the LankeSvara
temple, consistsof a pillared nandapaenteredby
stairs at the wcst and a shrine with an enclosed
circumambulatory passageway.Like thc main
tcmple, it is dedicatcdto Siva.
Stone bridges, carved from the living rock,
connect the gateway, Nandi pavilion, and en-
trance porch of the ter:rple so that separarestairs
are not needed to visit the sccond story of each
entity (Fig. 16.5). The main temple has a south-
e:rr-style flafld that is capped by a pyramidal
supcrstructurerising in clearly defined stagcsand
'fhe
crowned by a. iikharc. five smaller shrincs
surrounding the fi:,ain dflafla arc also southern
in form. Thc solid lowcr story of thc Nandi
tcmple and that o[ the main temple arc more
than seven mcters high and, iu the caseof the
main temple, has approximatcly life-size ele-
phants carved around it. A pair of enornous
pillars (stanbhas)flank the Nandi pavilion; and
a pair of elephants (the one at the right is
badly damaged) were also rock-cut and must
have been part of the original schemc since
matrix had to be left for their crcatron.
Thc cxtcrior of the tenplc is riclJy carved
with nichcs, pilasters,windows, and cornicesas
well as imagcs of deitics, nithrnas, ar'd other
figures. Even more elaborate than the monu-
nents of thc Early Western Calukyas and
Pallavas,the richncss of carving suggestsrapid
movement toward thc alnost totally filled
surfacesof n.rany late Indic temples. Although
the iconographic prograrn of the temple is not
f'lly ktto*tr, most of the depictions are of
Saivitc subjects,but a considcrablenumber arc
Vaisnavite. Interspersedwith thc many reliefs
and {igures of varying sizeson thc temple sur-
facc are huge panelscontaining gigantic figures
or tableaus.Under the stone bridge between thc
Nandi shrinc and the ternple porch, on the east
side ofthe Nandi shrine,is a large pancl showing
Siva in one of his angry aspectsas destroycr of
r h e d e n r o n . A n d h a k a ' u r a( f i g . r 6 . 6 ) . C r a c c -
firlly po'cd arrd rerr-armcd.Sivr hold. rhc skin
of a slain elephant bchind him and is accon.r-
penied by his consort, Pervati (at the right),
whorn he fondlcs afl-ectionatclywith one hand,
 IIINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHITBCTURT OF TIIB WXSTTRN DECCAN
347

::4f,,

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r- :ld
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=_'J5
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r6.J. Frollt cornponentsof Kailasanathaternple,

fron south. Ellora, Maheristra, India. Rrsira-
kala period. Mainly ca. third quarter eighch
century.

16.6. Siva as Descroyerof Andhakasura,Kaila-

sanatha temple. Ellora, Maharestra,India. Ra-
strakutaperiod. Ca. third quartereighth ccntury.
Ji48 DYNASTIXSOF THE MIDDLX PERIOD
and the saptumatrfrar(seven mothers), who
appearassmall carvingsin the round at the lower
left. The origin of tbe saptamat/<as is tied into
the Andhakasura story as given in Puranic
literature, for when Siva attempted to slay the
dernon, drops of blood from the wounds of the
demon created new demons as tlrcy fell to
earth. The various gods sent their ir&tls to help
stop the blood, thus explaining the presenceof
the saptamafikas.Afurities to south Indian style
carvings of the Pallavas and Early Westem
Calukyas are seen in the elongation of Siva's
torso with its typical roll of flesh beneath the
horizontal waistband. The very full hair style
is part ofthe iconographic convention, although
the rather rcalistic, three-dimensionaltreatment
of the locks of hair secmsto bc a tie to stylcs
of the preceding centuries of the Gupta and
post-Gupta periods.
Another important and huge relief shows the
multiarmed, multiheadeddemon Ravar.ra shaking
the sacredmountain abode of Siva and Pervati,
Mount Kailasa (Fig. i6.7). Located under the
porclr on the south side of the na4/apa of the
central temple, this relief with its approxirnately
human-size figures and three-dimensionally
carved detailscreatesa highly dramatic effect. Its
story, like n.ranyother Hindu tales,rnay be read
on two levels.The first is a sirnpleaccount of the
attempt by the dcmon Rdvana to wreak havoc
on Kailasa by shaking it and Siva's subsequent
overpowering of Revana through the use of
only his great toe. On a more sublime level,
the story is an expressionoffaith in the unlimited
power of Siva and the reassurancethat evil, no
matter how strong, cannot surpassthe greatness
of rhe god. The relief showsRavanain a caviry
beneath stylized mountain forms, Siva and
Parvati sit atop the central cluster of rocks and
Siva's dwarves (garas), animals, and attendants
accompany them. Parvati, leaning toward her
lord, suggeststhe emotional drama of the story
and another female figure to Parvati's right
seemsto be rundng in fright into the distance.
In thesefigures, as in most adorning the temple,
clearsouth Indian al{uritiesare seenin treatment
of the slender body forms, high hair styles,
headdresses,and ornamentation. The subject
itself appearsseveraltimes at Ellora in a number
of other Hindu caves. Possibly, the popular
name KailSsanathawas given to this temple
becauscof the associationwith Siva as lord of
Kailasain this relief.s
The dramatic efect of the tcmple, enclosed
within the mountain inelf, is partly the result of
the large and dynamic carvings, such as those
discussed,at a number of key locations within
the temple precinct. One of the nost compelling
groups is found in an excavated hall on the
second level of dre right wall of the temple
enclosure,which is dedicatedto the saptamaqkas
and popularly called the Hall of Sacrifice.
Human-size, in thc round, deeply carved repre-
sentations of the natykas, Galresa, aud other
figures line three walls of the shrine, virtually
surrounding the devoteewho might enter. Three
of the best-preservedfigures are on the western
wall, and show Durga at the right with her lion
vehicle, a goddessseatedupon a lotus pedestal
in the center, and Kala, a male skeleton with
the bodies of two naked, dying men, one across
his lap and another below (Fig. 16.8). In this
case,the robust, fullfigured forns ofthe western
Deccan that had been seen at sites like Ajanla
and Aurangabad seem to be present, and it is
evident fiom other portions of the Kailasanatha
complex as well that artisansof both southern
and western Deccan heritage worked on the
monument, although the southern style prevails.
A great degree of realism, probably exploited
for dramatic effect, is seenin the naked igures
and especiallyin the depiction of Kala. Siva as
destroyer of Andhakasura,the story that ex-
plains the origin of the saptumatkas,is fittingly
depictedto the left of this hall.Tlie assignmentof
a separateshrine at a Siva temple to the seven
mothers is a feature that becomes increasingly
common after this period in the Deccan and
other parts of India, and is refective of the
growing imporrance of flemale imagery in
Hinduism. As in Buddhism, and seen already
in the rock architecture created for Buddhist
establishmentsin the Deccan, Hinduism of the
post-Gupta periods shows increasing use of
female symbolism, the female essentiallyrepre-
senting the jaAri that is a necessalycomponent
for the achievement of release(rzo.Qsa), that is,
a reintegrationwith the UniversrLPrinciple.
 OF THE WESTIRN DTCCAN J49
HINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE
:.rlar r6.7.RavanaShakirlgMounr Kxil,sa,
..-t" Kailasxnathr tc rplc. Ellore, Maha-
:-l of rastre, Indi.r. Rislrakiita pcriod. Ca-
third quarter eighth ccntury.

6.8. Matr[as, Kri]asan,dla tcm-

plc. Ellora, Mrhiragfra, Lldia
Ra;trakritr Fcriod. Ca. third
quar!cr cigllth ceniLrry-
JJO DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDTE PERIOD
C o N c t u sl o l t
Although the Kailesanethatemple complex is
not the only monument of the RaggakOta
dynasty, it is certainly the most impressive.A
few other cavesat Ellora and somein&equentlv
discussedstructural temple, throughout rhe
Deccanarealsoascribed to the Raptrakftaperiod,
and all of thesemust be thoroughly studied
beforethe full implicationsof the Kailasanatha
templeare understood.The motivation behind
the creation of such an extraordinary monument
is an intriguing issue,especiallysincea short time
after it was made, Hindus virtually abandoned
the rock-cut technique in favor of structural
buildings. Thus, the artistic tradition ended soon
after the production of one of its most remark-
able achievementsand never again was a rock-
cut monument of such scope attempted.4
 Elonumeff
a short time
abandoned
..i smrctural PART FOUR
ended soon
nost remark- LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS
*as a rock-
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 D e t a i la f 1 7 . 2 3 .
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Kaimrr and RelatedSchools
Although regional cultural variations havc bccn
discerniblc since the carliest begimines of Indic
civilizatiot, they bccane incrcasingly rvell
dcfincd over the ccnturies. Aftcr thc Gupt:r
pcriod in particular, regional art schools paral-
lcling linguistic, cultural, and social patterns
rnay be broadly defined according to the tlncc
major geographic divisions usually uscd to
describe the South Asian subcontincnt, that is,
northern, southern, and ccntral (Deccan).Thcsc
catcgories should not bc viewed as absolutc,
especial)y in thc casc of the Dcccatr schools,
which often sharc characteristicsof both north-
crn and southem art, or in the caseof the coastal
rcgions, where on thc cast and on thc lvest
certain artistic ties may bc sccn from north to
sorth, alnost seeming to obviate thc threc
divisions. Witl.rin thc broad sphcres of the
notthern, soLrtlrcrn,aud central divisions, thcre
is a grcat dcal ofvariation arising from nuineroLls
factors itcl,-rding strong local tr:rditrons,as secn,
for exarnplc, in thc cascof thc art of Kaimrr,
where the Bactro-Gandhera hcritagc pcrsistccl
353
long after the art tradition of the northwest was
viablc. Thc stucly of thc regional styles of art,
t1ren,shoulclbe b"sed upon the premise that
witl.rin cach region thcrc is sone conrmonality,
as wcll as upon the recognition that a great deal
^f -.'i"n, i.t" -,irhi"
""
The Hinralayan valley of Ka(n.rir, although
gcographicallysccludedfrorl the rest of South
Asia, has bccn :r part of thc Indic culturel sphere
sincc thc timc of A(oka. lts geographicsituation,
bounded on all sidesby high nrorrntains,has led
to an insularity that contributcd to the dcvcl-
opn-rcnt of its rrniquc cultural characteristics.
Kainriri art is nrainly dcpcndcnt on Indic
idior.ns, modifieci by inllucnces from Bactro-
Gandhera, Iran, and Inner Asia. Through
these neighboring rcgions, inlluenccsfrom later
western Asiatic Hcllcnisn-rn-ray also bc traced.
Howcvcr, for all these inlluences, the Ka6rniri
idiom was unique and earned the region a
rcprltatiorl throughout Asia for its sophisticated,
elegant, and technic;r)ly supcrb schoolsofart.
Thc history of Kaimir has been chronicled
354 SCHOOIS
LATEI<NORTHERN
in an inportant and possibly unique text
relativc to Indic historiography, tlte Raja-
tarcigirl. W titten in about rr481 by Kalhana,
son of Ca4paka,a n.rinisterto King Harga (ro89-
rror) of the first Lohara dynasty, it dcscribes
the history of Ka{mir uP to tlrc timc of its
writing, detailing the building of cities aud
temples, designating the Patrons, and giving
some of the undcrlying rcasoning behind thcir
actions. Howcver, Kalhana is lnainly accurate
concerning thc period of his life and the im-
mediately preceding periods,for which he sccms
to have been able to rely on contemPorary
documents. His accuracy decreascsthe further
hc extendsbackward in tine until the chronicle
becomesa jur.nbleof lcgendscoupled with bits of
histodcaiinformation for the early periods.Using
this material as wcll as some collateral sources,
however, it is possiblc to providc an outline
of the history of Ka(n.rirfron.r the timc of ASoka
t o r h c m i d d l c o I r l r c t w c l f i l r c e t t r t t r y..r g r i n ' t
which the artistic dev€loPncnts may bc seen.
Prr-K alxola
The earlicst sitc that has yielded important
artistic remains is Herwan (Harvan), a
Buddhist monastery a short clistance ftoln
Srinagar. It is situatedhalfway up the slopc of a
mountain bordcring a lateral branch of the
rnain vallcy. Founded under thc Kusenas,pcrhaps
at thc tine o[ Kaniska's cottncil, thc r-nonastery
was apparentlyactive for a colsiderablclength
of tilDe. Constrtlction tcchniques found at
Harwan mngc fron-r carefully cxccuted "Kusdna
diaper" walls to a rather crudc pcbble and rrud
version usually assignedto thc middle or latc
Hola pcriod (mid-fiftb ccntLrry or later). Very
little has actually survivcd at Harwan, and
were it not for thc cottrtyard tilcs found in
associationwrth tlte caitya irall, thc site would
have little to testify to its former inportance
Thcsc early remains, however, alrcady display
at least two strands of the an-ralgatuthat is to
become thc Ka(n.riri school, as they bctray
both wcstern Asiatic and Gupta assocratrotrs.
Of the surviving lertulants at Harwan, the
caitya hall is the most intercsting. Its plan is
Iarly traditions indicatc that the Kaimlr
Valley was a part of thc Maurya empire and
that Aioka hin.rselffounded the capital, Srina-
gara, at a location now lnown as Pendrerhan,z
just south of modern Srinagar. Howevcr, no
archaeological finds in Ka6rnir testify to
Maurya artistic activity in thc region. Only a
single monarch is mentioned in the Raiatndigittt
as intervening betwcen thc Maurya and thc
Kulana pcdods, but during Kusana timcs, the
history becomes more clear. Ka(miri cities
foundcd by thc Kus-a4asar€ still known, such as
Kaniskapura (modcrn Kanispur) and Huvi5ka-
pura (modern U;kur). Of these,Uskur rcmained
an important Buddhist site for severalccnturies
, n d u n d e r u c n t. r r l e , r sttu o t n a j o r r c n o v . ' t i o n s .
one in the latc fourth ccntury and anothcr in the
cighth. It is gencrally bclieved that Kaniska held
rhc fourth Buddhist council in Ka(n.rir, thereby
demonstrating its importance as a Buddhist
centcr by thc sccondcentury 4.o.3
RxMAtNs
sinilar to that of the railya hall cavc at Kondivtc
(Fig.5.r9) cxccpt that therc is no survivrng
evidcncc of thc prescnce of thc -vr.rpa.WJrat
rcmaitrs is a low section of thc wall and original
floor of thc courtyard, which were faced with
stamped clay tilcs (Fig. r7.r). Thc floor tilcs
lvere arranfled to suggcst the form of an cnor-
mous open lotus, which lnay havc rcpresented
the transcenclcnt cosmic lotus, along with
borclcr and othcr motifs. The centcr of the lotus
has r lorv raiscd arca r,vith a hole in the middle
of it, as if it scrvcd as a stand or sttpport.
Ka(nir's associationswidr both the northcrn
Indian art schools and thosc of western Inner
Asie lrc ,.viderrrfrorn the tilc', .rs .ccn in I
rather comnlon typc of Har*''an tilc that shorvs
thrcc seatedasceticsin the ccntral band, with a
rorv of gecsc(iam-sa)bclow and a railing with
figures abovc (Fig. r7.z). The gccsc nlotif was
known in ancicnt Indic art sincc the Maurya
period (Fig. 4.ro) and thc portrayal of figurcs
convcrsing above a railing rvas well established
by thc Kuslna pcriod at Mathrtra. Howcver,
 KASMIR AND RXTATEDSCHOOTS ?55
hat dre Kaimir
ur,r'a empire and
re capital, Stna-
r as Pdudreqhan,2
r. Howevet, no
mir testify to
' region. Only a
the Rajaturaigina
daurya and the
u!a[a times, the
Kaimiri cities
. known, such as
) and Huviska-
Uskur remained
r 7.r . Sectionof tile llo or of caityah^11,Herwan, Kaimir,
severalcenturies
India. Ca. fourth centrry. TeIIa cotta.
'jor renovations,
LCanother in the
rat Kaniska held
Ka:imir, thereby r7.2. Floor tile. Fron H,rwan, Ka5mir, India. Ca.
IS a Buddhist fourth century. Stamped terra cotta. H: J3.4 cm. Is-
3 tituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Romc.

the rather distinctive facial rypes of the convers-
ing figures are probably derived from the more
avc at Kondivte naturalistic renderings of the Bactro-Gandhara
s no surviving regions of the northwest, here reduced to almost
te -rlrpd. What caricaturelike renderings, and not the Mathure
'all and original style. The ascetictype, too, might be traced to
;ere faced with the earlier art of the northwestem portions of
t ire floot trles the subcontinent.The numerals on the tiles.
rm of an enor- which may have been used to expedite rhe
r1'e rePresented proccssofcorrcctly placingthem in rheiroriginal
'- along with contexts, are in the Kharosthi scripr, which was
Lterof the lotus prevalent in tJre northwest. The use of this
r in thc middle script suggeststhat the Kidara ("Little") Kuganas,
sllPPort. a branch of the main family, were still in power
h the northem or had recentlycontrollcdthc region.This would
\restefn Inner confirm the usual fourth-century dadng for thc
. as seeI1ln a tiles, a suggestionthat is also supported by the
rile thac shows treatment of the foliate motifs in thc band ot
I band, with a geese,which resemblcsCupra-periodcxamples
: railing with from norrh and north-cenrralIndia.
:ese motif was Other important pre-Karkota-period sites
t rhe Maurya are Akhnur and Uskur, ancient Huviskapura,
rval of figures which was founded by rhe Kus5r.racnrpcror
.:ll established Huviskain rhc secondcentury,r.o.Thc surrriving
ra. Howcver, sculpture heads from these sites,asuch as thc
one illustrated (Fig. r7.3), have stimulated some
debateregarding their age, but their relationship
stylistically to materials from Hadda suggests
that they were produccd in the late fifth or
early sixth ccntury. Slightly fuller facial features
and a softening of the details distinguish these
works frour Hadda examples. A few pieces
show a strong relationship to the Gupta idiom
of the late fifth century, especiallyin thc softly
rnodcled facial fearurcs.alrhough a rangc in
stylcs suggcstseidrer diffcrcnr periods of pro-
duction. or. aiternatively.that artistsofseparatc
traditions worked at rhe site. Thcse examplcsof
the modeler's art may bc considercdrepresenta-
tive of a major art form in Ka6mrr during thc
pre-Karkota period.
Very few. stone sculptureshave been found
that belong to the pre-Kerkota period, yet an
isolatcd carving representing Karttikeya, fiom
Bijbchara, docuruentsthc cxistenccof a mature
stone sculptureidiom from that time (Fig. r7.4).
Thc image is not a tentative experiment by a
scr.rlptorreaching for forms half-realized in the
creative moment. On the contrary, it demon-
stratesa senseof sure cornpletion by a master
356 LA'IERNoRTHERNscHools

r7.3. Head. Frorn Akhnur, Ka6rnir, India. Ca. latc

frfth or early sixth century. Terra cotta. H: rr.5 cu.
National Museum, Karachi.

.:

r7.4. K:rttikcya. Fronr Bijbehara,Ka(mir, India. Ca. r7.1. Brddha. Provenanccunknorvn. Frorr norrhwcst
fifth or sixrh century. Grcy-black stone. H: roj.J cur. Lrdia or Pakisran.Ca. mid-fifth ro nlid-sixth century.
Sri Pratap Singh MuscuiD,Srinagar. Mctal. H: 32.4 cru. Sri PrarapSinsh Museunr, S.inaear.

, India. Ca. late skilled in his craft and con-{ident of his technical
ona. H: r t.5 crn. and visual solutions. Although the date of the
piece is uncertain, very late Sassano-Iranian ele-
ments in the treatment of the streamersat the
sidesof the head and the detailing of the girdle
and dagger with their pearl ornamentation sug-
gest that this is a work from the H[na period,
approximately fifth or sirth century, since these
elements are emphasizedon Hu4a coins. The
relative\ Hellenjstic tteatment of the torso and
rather muscular body, along with the deep folds
of the garment, are reminiscent of Kusa4a-period
works from Gandhara and Bactria, revealing
Ka(mrr's arristicdebt to that rradition. How"-
ever, other Gatures demonstrate that the Kaimiri
style was also touched by the Gupta schoolsof
northern and north-central India. The huskv.
stockybody build and detailingof rhe anaromy.
while ultimately based on the muscular body-
type popularized in Kusana-periodworks, along
with the full form of the now badly battered
face,suggestworks ofthe fifth century like those
at Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh.
A few rnetal imagesare also known fiom this
period, including a standing Buddha displaying
T H E K A R K o T AP r u o t
While there was undoubtedly a great deal of
artistic activity during the early part of the
Karkota period, it is not until the reign of
Lalitaditya (ca.7z4-5o) that monuments may
be assignedto a particular patronage.According
b the Rajatardigiryt,Lalitadttya conquered most
of north India to the Bay of Bengal. These
military adventures were probably massive
raiding and looting expeditions rather than tme
conquests.As a result ofthem, however, lalitadi-
tya carried back to Kaimir inestimable treasure,
mostly in the form of gold, silver, and bronze.
The vast wealth accrued by Lalitaditya must
have been a major factor in stimulating large-
scaleart production during the eighth century
in Kaimir. Some authors attribute virtually
any eighth centLlry nonument or sculpture to
the period of Lalitaditya, but two monarchs
From northwest
:id-sixrh century. before him also had long and prosperousreigns.
llus.um, Srinagar. Both Durlabhavardhana(ca. 625-6r) and Prate-
KASMiR AND RETATID ScHooLS JJ7
abhayamudra in the Sri Pratep Singh Museum
(Fig. i7.5). Although its findspot and place of
manufacture are uncertain, it was collected at a
time when the museum's attention was entirely
focused on the provinces of Ka3mir, Jarnmu,
and to some degreeLadakh, and it is reasonable
to assumetlat it came from one of these three
regions. The featuresof the face, treatment of
the robe, and proportions of the body are
related to forms widely found in Bactro-Gan-
dhara images. Further, the compressedstature
ofthe figure, the heavinessofthe drapery (wlnch
obscuresthe forms of the body), and the large
size ofthe hands and feet all suggestthe Bactro-
Gandhara sryle of around the fourth century.
However, there is a fullness to thc features of
the face, especially the cheeks and lips, that is
more appropdately identified as fifth or sixth
century, and thus a date of 45o-55o may be
postulated. Although rather strictly in the
Bactro-Gandherastyle, the image provides in.r-
portant evidence of a stylistic source for later
Kadmiri sculptureand painting, whether or not
it was actually made in Kaimrr.
( c a . 6 z 5r o 8 5 5 )
pedirya II (ca. 66t-vr) could have founded thc
Kerkota tradition of monument building prior
to the rcigrl of Lalitaditya. Further, it is possible
that several of his successorsfollowcd in his
footstepsby constructing ten.rplesand patroniz-
ing monasteries. The fact remains, however,
that the eighth century was a major period of
templc construction, using durable materials,
largely attributable to the wealth and power of
Lalitaditya.
The remains at Martaqda probably date from
'fhc
the period of Lalitaditya. Rajaturaigitt Ls
quite explicit on the subject, for in the section
on Lalitaditya it statesthat "That liberal [king]
built tlre wonderftrl lshrine] of Matta4da, wrth
its massive walls of stone within a lofty en-
closute (prasarlantar)."s1^1 r-O rt^, however,
was not the fotuder of the site, for his work
there was a reconstruction of an earlier temple,
perhapsof the sixth century, that is now com-
Ji58 LATERNORTHERNSCHOOLS
r7-6. Phlr of Mata4rJa ternplc. Mertaqda,
Kr(rrrr, Indn. Krrkota period.probrbly rcign
of Lalitaditya. Ca. second cluarter eighth

r7.7. Martttda temple frorn wcst. Mtrtl4da'

Kri rrrr, Indir. K,rkor.r pcr'od. probabll rcign
of Lalinditya. Ca. second quarter eighth
ccnrury,

r7.8. North pcristylc, Mart,4da ler1rple.Mar-

t:nda, Kaalnir, India. Karkota Period, proba-
bly rcign of Lalit:ditya. Ca. second quarter
cighth ccntury.

-fhe of Surya werc placcd around thc plinth of the

pletcly lost. Rajataraigi1t further reveals
;hat tilc temple was dedicatcdto dre dcity of the temple. The iconography is Martanda/Snrya as
tcxt 6 the Univcrsal, r'ith thc temple's ccntral image
sun, S[rya, who is called Martanda in the
the secondaryimages.
T h c t c n r p l ei , r c c t a n g t t l ai nr p l a n . c o r r s i ' t t n g conceivcdofas en-ranating
Architcctr-rrally,thc tenPle and its successors
of a ttv4dapaanda shriue(Figs.17.6,r7'7)'Two
havc generatcd n.ruch discussion rcgarding thc
double slrrincs frank the napdapaon the westcrn
sorirce of thcir forms. Early writers, like Sir
cnd. It is enclosed in a vast courtyard by a
Alexandcr Cunninghan.r, sarv the Ka(mlri style
peristylc wall having eighty-four secondary
as a nanifestation of Creek stylcs.? But such
,h.io.s i.r it. The colunurs of this peristylc are
relationships c1o not ncccssarily ir.nply new in-
Ilutcd, and their basesand capitals are clearly
fusions of influcncc. Hellcnizing elencnts arc
reminisccllt of Syrio-Roman typcs (Fig' t7 8)'
Thcrc is a gate to the colnPould on the west, obviorisly present in tlle architccturAl details of
and major lccondary shrir-rcsin the center of thc tenpl; such as the pcdiment motif and
cach of the two side rvalls. Each of drc eighty- trilobatearches(Fig. r7.7), the surroundingpcri-
four nichesoriginally containcd an iurage, prob- stylc, the var,ltcd arches, and tl.re cngagcd col-
ably of somc forn.rofsurya, and morc dePictions [n-rns. The use of these fornls reflccts wcsterr
 KASMIR AND RELATTDSCHOOTS JJ9

]]:
1:- ' .
..r,.:'

-
' \lrrrrr:rqr, a--:.r,
: : :labl,v rcign
::.:icr eighth it-',.i:;,
':...
r,:...
: '-,roba-
! .r:rrtcr

: :- of the
, :,lf\:.i as
irlage
irlaqes.
. -laccssors
:.:-:ltrg thc
:,. likc Sir
' .jriri stylc
llLrt stlclr
'. ncrv irt-
.-a
' -:ntnts arc
. leteils of
' :notif and
::r,iinq peri-
r.!l{ -
::glgecl col-
-. -. ts wesaern
e'..3&
360 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOIS
Asiatic tastes, and especially idioms that had
been prescnt in Gandhara, Bactria, and other
regions of the northwest. The peaked roof and
pyramidal section of pediments were known in
Bactro-Gandhara art since the Parthian pcriod;
a good exar-npleof a n-ronument that bearsthis
motif is the Sttrpa of the Double-headed Eaglc
(Fig. 2.8). These later survivalsin Ka(mir should
come astro surprise,in light ofthe history of the
region and its associationwith adjacent areas.
Mertanda is one of the earliestand yer largest
of the Ka(n.riri stone tcmples known to have
cxisted. It is likely, however, that it was not
innovative in design but simply refected cstab-
lished architecturrl traditions, probably pri-
marily in wood. Sincc the Parthian-pcriod tradi-
tions at Taxila reveal sirnilar architectural orders,
it may be assumedthat the basic style had bccn
present in the irnmediatc vicinity since the
first century of the Christian era and that it was
very much the local convention by thc eighth
century. Thus Martenda is an expressionof the
contemporaneoLls trends in Kalintr, whilc at
the same time it clearly displays its heritage in
Bactro-Gandhara and ultimately other western
Asiatic sources.
In the eighth centruy, Ka6tlrir was a ma1or
centcr of lluddhisn whose inllucnce was felt
widcly throughout north and castcrn Asia. At
the epicenter of Kaimiri Buddhism was the
site of Parihasapura,rvl-roscnronuments, though
today barely knorvn, scrvcd as models all across
Asia from the Pat't.tir Mountains to Japan.
Although n.Luch destroyed, Parihasapura still
gives thc visitor a senscof its forrner grandcur,
for thc sceleof the rcnrains is truly impressive.
Originally, there was mtlch more to the site
th:rn just the tlrrcc surviving bascmcntsof Br-rd-
-ll\e
dhist builclingswould indicatc Rajaturahgi,li
describesthe town as "mocking the residence
of Indra" (in Treyastrirh(a paradise)and tells of
the imagcs madc by King lalitaditya for drc
various temples, including a rePresentationof
Vis4u as Ma&rakeiata, one of Visnu as P,rrt-
hasakelaua(thc patron of the city), :utd a Brhad
Buddha (Great Buddha), thc thrce rnade respcc-
tively of eighty-four tholrsand rola/<asof gold
(about five tons), cighty-fottr thor-rsandpolas of
silvcr (about twcnty-o11ctons) and cighty-four
thousandpras&asof copper (nearlythree hundred
tons),8 the nurnber eighty-four thousand being
r convenrionused to design:rte a vtsr quantity
and not a literal mcasurement.Lavish expendi-
tures of this sort, evcn if exaggerated,can only
come when there is tremendous incomc to the
kingdom, suggcstingthc veracity of the clairns
of Lalitaditya's conquests.
None of thcse imagcs survives today, but the
remainsofthe calt1'abuilt by Lalitaditya, which
would have housed the BThad Buddha, verify
the claims regarding the size of the Buddha
image. The plan of the structure (Fig. r7.9) is
known from thc surviving plinth, which had a
.eriesofeighr 'tairs on the east.idegiving access
to the top. A pradok5i4apatha around thc massive
block that originally supported the Buddha
would have allowed circrunambulation around
thc main figurc. The original appearanccofthe
building may be infcrred from a Painting at
Alchi that is bclieved to depict this monunlent
(Pl. r9),e a suggestionsuPPortedby the internal
evidcnceofthe dimensionsand form ofthe plan
as determincd by the foundations, the thickness
ofthe remaining wall, and textual evidence.The
height of the structure was probably between
thirty and forty meters, and in style, it may
have resen-rbled contemporaneous Ka6miri
structurcs charactedzedby a peakcd roof, like
that shown in the Alchi painting. The enormous
imagc of the Buddha, which may have stood
thirty n1eters tall, refected certain rcligious
concepts sweeping Asia during this period in
which the Universal Buddha (presumably
Vairocana) was scen as a B/ra,y' Buddha. That
the type must have been comDron in the Indic
sph"ie i, indi."ted by prcserved examples in
stucco, as at N5land5 in eastell1India, or stone,
such as at Kanheri (Fig. rz,.z4) and Bamiyan
( F i g . l o . z 5 ) . H o w c v e r . t n e t a l e x . r n t p L rhs a v e
i , , * i u c J o n l y o L r t : i d ct h c l n d i c c o n r e x t .b u c
a cornmon source in India for these traditions
can hardly be disputed sincc all of the regions
irr uhiclr rhc fuhad Buddlr, conrenrion is
found wcre in contact lvith ancient India as
a source of Buddhological information. The
in.rageconn.rissionedby Lalitaditya rrrust havc
becn incrcdibly impressive-a ruetal figure,
probably gilded or of the yellowish color of
 KASMiR AND RETATED ScHooTS j6I
h duee hundred
thousand being
a vast quantity
[-adsh expendi-
rared, can only
l income to the
n- of the claims

r roday, but the

hadirya, which
Buddha, veriS'
d the Buddha
r Fig. i7.9) is
L l-hich had a
f. gro'ing ".ces
ni the massive
| &e Buddha
:Lrion around
p:rance ofthe
r : lainting at
h! monunent
f,,r-:he internal
re ofthe plan
5 =e thickness
| <.: ience. The
Ll-,',- berween
Lr-e. it may
Kaimiri qo
fr:-i Fo-lL. - _-.
le: roof, like
f:. :norrnous
r2.9. Plan of Lalitaditya's.aitl,a. parihesapura,Kaarnir,India. Ker_
:il_e stood kola period, reign oflalitidirya. Ca. secondquartereighth century_
= reiigious
, :eriod in
::::umably most Kaimiri metal work, larger than most of Lalitaditya's understanding of Buddhism.
a::la. rna[ people had ever seenor conceived-of, resplendent Thus, Cafrku4a's stipa night have been both
- :he Indic as the morning sunlight refected frorr it. One taller than the caitya of the king and superior to
c=::rples in can scarcely imagine the awe and overwhelming it due to Cariluna's implied understanding of
,rr stone, sense oftfie majestyofthe Buddhathar a devotee Buddhism. As in the caseof Lalitaditva's caitva.
Saruyan must have Glt as he srood at the feet of the '"1-
little remains of the original *ootrrn"o,,
:-:s have Buddha and looked up ro the image "which though again, other evidence,including textual
reachedup to the sky."ro descriptions,enablesus to make inferencesabout
:,-:ditions Another monument at Padhasapura,the Jt pa
_ its form. Speci{ically,a secondstructure depicted
built by Cairkuna, who was the Tokharian mini- in the Alchi composition(Pl. r9) almostceriainly
ster of Lalitaditya, is also notable for its size represents Cankur.ra's stipa, for tlrc f,wo monu-
and lavishness.In the Rajatffahginl it is described ments at Parihesapuramust have stood as twin
as "loftier even than the mind of the kine."rl paragons of Kasmiri Buddhist architecture for
: =: have ln context, rhe referenceto rhe mind oithe
- r., ;tgure, generationsafter their creation. The stupa shown
king rnight actually beto the caityaofLalitaditya, in the Alchi painringsecmsto reston a complex
:rlor of which would have been raisedas an expressron basesuggestiveof the cruciforrn p aficarathaplan
362 LA|ER NoRTHERN scHools
:l
-r-'
, , .it!
-iil
, '
revealed by thc surviving foundations (Fig'
r7.ro).
A o.u't be, ofstone sculptureshave beenfound
in associationwith Cankuna's srlpa, although
their original locations on thc monument arc
not knorin. Sevcral,including the one illustr:lted
h e r ci l i g . r 7 . rt ) . r t e r e p r c ' e n t r t i o no'f c r o w n c d
Brrd.'1h,ri. AlLhouglr cx:rt,rplcsof rhis srrbjcct
are known ^t le"rt f.om the sixth century, thc
crorvned Buddha had becorne a well-known
iconograpl.ricform in Buddhist art not only in
f"(rn"rr but in other parts of ancicnt India and
Asi.rbt rhc eiqhdrccntury.I lte crorvtr'tteckl'ce'
rnd cairingsusu.rllyfottndotr rlte'c Ggure'do not
indicrrc .r contrldicrion of irscetici5nlor 'rn
adoption of a rnaterialistic vicw within the
reliiion. Radrer, thesc onancnts symbolize thc
hisilest achievencnt, Universality, and thcre-
foie, although thcsefigurcs en.rbodythe principlc
ofl.ristoricalBddclhasQintaaakaya),they are also
,.lepictiorrs ol lnas(snt ,hognkaya)rnd es;'ccially
oI rhe Adi Brrddlr.rslril/ralilaAaya('clf-origi-
nated). Crowned Buddha figurcs invariably
wcar the norn.ral robe of a Buddha and thus
crnnot be confuscd rvith bodhisattvas in art'
I
It-
lr-,
-L"
L'-:
I
r- -:
'l
j
r7.ro. Plan of Cairkur.Ia\ ritpd.
Parihlsapura, Kainllr, I11dia.
l i Karkota pcriod, reign of Lalitadi-
: tya. Ca. second quarter eighth
,,, 1
Stylistically, the figure betrays the Kaimiri
artist's dcbt to the ffaditions of the Bactro-
Gandhara region, which are espcciallyvisible in
rlre toqdlile;armerrt wirh its cnrphasizedfolds
,,u", rlle tor'o. Thc rarhcrnturcr'thrfotms of che
body and s\ight coxtrapposto pose reveal furthcr
ties to thc traditions ofthe northwest. Howevcr,
rhc clinqing rn.rnn, r in u hich thc drapcry revcnls
rh" forir.trof rhe body bcnearh clerrly demon-
stratcs an overlay of Gupta-period aesthetics.
Even the downcf,st eycs, albeit on a western
Inner Asian facial type, are reminiscent of GuPta
formulations. Thc crown, with its pcarl designs
and Sassanid-typestrealners, suggcsts further
associationsbetween Kaimlr and the westcrn
Asian realn-rs.
Another irnportant site of thc Kerkota Pedod
is Pendrethan, where A6oka is believed to have
founded a capital, and that was often pa-
tronized by the rtling monarchs of Ka3lnir. As
at n.ranyKaimiri sites,both Buddhist and Hindu
rernains have cone to light at Pandrelhan. A
snall but nearly perfectly intact Hindu templc
at Pandrcthan was probably built in the eighth
or ninth century, although it is cornn.ronly
 KASMIII AND ltELAt H) scIIooLs t6J

r .i . r n r ' s r / , l P d .
. :r:r, trrclia.
: ::: oi Laliradi- r 7 . r 2 . H [ l . ] u t c n r p l c , i r o n l \ r , c s r .p a n d r c t h i n , K r i D r i r ,
.:.lrrcr eighrh india. Posiblv Kirkorr pcriod. C.r. cighth-ninth ccrl_
rurv.

: :ir t!:lslnll
' :.:. B:rctro- ascribedto rhc terlrh throlrgh trvcllth centudcs
(Fis. r7.rz).1!The tcrnplcillLrstrarcs in rnoclcllike
: r'isiblein siruplicitv thc besic format of xrchirecturxl
: : r-.izeclfolds ordcrs iclcnti6ablcin l(a(n.rir sincc rhe cighth
: :ms of the cclltrlry! but th:it clerivcclfiorl I lone-stending
: .'.rI further rvoocior lrchitccturc tradition. Thc peakccl,
.:. Hort'evcr,
gablcd roof is cspcciallysuitablcfor rhc snorvy
r . -'j I lcve:lls
H r r ' ; r ' ) . l r l r l c r . . W l ' i l . r / r cs p c r. l i . [ n r r. s . , r r .
: i_ alenloD-
rnoclificclover tinrc in fcaturcssuch as thc u,idth
: -',cstl1ctics.
of the ccntnl ercir or slopcof rhc roof. it is this
:: , \l'CSIeIn
roof typc that is espcciallycharactcristic of rhe
, ::: of (ir.rpta
Ka(niri style. Thc tcnrplc rcsts on a ptlnttl
:-- .,.11clcsigns built in thc ceDtcr of a tarrk; rhc u.all of thc
- - - .:. iilrthcr tenk parallcls thc shapc of the plinth r.ith its
:, \,cstern
oFsct sidcs.In contrastto n-ran1. other tcrrplc
traclitionsof thc posr,Guprap",in.1,,.r1r",.uip-
- :,: -.raPc.riocl tural dccorltion of thc nonunrcrrt is sinpL.
'-'-: to lt:rve
A rorv of c:Lrvcdelephantsat thc basc of thc
':tatr
Pa- cctrtralshrineancltheclccoration ofthe doorrvay,
i-rntir. As
pilastcrs,anrl a fcl. lceturcsofrhc roofcoruprise
: ::r.l HindiL
the nrejor c'nrbcllishr.ncnt of thc strucrure.Tilc
:::rhel. A r 7 . r r . C r o w r l c d l 3 u d d h r F r o n r P r r i h a s a p u r e ,K r i n r i r .
figurc oiLakulria ebovcthe lintel olitheJoorrviry
: :: :,: rcruple India. Fron Cxnkunr's -r/tpd. K.rkore pcriod, rcign
o f l a l i t a d i r v ; r . C e . s e c o , r r dq u a r t c r c r s r r u c c r m r . , .
inclicatcs tlut tl-rc rnonurucnt r,vasprobebly a
:: rr. cightlr
Storlc. H r2S.2 cIr. Sri Prrrjp SiDgh NluscLnr, Sive tcmple crectcclfor the lralupatasect.Thc
. r:runonly itrterior of the tcmplc is also sinLplce-riccptfor
Srinagar.
J64 LA'tEk NORTITERNscHooLS
r7.r3. Ceiilng parcl, Hindu te rPle. P.ndr€!hen,
Karkolapciod. Ca. eighth
Krinlir, India.Possibl,v
a beautifully carved ceiling panel (Fig. r7'r3)'
Clearly bascd on wooden Prototypesr-and ulti--
mately dcrived fron the "lantern-roof" type of
westcrn It.ro". Asia, this type of cciling becomes
a stlndard feature in n-ranynorthern Indian tellr-
plc sclrools.In tlris cxample, t'idyadharacouples
i."- to r".,r. as atlantids, supPorting the archi-
tectural bcams of thc recessedsquares The
uitlyadharasstlPporting the ccntral square arc
r'r',.,.h smaller in scale than those at the four
exterior corncrs of the cciling ancl those around
the central lotus panel are still smaller' Thus,
the efcct of distance,or ratircr in.rplied heieht,
is providecl for the configuration. The uidya-
/laras in particular seerr.tto snPPortan eighth to
ninth ccnttrry date for thc ternple' for the softly
modeled, feshy bodics, simple jewelry, and
elaborate,curly coifrurcs suggestthe imagcry of
thh period throughout northem ancl north-
centrallndia.
A numbcr of isolated stollc sculPturcsrecov-
ered f.on-r Pindrctl-nn also scctu to datc fron
this period, around thc latc eishdr or early ninth-
cintlry. An imagc of lnclrlni, the consort of
--
T
r7-r4. Indr,ni. Fronl Pandre{han,Kaarnir,India.Prob-
ably Kirkotx pcriod. Ce. iatc cighrh-carlyninth ceD-
rury. Beigc stone.F{: ca. r5o cln. Sr1PratapSingh
MuscuIn,Srinagar.
Indra, rcveals thc still visible amalgamatory
nature of tl.reKa(n1iri style complex (Ftg' t7't4)'
The goddess is recognized by the njru tbat
,he holds in her lcft hand and by thc elcphant,
Indr:r's uahana, that aPPea$ behind hcr' Hcr
sharply dclineated anatomical structure suggests
stylistic associationswith tl.re Bactro-Gandhara
idiom, as does the heavy treatment of the lolds
The costumc, esPe-
^the acrossher legs.
of drapery
cially tunic, is Iranian in type and the
animated posture is relatcd to north-central In-
dian post--Guptamodcs. In Particular, the figure
rr.r"vi" .on.rp^..d to other stylistic idioms that
.,,mbine thc Hellenizcd northwcstem and Indian
no.1es, srtch as those of the Post-GuPta Period
in Rajasthan(Fig. rr.r3). Yct, like them, it is
nlorc thxn thc sur-nof these associationsand is
representativeof a distinctive local idion'
 KASMIR AND RELATED SCHOOTS ,65

Trrr Urrera Dvwlsrv (ce. 855ro 939)

Avantivarman (r. ca. 855-83), founder of the
Utpala d1'nasry, revived the moment of pros-
perity that Lalitaditya had brought to Kaimir.
While still heir apparent, he founded Avantipura
(modem Vantipur), and built theie the temple
of Avantisvamin. Later, as monarch, he built
the Avantiivara ternole. The earlier of the two
temples, the Avantisvamin, dedicated to Vipr-ru,
was modeled after the Martanda temple, al-
though it is on a smaller scale(Fig. r7.r5). The
more ruined condition of the Avantisvarnin
temple makesclosecomparisondifficult, but it is
certain that the later temple was more elaborate in
detailing. Its iconographic principles are identical
to those of Martanda, except that the central
shrine contained an image of Viq4u, there called

;mrr, India. Prob-

-<arlv ninth cen-
St Pratap Singh

amalgamatory
lex (Fig. r7.r4).
th.e vajro that
,r the elephant,
:hind her. Her
:ucture suggests
actro-Gandhdra
ent of the folds
costume, esPe-
npe and the
)fth{entral In-
rrlar, the figure
stic idioms that
$em and Indian
n-Gupta period
r7. r5. Plan ofAvantisvamin tem-
lilie them, it is ple. Avantipura, Kaimir, India.
ociations and is Utpala period, reign of Avan-
cal idiom. tivannan. Ca. 8JJ-83.
366 Lt'-tERNoRTHERNscHoors

to left of stairsto shrine'Avantisvtnin r7.r7. Villru Catrrnhrti. FroDrAvantipura'Ka3mtr'

r?.r6. Sculpturc India.Utpalaperiod,posibly rcign o,f Avantivannan
,J-pi.. ,qtar"ipt*, Kailnir, lndia Urpala period'
Ca. 8J5-83' C". sss 8':.Bi"ck .to"". H: 47 crn Sri Pradp Singh
reigirof Avantivarrnan.
M.,seu,,t,Srinrgar'

Each schcme.Abovc the blocLsrr trh figurrtive carving

Avantisvami, insteadof Martanda / Sfrya'
around the peristyle presur.rably is a cornice of geomctrized l1ower designssup-
of th" ,h.ir.t",
jdentical form oorted bv in.itition brackets ornarnented with
corrtaio.cl an imagc of Visnu in
figite,.ath considercdto be an iion, h""i, end intcrspersedwitli bird and plant
to,h"
""or."1 designs.Each figural con.rpositionis cornpletely
cmanatioll and J reflection of the central deity'
frllci by the figures, giving a crowded appear-
N.i,i". -or. nor less than him but identical
form his to ihc paoels.An overall flatnessis suggested
io hi-, they representedin graphic "nc.
by the arrangement of Iigures and the satneness
UniversalitY.
may oi th" depth'of.rrving ai'ott thc entrrcsurfacc'
The orieinal richness of ornamentatlon
at Stylisticaily.th" ligurc' are fullcr in ltoln rh.rn
bc seen in"some of the surviving sculptures
the h-aveshorter proportions, and
ih. ,ir". p"n.l, on the balustradesfanking ""ili", "*"-pl.r,
,.,r""1 o.ni stiffncss, denonstrating that the
stairsto the shrine demonstratc the exuberance "
of the left Ka(mrri idiom, like many othcr Indic styles
oi-,tr. ..,, tp,orut 'ryle. Thc fronr face soft
by of the ninth century, had abandoned the
Urt,,.,r"a. ,t'olv, .t frgtrreof Vi'ntr anended and post-GuPta hcritage'
and modeling of the Gupta
t-o f"*"1" .o.rro.t,,- p'"'o"-t"bly Laksmi
faceof the Th" ttt"i" frg.,.", io parti;lar have fattened'
Srrrrvarr(Fig. t 7.1o).wlile the imer
"rho*, with a taut, muscular aPPearance'
,rnt. t,on. r royal figure or possibly broad torsos of
still reminiscent of thc Hellenized heritage
lndra, occomprniedby artendrntsThc opposite
a similar the region.
frl,o,r"d", toth" ,ighi ofrhe stair"'berr"
 scHooLS ji67
KASMiRAND RELATED
and an ethicalone,and eachofthcsc is.ssociatcd
rvith one gri;ra (quality). Thus, Sarirkarsene
begins thc proccssof cre:rtionwitl.r bola(porvcr)I
Pradyumna continucs it, at rvhich tinre the
duality ofpralrri and p11flta appcar through thc
,

b,"
usc of rrl-irarla (sovcrcignty); and Animddha
crcatcs iranifcst rratter u'ith Jalrl (crcative
cnergy). The cthical activities inclLrdcthe tcach-

F
ing of uronotheisticthcory by Sarhkarsana,
the trrnslrtion of this theory into practicc by
Pradyumna,:rnclthe liberationachicvcdthrough
the practice by Anirr-rcldha,with the rcspective
gunas of jiana (rvisdorr), r,ir7o (hcroism), ancl
trjas (spiritual porvcr). In Keimrr, wherc thc
Ptiicar-ara doctrinc rvas poptlar, images of
\'...... .... .-i-i.. .lllt)ton. lht,

exar.npic,finely carvccl :rncl polished, dcrnon-

stratcslDost clearly the sculptural styie in usc
at Avxntipura, with thc fecial forms associated
with lvcstcrn Imrcr Asian types end the torso
I
still rcvcaling tics lvith thc stylcs of the north-

I
west regions.
Anothcr figurc fiom Avantipura r-nly also
have been a proclnct of Avantivarn.ran'sbuilding
r7.r8. BrahrDa.Fronr Avarltipura,K:rlurir, lrrdia. activity at thc sitc (Fig. r7.r8). Thc imagc
: Kirirrrir,
Urpaia pcriod, posibly reign of AventivaruranCa , { c 1i c r . r l r . g ' C R r . ' 1 ' r ' d . rr . . ' , 1 . ' ' . r r : r . c t i c .
8j5-83.Blick sronc.H: Jr cm. Srr Pntnp Singh lvcaring a sin-rplcgermeirt, an anirt al skin on
MLtscum,Srlnrgrr.
his lcft shouldcr,but no Je$'elry. Thc fullncss
ofthc torso,rounclcrllcc, and less:rcce[triated
posture arc part ol a disccrniblc trcrrrl in
.ivlng Sculpturcsfrom Avantipure exhibit both a Ka(rutri scuipturc of rhc period, and again
l:: SLIP- varicty in iconosraphic types and a reiatively snggcstafiinitics to wcstcrn Inncr Asian art. A
. lvrth r,ide rangc of stylistic corlvclltio[s. A rcprc- slccknessaud refinerucrrtof thc surfeceof thc
: pl.rnt scntation of Visnu in a four-herded forur, storc pcrv:rc1es the rvork, charactcrizingthc clc-
- -'rcly rvhich may be calleclCaturnrhrti, shows hin1 ganccoftcn associetecl rvith thc arr of tlrc l(aintir
'r cir-
f as a conpositc of four aspects(Fia- r7.r7).ti region.
- -'.\ted The flont (cast) f:rce of thc deity is hunran, Thc Mtrttnda and Avantisv-min tctrrplesxre
:::atless those on the propcr left ancl right sides(north i t r t p o r t . nl r, \ t . . l r r ( r rrros t l r ( p o \ \ ( _. r n , lv i - . r l r t y
-::licc. ancl south) are heaclsof r boar and Jion rcspec- of thc I{arkota :urd Utpala periods rcspcctivcly.
:: than c i v c l y .r v l L i l ct l r . r to r t l t c I e , r ( r n ,. r ) r ' t l ' . r r' ' f . r l l t c i r r , . r r r r o r gr l e u r l i r r r \ t o t ) r l c n L p ' c s
: .. and demon. Thc lion lnd boar llaccsdo not rcfer to surviving in Kainir, yct they are arnong
-
-Lr the thc Nrsirhha and Varaha auafirs of Visnu but t r . l . ' 1 3 . . tc v c r b r r i l ri r ) f l ) . r rr c j i o n . I l r e l . e c n r
!tYles rad:'cr to t)yihds (cn.Lanations) dcscribcd in thc to havc bnrst uliprcccclcntcd on tlle scene at
: t: soft Pailcar-tra Vaisnavitc doctrine. The hunan the uromcnt in I{air-nir's lristory rvhen its
.::tage. face thus represents Vasudcva, lrom whorr rulcrs rc:rchecl the summit of thcir powcr.
'Whilc
- .::ined, e r n . r r ' . r rl h( e t l r r , c r y r / i , r s rr . r r i r k . r r r . r nl r.,.P r e - nreny l:Ltcr Klinrri temples arc trrch
sentedby the lion), Pradyurura (rcprcsentcclby srteller in scaleand lessgrendioscin conccptioll,
r :e Of rhc bo.rr). A n i r r r d d l r "( r e p r e . q n r qbl 1 t h q they arc oftcn vcry linc cxamples of the archi-
"n,l
derlon). Each lprla has tr,voactivitics, a creativc tecturaltraclition.
 j68 LATER NORTHERN sCHooIs

T u r T w o L o n a n a D y N A S T I E SA N D T H EL a s r H r N n u K r l r c s
(Truru ro Fo un.rrrNrs Crurunrrs)

In both architecture and sculpture, the art of

Kaimir after the tenth century is primarily a
tradition of rather limited variation. Small
temples similar to the example at Pandrethan
were built, some of which had compound walls
with nutrerous small cells, like those of the
templcs at Martel.lda and Avantipura. Many of
the sculptural fonns seen from the cighth cen-
tury were codified into unvaryilg types, and,
in general, the images became incrcasingly stifl
showing litdc of thc former vitality of thc
KaSmrri tradition.
This is clearly seenin a number of sculptures
from Verinaga. Onc exanple, probably of the
twelfth century, shows Viqru Caturmurti (Fig.
r7.r9) and thus can be appropriately conpared
to the Visnu Caturnfrti from Avantipura
(Fig. I7.r7). In the later example, the enphasis
on musculature lessens,the posture is straighter,
the {igure is nlore colunnar, and thc face is
much broadcr, with clongated eyes. A thick-
legged, husky form and an overall stiffnessof
the figure characterizethis latcr phaseofKa6nliri
art. In tbis cxamplc, all four arms of the deity
are preserved,providing a complete example of
thc iconographic type. The trvo upper hands r7.r9. Vignu Caturnlrti. Fronl Verintga, Kairnir,
hold tlre lotus (padna\ and conch (3an,L/ra) while India.Ca. tweifthcerrtury'.
Crcy stonc.H:67.5 cu.
thc two lower hands rest on tllc heads of rwo Sri PratapSinghMuseurn, SriDxgar.
vyudhapuru5as. the female personification of thc
mace,gadadeuT (to Visnf s right), ancl thc male on onc leg than on the othcr, is a fcature seen
personification of the rvheel (tabaputusa)to hts in a number of othcr in-ragesfrom Verinaga
left. The dhott worn by Visnu, rvhich is shorter and secmsto have becn a local peculiarity.

KaSvitrrIvonrrs .tNn Mrrar l,nacEs

Ahhough divorccd frorr definitivc association
w i r h a n y r n o l l l u l i e n r s. i r c . o r t h e r c i g n o f a
particular monarch, the stylistic ancliconographic
developmentsof ivories and metal images fronr
Kainir n.raybe seen to follow much the same
pattens as those in stonc. The survival of thcse
objccts in sorne cascshas probably been due
to their having been exportcd fron Ka(rmr
to thc ncighboring regions of rvestern Tibet,
where they werc kcpt in monasteriesr-rntilthe
recent political disturbanccs,during which they
were brought out by refugees.
One splendid composition consists of a
central ivory dcpicting a seated Buddha in
dhyara nudra surrounded by a host of other
figurcs, including bodhisattvas and emaciated
ascetics(Pl. i3). Flanking the central group and
sct into adjacent nichcs in thc wooden archi-
tcctural fiamework are two standing Buddhas,
carved out of separatcpiecesof ivory. A slight

r7.2o. Indrr (left) and Brahnre.
From Ka(rrrir resion. Ca. cighth
century. Ivory, wirh painr. H:
10.6cnl (lcft); ro cn (righr).Pre-
scnt whereabostsunknown,
bcvel to the edge of the wooden frame and
thc existencc of a second similar compositionla
K:lin1ir, suggeststhat this examplc was part of a sct of
67.5 cnr. Buddhist scencsthat adorned thc drum of a
votive stupa. The deiicacy and intricacy of dre
carving, both ofthe ivory picccsand tbe woodcn
:.:Jte seen frame, docun-rcntthe once rich carving traclition
that 1tlust have existcd in fragile materials
:::\'. alongside the Dlorc nonumcntal arts. Thc
architectural orders of the woodcn fiamc, r,vhilc
clearly reflecting those used in Ka6urir in the
eighth century, alsoderuonstratesorrrcothcrwise
unknown fcatures, for the stcpped arches ancl
,rh they pentafoil may rellect actuai architcctural types.
T w o o r i r c ri v o r y f i g u r c 'o [ r h e . " m e a p p r o r i -
:: Ofl n-utc period rcpresent Indra arrrl Bralrra as
_:i1a ln they v'ould have appeared in attendance of a
: other ccntralfigurc ofthe Buddha (Fig. r7.zo). hrdra
::.:ciated is drcssedin thc manncr of an lndic monarch
I: ::') xnd whilc Brahna r.ears a robe very much like
' that of a Buddha. Both arc attendedby figurcs
-r.rcnl-
L --Jhas, who turn thcir attention to thcm as opposed to
r ilLgllr the location of whar rvould havc been the
KASMIR AND RELATED SCIIOOI-S
central figure. Tire beardcd Brahma is rcn.rinis-
cent of the Bactro-Gandhara artistic tradition
of thc Kusata pcriod, visiblc especi:rllyin the
treatrncnt of his drapcry and body. Indra's
distinctive crown miy bc traccd to a Sassanian
source.
Thc metal imagcs of rhc Karkora, Urpala,
and Lohara pcriods form a contillrurn of
s tv l i . r i c t r c n , r . , L , r Jr c o n o g n p h i c i n n o r . r r i o . r .
that has yct to bc sttdied in clepth.It is gLrite
evident that thc sruvivirlg metal pieccsarc only
the slightcst tracc of a massivc,compJcx tradi-
tion. In ternrsof qLrllity, it is casyto scefrom
extant cxamplcs tlut Dtxny irnagcs rank an-roug
the bcst n.rctalwork produced in any culture
and that thcre vu'asan cascud facility offabrica-
tion that suggcsts a vast ancl activc produc-
tion. Incleed, sincc thc technology to cast thc
Brlal Buddha of Lalitadityahacl alrcady becn
achicvcd,therc can bc little doubt asto the tech-
nical ability of thc artists.Thc particularalloy of
ziuc ancl coppcr popular in Ka(r.r.ririnctalrvork
crcatcs a yellorvish color and gives the imagcs,
370 LA-]ERNORTHERN SCHOOLS

cen_ r t . : : . B u d d l r r 'f r o r r r K a i r r r i r e g i ' r r 'C r ' e i g h c hc e n -

r?.2r. Surya. Frorn Kainrr region Ca_ seventh r u r ) . B r r s s .H : o 8 c r r r .C l c r e h n d M ' r ' e u r r ro f A r t '
Art'
ioru. B."ri. H: 48.6 cm. Clevciand Museum of Cleveland(John L. ScveranccFund)'
Clweland (Gifi of Katherine Holdcn Thayer)'

soft Thc caftan clings to the body in a manner

cven when ungilded, an esPcciallybcautiful'
i n l . r y t n p r r r c c o P l l c r o r s i lver reminiscent of Buddhist robes of the Gupta
glou. ofren. assumes
of thc"c rr orks'1 he pri nrary oeriod, and likc then, the dr:rpery
!1111q11s. thc s,trfrcc legs' and
the main iron.rin.o." at the hem, bctween the
evidence available indicatcs that '^t
linear
of the northwestern thc colla, and cufi-s.In this case, thc
stylistic thrust carlc out
the pre- detail of thc bordcr pattcrn of the garment
Iidic rcsions as sccn in exampics of
as well as later and tl.re dcsign of the crown contrast sharply
Karkota"period (Fig. 17 5), Pieccs'
afi of Gan- with the snr"ooth surfaccs of the rest of the
-iti.lt ,ft'.* stronf affinities to the
in-rage.On the basis of comparison to works
dhara. Bactria, and associatedregions'
that wxs also nf ,il. ,",,"nth ccntury in other Parts of South
An overlay of the Gupta style
'ctrlpturc tr'rdiri'rn Asia, howevcr, the piece should be assigned
vi.iblc in rhe Kaimrri stonc
tlcganc ro th.rt period.
f o s t c r c d .d. ri s c i n c L i v' cer i c so f s t r b t l c d
a r l
l i c c e 'd i s p l r l r ' i r n r l a r
s cvcntlt- O r l r c rK ' i r l r r i r r t c t np
irn"*.., i".t.''aitg rn'rpprorirtrlely of the styles. of the ancient
srtryr drc"ed in a amalganation
..n,i,ry ,.p."".ni'tion of and the traditions of
f o u n d i n S urya ,rorrh"*a,,"tr1 regions
. " f t " n , ' b o o t r . . , n dl r e i o f a t y p e India after thc Gupta
r T z r ) T h o trgL .,.,rthern and norilt-ccntral
i r , " n " t i " A [ g h . ' n i s t a n1 l - i g pcriocl. Two rcPrcsentxtions Budd]ras' one o[
the Strry..
,t"niine in a rtricrly ftontrl posc (fig r7 'zj)'
tl,c g'a"ful [orrrr' and "rbde i . n a l n e f f ; s . r 7 . : z ). n d o n e ' c a t e d
i;;;; i",r"t. tho'rgh thel probably datc
lrcritege' b",rry id, ireritagc,
lod! tr"n'ir;out sttggestivcof I Gupta
 I{ASMiRAND RELATEDsCHooLs J7T
epithers.16 The presencco[ a Tibetan inscrip-
tion on an image of unquestionable Ka6miri
manu&cture suggeststhat the piece rray have
been executed for a Tibetan patron, or that it
was made in Ka3mir, but transportedat an early
date to the adjacent regions of westem Tibet,
where the inscription was added.
The seated Buddha figure is worked in a
virtually identical style (Fig. 17.23).The position
of the hands has protected the drapery on the
torso from wear caused by its being touched
during worship and it may be suggestedthat the
standing {igure might also have had such a
clearly delineated robe. The gestLte is the mudra
of the fourth level of the teachingsdisplayedin
exactly the same manner as seen in the later
westem caves. Since this figure only slightly
postdatesthe latest of those images, it may be
assumed that the iconography is the sarne,
although it is unfortunate thar rnore informa-
tion about the context of the image has not
survived. The facial features are typical of
Kaimiri rendcrings of this date and include the
characteristichigli arching brows; wide, hori-
r. Ca. eighth cen' 17.23.Buddha.Frorn Ka{mir region.Ca. eighthcen- zontal eyes; plump, curved lips; a marked
,\luseum of Art, tury. Brasswith silverinlay.H: 4r.2 crn.Los Angeles delineation of the chin; and a narrow chin but
County Museumof Aft, Los Angeles(NasliandAlice broad brow. The fullnes of the face and treat-
Heeramaneck Collection).
ment of the eyes and brows suggestsstrong ties
to seventh and eighth century Inner Asian
depictions.
v ln a manner fiom the eighth century, perhapsthe period of One ofthe most elaborate of the known Ka6-
, of the Gupta Lalitaditya, by comparison to the standing miri bronzes is a represeutationof a crowned
raPery assumes crowned Buddha figures from Cairkur.ra'ss/r.lpa Buddha, Vairocana, seatedatop a lotus, f,anked
:n the legs, and (Fig. r7.rr). The metal figures are slightly by stilpas,and accompaniedby numerous other
case, the linear slendererin build, however. The standingimage figures and elemflrs (Fig. 17.24). Its inscrip-
rf the garment hasan accentedbend to the hips, and the weight tion, which contains a date of the year 3 or 8,
contrast sharPly of his body is supported firmly by his stiff left is of litde use in detcrmining the date of rnanu-
rhe rest of the leg, while his right leg appearsto be caught in facture since the era is unspecifiedand the two
Lrison to works motion. The left arm swings out fiom his body, donors, Sankarasenaand Princess Devairiya,
parts of South as if helping to balancethe figure. The implicit are unkno.wn.u The ligatures and style of
ilJ be asigned movement ofthe figure bearsa striking similarity the work, however, suggesta ninth-century date,
to the "walking" Buddhas of Thailand.l5 A Thc fact tlrat onc of thc donors was a prince.s
h.oiav a sin.rilar great deal of wear on the torso has softened indicates the level of patronage that the work
.-: the ancient the details of the drapery, although it is clearly represents, that of the nobility. The whole
: traditions of based on the Bactro-Gandhara heritage. A composition rests on a plain base that contains
, aner the Gupta Tibetan inscription on the base of the piece the inscription, above which is a highly con-
: Buddhas, one calls this the "Respected image of Revered ventionalized rock massin wfuch the Buddhist
L!u
\r
|5. r /.?J,/l Negaraja." Here, the term Nagaraja refers to wheel, two deer, and two human figures
r :robably date Sakyarnuni Buddha, in one of his rarely applied may beseen.The rusticatedrock massis arranged
372 LA"IER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

ilr--V"rr..""' Buddhr' Frotl Ke(rnir rcgion. CA'

n.*. *i,r, sl'er inlav-tl.3r cnl :::1,'r::l:l:tt '
Ne\1 York

"l'/ Ro;kcrcllcr3rd collection)'

iiti. *a no.' l"l,' D
 KASilliR AND RETATED sclrools tZJ
in cavelike forms containing dresc clemcnts,
scparatedby pillarlikc clustcrsof rock. Above
the rock basc is e rvater surfacc or,rt of rvhich
t } e l o t l s " n . l f \ r ^ , , , i g d r r r c r g c . r h c , , rl , o l e
rcprcsenting the cosmic oceu (that r-r-rr1st be
crosscd to attain enlightcnment) supportcd by
thc goros (drvarves)r'ho representpropcrtics or
catcgoricsof tl.rervorlcl in rvhich tire teachings
of the Buddha arc prcscnt(r.vhee1/decr). Out of
this, thc lotus clncrgcsbcaring aioft tJreUnivcrsal
B . r ,. l h . r( s ,a 1 l , a irL a L a y ni n l r r l r i ,h ' . e r l b o , i , , l
thc essenceof all Btdclhas (Tathayatagarbha),
D r \ r . r l r r \ e n l .. r l , l f i r r r c I l r , l , ' n r . , . r o C i t h c r
sidc of him bear sfrlpasof forner Buddhasrnd
s y r ' r b o l i z ct h c . r r r . r i n u e not f r l r c . " p . , . r v r c r o r '
o f t h c q L t c r fro r , n l i g h t c t r r l e r. r r\ p , r t o f r l r c
ljniversai. Thc BLrddhais seeuas both rrirrrara-
kayd ^id srabhaL,ikafrayo tlrroLrgh the rlcans of
. a ' l h o q o k a y ag.r . ' p l r i c r l l sl l r o w ni r r r l r , " r r a n g e -
rncnt of elemcnts in the composition. These
c l , r | | c' t . . r r e . p c c i f i c r . . c r r r c , . r o c \ o t e r i c
initiations (allisefta) that thc practitioner
r r n . l c r g o e 'r o ( r c v c l o p h r ' c l r q i o L r .. r b i l r r y . r7.25. AvalokileivAr3.Frorn Kx(r)ir region. Lohara
Thus, the cro\r'n rcprcscnts the five jtard and pcriod, reign of Qucen Diddi. Cr. 98o roo3. Bronzc
the chasuble refers to the four quarters of thc rvith silverinl:ry.H: iJ.4 cnr.Sri l,ratrpSjnsh Muscunr,
Srn:rgrr.
r r r r r c r . . . I n r l r o r r . r h e f i g r r r <r c p r , * r ' r . r l i c
Buddha as thc Univcrsrl teecl.Lingrhc //ranrra
of the lourth, csotcriclevel.18This icorLogrephic
form is also closcly rclateclif not iclcnticalto
votivc inages fbund throughoot the rvcstcrn assymbolizing the sub.jugationof thc hindranccs
cavcs.reAll of this errrichlicnt is relatccl to the of tire practitioncr. His corpulcncy is also
ir.rcrcasinglycleborateritual aspcctsof RLrclclhisn iconographically spccified. These lcatnres dercr-
ancl eech of the elcmcnts is syrrbolic of various minc tlrrt the fisure is the angry (kro,lha)fotm
initiations, the implication bcinq that l'hcn the of Vajrapeni. Angry fornLs wcrc present in the
i-i,i.-: - ; .....-i... -1. -.,ctiti^ner 1r..,
cavcs of Aurangabad and in othcr earlier corl-
bcconrc a lluddLa. Thts, thc' devotee sees r c x i . .b r r rb 1 l l r , c r ! l l l r . , r n i r r r l .' c n r r r r ) r .r r c

j himself in drc image as thc fully cnlishrcnccl

Buddha.
A drantatic translo|merion of an earlier
probable c1:Lte of this image, thc Lrsagehad be-
come rvidespreadin lludclhist arl. Essentially,
thcsc forms represeDtthc intcnsity rvith which
religiousconccpt is seenin a rcpr.sentationof tirc practitioncr ovcrcoulcs his l-Lindrances and
f' Vajrapani, thc bodhisattva rvho crnbodies thc the fcrvor widr I'l.rich he pursucshis task.
=dr'l concept of thc n-Lysticrlporvcr of trinsccn.lcnt A mctal imagc of Avalokitc(vara datccl in
At knorvledgc (P1. ra). In contrasr to pcacc-fir1 the reign of Quccn Didcle (98o-roo3)scrvcsas
--*** reprcscrtatioDs,Vajrapani. iclcntified by the /ojra an ir-nportant clocun-rcntof stylistic change in
ln his lcft hand, hcrc is sho*.n r,ith an angry Ka(miri scrilpturc(Fig. r7.25).20The six-armed
I cxprcssion orr ]ris face, creatcd by the archecl
bron's end barcd fangs.His hair is depictcdin a
bodhisattva is llar.iLcd by Tara and Bhrkuti,
who appcar in a rnuch reclucedscalc.A greater
"1lame-likc" convcntioll and tl-rc c,rnarnenrs arrgularity to thc posc and
treatncnt of the
that he lvears arc serpents,gcncrally rcaarcled fornrs of the body of thc main figure lnarks a
 374 LATE\ NORTHERN
SCHOOTS
departure from the more softly nodeled forms
of previous centuries, yet the still muscular
torso, distinctive facial features with high
T n r A r r o F A D J A c T N TR l c r o N s : W r s r r n t H T M A L A v A N
F o o r H r L L sA N D W E S T E R N
TIBITANCurrunar RrcloN
The metal imagcs made by Ka6n.riri craftsnen
and, often, the craftsmen themselves,frequently
trayeled to neighboring regions, for Ka(mir
served as a cultural and artistic source for much
oF the surrounding area. Kaimiri rrrists are
known to have traveled throughout Inner Asia
and even into China, and a number of works of
art may be attributed to these individuals. Of
more immediate interest are works found in
the neighboring hill states and the Tibetan
cultural areasof Himalayan India, which provide
important insights into thc range of artistic
traditions that llourished in Kaimir and its
neighboring states. In somc cases, as in tbe
western I{imalayan foothills, distinctive local
styles prevailed, while in others, as in Ladakh,
a virtually pure Ka6miri idion was fostered.
The temples and sculptures of the western
Himalayan foothills region have been largely
overlooked in studiesofSouth Asian art. Because
of this, many of the monurncnts remain largely
unknown, and those that have been identified
have not beenplacedwithin the generalhistorical
context.2l However, these regions fostered art
schools that werc not only relatcd to those of
nearby centers,such as Kaiurir and other parts
of northern India, but that were also distinctive
in their own right.
This can be seen in a large image of Durga
M r h i . e srrr . r m a r dri .n c a l l c d L a l , s a n ai n i r s i n -
scription, rvhich is in a temple namcd for the
goddess,the Laksana Dcvi unndir at Br:.hntor
in thc Chanrb.rHill rracts(Fig. r7.26). ls in-
scription further revealsthat it was dedicatedin
the reign of Mcruvarman, a king whose capital
was at Brahmor, and who is believed to have
lived in the mrddle ro ldrc sevenrlrccnrury.22
This datc falls in the pcriod ofgeneral turmoil in
north-central India and is just after the es-
tablishn.rentof the new Ka6n.riridynasty of the
K a r k o L a sf.h u s . i r f o r m . a r r i r n p o r r d n mt issing
arching brows and large, half closedeyes are
clearly within the broad definitrons of the
Kaimiri style.
link in the development of Hindu sculpture
and numbers among the very few surviving
large-scalemetal inages fron any early period.
Although the image has not been chemically
analyzed, its yellow color suggeststiat it is
probably an alloy primarily of zinc and copper
rather than tin and copper, strongly suggesting
ties to the work of KaSmiri craftsmen. Possibly,
a local artist using Kaimiri tcchniquesproduced
an image of a stylistic type that was heavily
dependenton the post-Gupta traditions of west-
em India in particular. The slenderwaist of the
figure contrastedagainstthe full hips and thighs
especially characterize thc sryle, although the
elongation of the form and the richnessof the
prccisely rendered onlalnents is a prelude to
the known metal works of Ka6mir. The facial
featureslack the highly emphasizedarchedbrows
and elongated eyes found in KaSmiri sculp-
tures that were heavily dependentupon Bactro-
Gandhara traditions, and instcad, the face may
be associatedwith thc post-Gupta styles of
northern and wcstern India.
Another image in tbc sarne ten.rpleshowing
Ngsirhha has been judged by somc to be of a
sorncwhat later date (Fig. t7.27)- However, in
spite of its unuslral appearance,espccially the
pose, the inage probably dates from the same
approximate period as the Durga. It cxhibits
many of the same ciraracteristicsof quality
and materials of fabrication, although it shows
an cntirely dillerent anatomical strrlcture, one
which n.rore heavily depcnds on the classicistic
tr.rdirionsof G.rndharaand rclarcdregions.Tlre
fullness of the arns and legs are part of thc at-
tcnlpt to denonstratc graphically the power of
tlrc deiry. .ltlrough 1reis shown in r qrriescenr
posc, simply scated on an arbitrarily defined
landscapesupported by two lions. Again, the
high quality of craftsmanship, as well as the
iconographic ingenuity of the work, suggest
 KASMIRAND RELATEDSCHOOTS J7J
. -.t ..,.. ...
: ::ions of the

- - i,, crrrlntlre

=u' surviving
- -. .1., ^^,;^l

ri':n chemically
::rrs that it is
---,.,J.^.^""
'.:.\'suggesting
:!:rr.n. Possibly,
.. ... h,^,t,,..,1
::: \1'asheavily
.r::irrllsOf west-
:.: ( aist of the
-. rn,l rh;dl.
. i,h^,,.1. rl."
:,-inessof the
, .'. prclude to
:- it I Ile Tacl;ll r7.26. Durga MahisAsurarnardini.Ar Laksant Dcvi r7.27. Nrsirhha. At Laksand Dcvi rrraalr'r.Brahrnor,
: r rrched brows ma4lir. Btahnor, Chanba Hill rracrs, Him,chal Chamba Hill rracts, Him.chal Pradesh,India. Ca. rnid-
Pradcsh,India. Reign of Meruvamran.C:. urid-to- to-late seve[rh centruy. Mctal. H: 9r.) crn.
larc scventhcentu.y. Metal. H: r24.r clD.
t: -:!on Bactro-
I -\.- A-^ -.^.,

-:::r sryicsof
the richness of the traditions of thc region. related forms. It is especiallyuseful to compare
. ..1-..L^.".,.- In the western Tibetan cultural arcas of this figure to the bronze from thc rcign of Queen
-:-: ro be of a mNga'-ris (Ndri), La-dwags (Ladakir), and Didda (Fig. r7.25) asit provides an understanding
:lo\\'evcr, in lahul-Spiti to thc eastand southeastof Ka6nir, of the stylistic direction and an idca of the rela-
.t:.cially the Buddhist monasteriesfrorn the eleventh century tive treatmcnt of largc-scaleimagcs as opposed
:--r:rr the same and later have survived ro the present day. to smaller versions.The anatomical stllcture of
::. It exhibits While the original buildings have oftcn been the figures is vcry much thc sarae,diIl^cringonly
. -t ^,,"lif-, s r r b j c c t etdo l a r c ra l t e r a r i o n tsh. e yc o n r a i nm e n y in minor details, although there is lcss of a
: :::h it sirows objccts and paintings produced by Kaimiri Geling of flesir in the largcr figure. Becauseof
:::,tctute, one artists duing their original pcriods of construc- the scale it has becn possiblc to develop the
:-:: classicistic tion. An approximately eleventh-century mctal jewelry and textile design in much greater de-
.: :;gions, The image of a bodhisattva from Lahul-Spiti is such tail, although this greater complexity is also a
:.:i of the at- en exampJe ( F i g . r 7 . 2 8 ) .N e ; r l y h u m a n - s i z ei c. characterisric of rhe larer dare. An inrcre"ting
. :i:; porver of decisivelydemonstratesthat major metal images stylistic Gature is the dctailed elaboration on
::- : qulcsccnt ofa Kaimiri idiom were in usein the rcgion. The the navel ofthe latcr image in contrast to earlicr
::-::h defined attenuation of the figure, relative still-nessof the examples, which has becomc a very stylized
',. lqalD! tne pose, and harshncssof the rnodeling, as well as remlant ofthe cmphasison a muscularanatomy
:, ....'11
as thc the forms of the claborate jewelry, especiaily seenthroughout Ka6miri sculpture schools.This
::i. suggest the crown, characterize the later Kajmiri and Gature occursin painting aswell.
J76 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

Probably thc nost abund:rnt evidencc of tl.re

e\tension of Kain:iri art styles beyoncl thc nuin
politicalccntersof Kaimir is found in the ancietrt
kingdon of Ladakh,norv in thc stateof Ka(nir
in Incli:r.In recent ccnturics, the region has bccn
almost couplctcly uder thc cultural srvay of
I rbct. .ln.r rnd((,1.L..oeK I ls aPrl) (ccrl .r(
esscntiallyan outpost of Tibetan culturc. Horv-
ever, through thc eleventh ccntury, thc rcgion
was greatly influenccd by the cosmopolitan
culture of thc capitals of Kaamir. Such associa-
tions lnd thc transurission of Kaimrri culture
''io to Ladakh is suggested by scvcral isolatcd
'ii, sculpturesand inscriptions.
;:r'- A r n o n gr l r e . e . ; , r ' r h . Lrph.e m o s ri m p r c ' s i v ci .
an enornoLls rock-cut represenhtion of the
Bodhisattva Maitreya carved on the face of a
solitary rock pinnacle at Mulbck, an ancient
stoppillg point on what is now the road between
Srinagarand Leh, thc main netropolis ofLadakh
(Ftg. r7.zg). Standing in splendid isolatiorr, the
pimracle rmrst have bcen an important beacon
for ancient travellers. The nonunental image
nray hrvc been cre.,ted:rround tlte eiglrrlr .rr
ninth century, a clatcsuggestedby both feeturcs
of the anatomy and face of the Maitreya figure.
Although at filst glance, thc somewhat stiff
posturesuggestsa latcr clate,the rather firil body
r.vith its l1eshyappearancerevealstics to cighth-
ninth-ccntury Ka6mtri conventions, Thc attcn-
tion to the abdominal and pcctoral muscles is
standardfor Kaimiri works of that tirne, as are
:, tl.rc high arching brows and full cheeks of the
face. The general simplicity of thc omar.ncnta-
tion andjewciry fruther suggestsan earlier rather
than a latcr date.
The irnage is about nine rneters in height
and is onc of the few surviving Brlal sculpturcs
in thc Indic spherc. It is likely thac the creation
of the sculpturc was related to the Vairocana
cult, which was responsible for other gigantic
in.ragesin thc Kaimir region, such as the now-
lost fuhad Vairocana of Parihasapura.
The history of Ladtkh becones increasingly
clear around the elevcnth century for it was at
that timc that the great Tibctan translator (Tib.
/o-rs--la),Rin-chen bZang-po (qs8-ro:s), and
r7.28.Bodhisattvs. Frorn Lahul-Spitircgion,Hirn'chal
the Indi.ar pa4dita,Drperirkara Atiia (982 roJ4),
Pradesh,India. Ca elcventh centurv Metal H: ca-
rzo cn . NatiotlalMuseull, Karachi' r r e r ea c t i v ei n r h es p r e r do f B u d d h i . r ni n w e 5 t c r t l
 KASMIR AND RETATEDSCHOOIS Ji77

r7.29. Bodhisattva Maitreya. Mulbck (Ladakh region),

Kaimir, I11dia. Ca. eighth-ninth cetltury. H: ca. 9 nr.
 378 LATF"RNORTHERN SCHOOLS

Tibet and Ladrkh. Rin-chen bZang-po is said chen bZang-po, and had returncd to his fanily the r::,
to have lourded one hundred eighi iernplc" in estateswith the desire ro share his Buddhist exall]:
Lad;,|h. spiri. and Ctr-gc. *"ny ,nor. experience with those in his home vil)age. As
"ni sryl!-.
bulldlng en(leavorsarc arrributed to his fol_ J n e x p r c r \ i o no f l r i s r r n d c r " r a n d i ror fg t L e B r r d _ bcars :
lowers. d l r i s rt e a c h r n g s . r n"dr o i n , r r r r c rp e o p l ci n r h e inhab:::
T h c f i v c r c r n p l c c" o r n p r i s i r qr h e C l r o s - ' k j r o r e s s e n r i , , l lor yf r e l a r i v i r v\ i t u t y a f i ) . "e r r h e d c d i _ thc li:;
\Skr. dharna u,anlala)ai Alclii irr tadakh arc cator)- rnscdption states,23he built the 'Du_ tt-aditr.
clearly thc result of such building activity, for k l ' r r r * . t , , . i c o n o g m p J r i cp r o g r a r r o f r h c rescmf .
they may be attributed to the mid_to_late D u - l h a n g r c f r e . r rB u J d l r i . r r r a c l r i n g sp r o p - nenls :
eleventh century on the basis of stylistic and agated by Rin-chen bZang-po prior to his \l'orkl]:-
cpigraphic evidence (Fig. r7.3o). Although the convcrsion to forms of drc religion being that rh.
exactdrre lor the foundirrgoI Aichi is unc-ertain, preached by Ati(a, $,'hich occurred in eithei tion, cc-
inscriptions at rhe 'Du-khang, the earliest and roJo or roJ4. This scrggeststhat thc structurc had anc:
main building o[ the Chos-'khor, rcveals that was.erectcclby the to4os or 1'erhapsearly ro5os. Thc :
it was built by one Alchi-pa sKal-ldan Shes-rab The enclosedcourtyard in fiont of thc 'Du- lntcflot
of the'Bro fanily, who haclstudicclat Nyar-ma khang makcs it difiicLrltto photograph in its for ther
in Ladakh under immediate followcrs of Rin_ entirety. but dctailsshon that thc entranccto tll Laoa\

,i

s..1"-.f ,
l NJU| l^--
?
: l/./ Ltl) | )r^|a
L
: '/ '/^ _ l
z a| oLD fl.lr;E
!l .'!IN:
";/ ".'./, .'
!i

!5 . ':/ F

4 L
f.l )
',1-,1 :
,:.1
n
.y

r7.jo. Pla
associatcdt
 KASMIRAND REIATXDSCHOOLS 379
-- -i l-, the interior of the hall is decorated with fine constitute tte only extant examples of complex
l::ihist examples of wood carvings in the Ka6miri Mahayana Buddhist painted mqf.|olas in the
.-:. As style. The toralla ovet the porch of the building Indic context. This astonishingly well preserved
:i Bud- bearsrampant lions and other composite animals collection of ma4daldsdocuments both major
!:ithe inhabiting semi-roundels(Fig. r7.3 r), suggesting oortions of the Ka(miri Buddhist pantheon and
::: iedi- the vitality of the ancient Kaimri woodcarving ilrtu"lly the whole Brahmanical pantheon as
:": Du- tradition. Details of the ornament3tion closely oerceivedbv the Buddhists.hrtendedastechdcal
:: the resemblethe stoncwork of surviving monu- *"dit"tiotr"l devices for the use of the monks,
PIOP. ments in Kaimir proper. However, the wood- ttrc ma4/alas rcpresent the Sarvadurgatipari! odhana
:o his working is much more detailed, suggesting Tantra cycle, in which Vairocana, as Sarvavid
bemg that the renowned Ka{miri woodcarving tradi- (Universal Knowledge), appears in many differ-
either tion, celebrated for its exquisite workmanship, ins manifestations. All forms, which include
r:ltctufe had ancient roots, Saivavid Vairocana Sakyamuni, Mafiju3ri,
",
The paintings that decorate the walls of the Prajnaparamita and others, are composed into
'Du-khang
interior of the are truly remarkable, these huge ma1dalas, each with thirty-seven
for they, along with a Gw other examples also principal deities and many ancillary figures.
in Ladakh and neighboring Himalayan regions, One of the best preserved examples (P1. 15)

(K ] CHOTENS

1il.J
':--,/ r

/,':\l
\UI

o2a4o60 100

0 5 l0 l5

r7.3o. Plan of Chos-'khor, including original temples and later

associatedbuildings. Alchi (Ladakh region), Kaimrr, Iirdia.
J8o r ATEI NoRTHERNScHooL\
tiuy figurcs do not seem at all inappropnate on
the wall surfaccs.
T L c c o l o r s o f t l r c D L ' - k h r n gp r i n t i n g s' t r e
confined to muted hues of the prinary colors
o l t r , b l r c k r n d w h i t e . t h c l i n r i r c dt t s eo f g r c e n
l , , d r . l l o * r n J t l r c p r c v . r l c n cocf r e d r n d b l u c
giver'a re.crved tonllily to rlie
"tld-,o"lb "'
deerned suitablc for
ioo-, t l.,i.h was perhaps
meditational purPoses
Thc Surrr-isek(gSrrnr-brt',cg'1 Fig r7 3':)' a
tlrrcc-riercd structilre ncxr ro thc Du-klI'rng'
w . , r ,l i k e t l r c ' D u - k l r a n g . b r r i l tb y r t t r c m b e ro F
tlLe influentirl Bro family T'lrtrl-klrrims- od'
'Du-khang Alchi may havc con-
rr.rr. Wood carving on facadc, the founder of thc Sum-tsek,
(iaiakh region), Kainir, India Ca mid-eleventh cen- structed this building not long after the'Du-
khane was built, asmay be inGrred from stylistic
,nd ipierrphic evidcncc l ike otltcr strucrures
meditative ^, nl.hi ,i't" Sutn-t,ek rcverl' hou tlte native
shows thc hierarchic schemeof thcse
architectural tradition of Ladakh, characterized
c1evices.In thc outer ring arc the exterior
' ' r ' a i r , r s .d' e i t i c so f v a r i o t r 'n o n - B u d d h i s p
r an- bv oiled-up rock walls faced with mud plaster'
hlib""n ,1""ot"t"d with delicatewood carvings
.h"'on,
-dh-oru-, wlto, oncc converrcd to t]rc BLrddhisr
of thc Ka(rniri style Triangular pedimcndike
prouid. a safehaven for thc practicc of
g.ld,lhisi ,r.r".litotions Thc outer portion of the fonns are combined widr pillars, pilasters' and
Bud- other arcl.ritecturalelemcnts, all of which find
,rondalo ,.prrscot, tl-rc four contincnts of
ls corlnteltrarts in the itone monun-rentsfound in
d l r i s r c o ' r n o l o g y . ? aT h c c e n t r a l P o r t l o n proper' The
..rr."it"a pill'rrcd chnrnbered the Srrnagar region o[ Kaimtr
", ""ii.lrly "nd flgur", 'et'into ttre rrchitecturrl tottlcxl' (some
t,"it pt"."a ,lirectly on tle centcr of the pinnacle rcplacctnenr')25 rlso
thesc oi which rnry be latcr
of lt,,io,,,ntMe.r.t,ti.tcaxis of the univcrsc ln of cosmo-
deities conforn-r to the stylistic Paraineten
vast hxlls residc the thirty-seven urajor
politan Ka(miri art.
of the nv4lala, who reprcsent the thirty-seven '
Th" ol"n of the building is unusual, perhaps
wings (or aspccts)of enlightenrncnr (bodhiPaksi- qs'encia)ly
c v e n u n i q t r c i, n B u d d h i ' t r r t ' f o r r h c
Lo). by niclret on
squrre cenlr.rl 'plce is cxrcnded
Each fisurc is rendered in exquisite detail and r7'3o) The
,1i" *"rr, ,torrh,'"nd east sides(Fig'
h", elJg"nt, attenuatcd b-ody with a nar{ow by three
"tt in the interior of the Surn-tsek is dominated
-aist ao.l ihe in.rpressionof musculature in thcse
(Pl' sisonric bocllrisattv,itttagc' rhat sr'rnd
torso, characteris;icof tirc Ka(miri idiom
of iilh.r, r.pr...n,ing rc'pectrvclyAvalokiteivara
16). Certain fcaturcs, such as the practice are
(Pl. r7). lri.'itreyr. ind Manjtrsri Thc niches
deuicrine rhe f:rrlLer eye in ' tlrrrc-qu'rrers- whose
ir"o rioti"t in Leight, as are the figures'
vieu frie .rs i[ der.rcbedfro'n the l'ce' tugge't
Asia heaclsarc visiblc to visitors standing on thc sec-
tics to other rcgional schools of South rlte
ond-\torv lloor' A dcdicaroryinscriptionto
(Pl. 3z). Often only abottt- tcn centlmcters ln ' l ' r r l - k h r i nrs-
of I e f t o f M , i t r e y . ,' f c e r e x p' rlr er nc 'cr hpat rt1c l e "
ireigt.r,,,tt"," fig.,,es "t" clearly the work of Body'
of bd 'er up tirc'e rlrrcc
,rriii",otit, xrtis;. h other nural traditions The M'rnjuiri im 'ge u rs
Speech. rnd Mind.26
South Asia, xs at Aja+t' (Pls 8 rr)' patnters
. . e r t . , i i n o r d e rt o r e t ' t o u cb o d i l yi n r p t r r i r i easn d
worked on a lareer s-ale, but hcre the elements
litcrally to obtairr a human Buddha body (nbnarakaya):
ofth" .o,ttpori iJos xPPcarto have bccn
to the the Avalokite(vara was made to temovc vocal
tra,rrf".t.d'fro,tt a manuscript tradition
impurities,.glo.io.r, as a Buddha-speechimage' and to
murirl contcxt. Cornbined into extren-relycom-
the obi"i,t body (so'nbhogakaya);ar.d
plex and enormous cornpositions,however' "
 XASMiR AND RELATID SCHooLs JEI
:: ':roPrlxte on .1d*
-' -__,1nrlngsarc
: ::::1ilIy colors
::\!- of llfeen
: r.l xnd bluc
: : ..itv to thc
: .iritablc for

:. t7.32), a
)u-khang,
::rcn-rbcrof
-,::rrims-'od,
'
-tilve con-
'Du-
:::: the
1 -.t',li"ri.

a !tructules
:t1e natrve
' ::i.rxcterized t'.ta
: :: .rJ plaster, ,.. t,'::..,
: car-vings
- : . .tmentlike
I ,i!CrS,and
. .ich firrd
: :, ioutrd in
_ - rDer. lne
: ::: \ts (some
: .:-:-t)25also
' : cosrro-

.. perhaps
: :\-ientixlly
::icheson
.: o). The
. :r' thrcc
: r in thcse
- _irrcsvara
::chesare
- : ',. rvhose
: : tIIe sec-
::.ntothe
- i nr tts-

: Body,
: :qc lvas
: . : i r i e sa n d
:.:i1ta4yi)" ,; { .-.-.
'.'l '.?
vocal
i-. and to
17.32. South lacc of Sum-tsck. Alchi (Lad.kh region), Kalmir,
.;i: anal
India. Ca. rnid-eleventh century.
362 LA'|ERNORTHTRNSCHOOLS
the Maitreya image was made to obtain an
"absolute" Buddha-body (dharnakaya)and as a.
Buddha-mind image.
Manju(ri, Avalokite6vara, and Maitreya are
the thrcc Great Bodhisattvas of the Sarvavid
cycle. In Mahayana Buddhism, all characteristics
of existence are divided into "families" (ftr.rla),
usually given as live or six in number. These
bodhisattvxs represent rcsPectively the Vajru,
Palrra, and Buddha families and may document
a holdover from an early tradition that empha-
sized only three major family divisions. In
contrast to the wooden sculptures on the ex-
terior ofthe building, theseenormous figures arc
made of mud phster that has been painted with
the sarnecxquisitc detail found on the walls of
the buiiding. Each bodhisattva's/ftofl displaysan
array of forms, including figures and buildings,
and eachhasits own iconographic theme.
'Du-khang,
In contrast to the paintings of the
which were somber and reservedin their colora-
tion, the paintings of the Sun.r-tsekvirtually
shinner with warnth and color through the
gcnerous Lrseof ycllow and green, in addition
to red, blue, black, and white (Pls. r7-24).
It i. unlikcly that the differcnce in paletre
between the two buildings was due to a chrono-
logical difference since the buildings were
aparently built within a short time of each
other. Instead, a religious reason may have
accounted for the differences, for while the
'Du-khang
was apparently built fqr the nedita-
tions of the nonkhood, the Sum-tsek was
probably intended for the laity.
A smal1 painting of Amitayus, Part of a
scherneshowing Sukbavati, the western Paradlse
over which he presides,from the lower story
of the Sun.r-tsek,demonstratesthe full richness
of the Sum-tsekcoloration(Pl. r8). The crown
worn by the figure clcarly indicates that he is
Amitayus, and not Amitabha or Ardtabha/
Anitayus. The throne configuration in this
composition is lessthan half a meter in height,
'Du-khang,
so, as in the caseof the the artists
essentixilyworked in a miniaturist stylc, com-
bining tiny elcnents to achieve a mural design.
Thc central {igure of Amitayus is garbed in a
robc decorated with elephant-riding warriors,
rnany of rvhom are shown performing the
"Parthian shot," that is, thcy are tumed shooting
backwards over their elephants in the manner
charactedstic of alcient Parthian horsemen.
Tlresedeadly warrion uould seemincongruous
as ornaments on the robe of a Buddha whose
very name nreans"Etem,rl Life." It may be
suggested,however, that such a design, wl.rich
may bc traced back to much earlier Iranian
sources,rePresentsa late survival in the Ka(miri
context and is indicative of the cultural cross-
roads that define Kaimir itself. It is possible
tbar suchIururiou" fabricswere the prerogative
of Ka6miri nobility, and that the clothing as
worn by the Amitayus indicates his royal pre-
rogative as the king of Sukhavati.
't
Unlike the paincingsofthe'Du-khang, where
color was applied in a flat, gcnerally unshaded
nanner, the Sum-tsek Paintings arc notable for ::a i
the richnessoftheir coloristic cffects.Often, two
colors are used to suggest a kind of glowing
surfaceto the skin offigures and also to provide
the impressionofdepth and three-dirnensionality
to the forrns. Such "shading" may be an out-
growth of a long distant ancestry in the Hel-
lenistic-Romanized art of the Indic northwest,
for the forms of the bodies seem to be the
painted equivalentsof the sharply defined, often
muscular physiquesseenin Ka6miri sculpture.
One of the most interesting painted composi-
tions at Alchi shows Prajfiaparanrita,identified
by the book and rosary that she holds, which is
also on the lower story ofthc Surn-tsek(Pl. r9).
She is attended by for.rr emanations of herself
and is the object of devotion ofa noble woman
and a priest, who are shown just below her. To
either sideis a depiction ofa tall structure. Given
the archaeoiogicalremains at Parihasapuraand
the renown of that site as a Buddhist center,
along with the forms depicted in the painting,
it is likely that theserepresentLaliaditya's caitya
at ??dhasapura with its towering form and
gigantic metal Buddha irnege.on the ic[t. and
Canknr1a'sstupa, at the right. Thc practice of
depicting important Buddhist shrinesand monu-
-.nt, be traced to thc earliest pcriods of
""o
surviving Buddhist art. In the Sunga period, for
example, depictions of the Mahabodhi temple
and other shrines, were alrcady represented
That these monuments are shown with Prajia-

peramite suggests that she was the primary
deity of Parihasapura and that the site may
have been an inportant center for her worship
in Ka6mir.
The shading of the anatomy of the central
figure is done with meticulous care. As is the
practice throughout the Sum-tsek paintings,
each element of the shading is a single pointil-
listic stroke, so {inely executed that this feature
is observableonly at great enlargement.Prajfia-
peramita's garments and those of her attebdants
and worshipers are alsofinely painted renderings
of the luxurious textiles that may have been
used by the Ka3miri nobility. Her diadem, with
its very linear forms, may be a descendentof
the "hair net" type of crown seen occasionally
in Bactro-Gandhara sculptures of the Kugar.ra
period. Her hemispheric breasts, attenuated
'waist and animated posture are feninine char-
acteristics that appear widely in South Asian
art; however, the extreme narrowness of the
waist and the attention to anatomical detail and
musculature in the abdomen and torso typify
the KaSmiri idiom.
Although the identification of this {igure as a
form of Prajfieparamite is confirmed by the
attdbutes she holds, her green color does not
conform to the usual iconographic descriptions
ofher. Further, the presenceofthejfua Buddha
Amoghasiddhi at the top center in the group of
five jiras rbove her suggeststhat she may also
represenr Sydnrarart(GreenTara),and therefore.
mlght be rdentllledas rrajnaParamlra- 12r2
This suggestionis strengthenedby the presence
of a secondpainted figure in the Sum-tsek that
more clearly combines the features of Prajfra-
paramita and Tara (P1.zo). Although this figure
holds Prajfiaparamita's characteristicattributes,
the book and the rosary, she is surrounded by
depictions of peopie affiicted with the eight
perils and their salvation by means of devotion
to Tara. T'his figure is thus a dual goddess,
symbolizing not only the salvationism of Tara
but thc suprene salvation dbtainable through
the knowledge symbolized by Prajf,aparamita.
This representation,which is on a wall of the
second story of the Sum-tsek, is one of the
few major scaleirnagesren.uining in the Ka6miri
painting style; the figure alone stands about a
A N DR I I A T E DS C H O O I SJ 8 J
KASMIR
meter in height. Yet, the techniquesofmodeling,
the coloration and extreme attention to detail
are comparable to these elementsof the minia-
tures more commonly seenat Alchi. In general,
the paintings of the second and third stories of
this three-tiered building are painted lessfinely
and with more limited use of the expensive
brighter pigments used on the first story. The
secondstory was not a public area(and can only
be reached by climbing a notched log ladder
to the right of the veranda on the exterior of
the building) and the third story is in fact totally
inaccessiblebecauseit has no floor at all, and
can only be viewed from below. These stories
were painted for the completion of the icono-
graphic program rather dran to be seen up
close, a fact which may have infuenced the
artists to use larger scale depictions for their
walls, as in the caseof the Prajfrtperamita-Tera.
Over the door on the south side of the Sum-
tsek and visible to the viewer as he exits the
building is a representation of Mahakala, an
angry, protective form ofAvalokiteivara (Pl. zr).
As a dharnapalaor "protector of the Buddhist
law," Mahakala is chargedwith overcoming the
enemies of the faith, namely, those who are
difliculr to convert. hence explaining in part
his fierce appearance.His name may be translated
as"The Great Time," (that is, the Great Destroy-
er [Death]) or "The Great Black-One." He is
characteristicallyshown as blue in color, though
can be other colors as well, depending on the
specific form of Mahakala being depicted. His
position over the entrance/exit to the building
befits his protective role. Thc triangle bcneath
'iail"
him represcntsLhe of mctcoric irnn
intended to imprison all evil-doers. Ofparticular
interest among the figures who surround Maha-
kala is the depiction of an angry female who
may be Sri (sometimes said to be dre Buddbist
hypostasis oi the Hindu goddess Sri; Pl. zz).
The iconography of this figure is generalized
so that it is dificult to determine which of the
several manifestationsof the Sri-type goddesses
she represents.She is characterizedby her angry
appearance, skull ornaments, and the mule
(aluatara) she rides. Like Mahakala, deities of
this classare also dhatmapalas.The shading on
her skin and that of the animal sherides creates
,'E4 TATTRNORTHTRNSCHOOLS
the sense of an intrer glow, which, Iike the
skin tones ofthe other figurcs as well, is striking ;
against the f,at, dcep blue of the backgrouud.
The ccilings ofthe Sur.n-tsekarc also painted.
The dcsign, which consistsof painted replicas
of lcngths of cloth, accomrnodatesthe strlrctural
divisions of the ceiling with its wooclen beams
I
(Pl. z3). Today, many Ladekhissuspcndlengths
of cloth as faise ceilings in their: honcs and
sirrines, suggestitrgthat the Sur.n-tsckpaintings
docun-rcntan early nanifestatior-rof this prlctice.
It is likely that thc cloth clesignspainted so
carefully by the Alchi artists \.vereclose rcplicas
of somcofthe luxnrioustextilcsavailabledurirg
17.33.Sourhfaccof Lha-khang+o-rna from southeast.
the clcventh ccntury. Rcflccting thc Ka(n.riri
Alchi (Ladakhrcgion),Kalnrr, India.Ca. third quartcr
position as part of the crossroaclsof Asia, the cleventhcentrry.
textiles revcal a broad cross sectiou of what i
must l-ravcbeen popular techniqucs thct in use, t
'1
including dying, tie-dying, printing, brocrding,
and enbroidcry. Thc varietiesofpattcrns further Ladakh from the east and had exerted his in- I

b e t r a y t l r e . r n , i c t t rl L e r i t r g co f t J r er e g i o t . f o r fluence on Rin-chen bZang-po around ro5o-54. I

dcsignswhich werc cLlrrcDtfrorI lnner Asia to T h e L h e - k l r a n g - ' o - n r tah. c n . a n d i t s p a i n t i n g s .

India and China are reprcscntcd. One popular are vcry propably products of about thc third
r n o t i f .r s c r i c 5o f r o u n d c l rt i r t t t r r u ,rlv i t l t p c . r r l . . quarter of thc clcventh century.
is known from Iran to Japan and is ultimately The style of paintings in this building is ex-
based on Sassaniandesignsof the sixth century emplified by a represcntation of Vairocana/
(Pl. z4). Thc exanple illustratedbearsa pair of Sakyarnuni in thc center of the north wall
dancing figures of clearly Indic origin, thus (Pl. z5). Though painted on a much grander
rcvcalingthe blcnding of traditionstbat is chxr- scalc, lvith thc central figurc almost a meter 1n
actcristic of much of l(ailuri art. height, thc composition may be comparcd to
A tbird building in the Chos-'khor group, a examplcs knorvn from Pala-pcriod paln leaf
modest building known asthe Lha-khang-so-ma m:rnuscriptpainting. Notable amolrg the distjnc-
(Fig. 17.33),bearspaintings of a sl.rarplycon- tive P-la clcments arc the lockcd knecs of the
trasting style. Its siurplc construction i11 the standing bodhisattva attcndants, their arched
typical Ladrkhi rnud ancl rock tcchniclue cloes backs, and badring-suitlikc dlorls. The use of a
not prcpxre the visitor for thc surprise of the biack outline to defilc thc contours and forms
paintings within, which arc in a style thxt is ofthe elcmentsin thc con.rpositionis also typical
clcarly clcrived from the painting idiorn devel- in rnany Pala paintings. Yet, whilc the Buddha
o p c d i r r B i l , n , l B c n g l l i t r r l t c c . L ' t c r np . , r t i o n rnd his attendentbodhisattvas are stronglybased
"r
of the subcontinent during tl.re Pala and Scna on Pala types, the figures are "modcled" in a
p e r i o d s .T h o u g l r t l ' e d . r t t o f r h i . . l r t t c l t t r ci ' manuer not seenin Bihar and Bcngal printings.
not fixed by inscription or historjcal documcn- Instcad, the attention to anatomy and shading
tation, its traditional namc, Lha-khang-so-ma, allics the figures to thc KaSmiri stylc and the
Iirerally "thc ncw ternple," suggcststhxt it was painting traditions presumably derived from thc
built aftcr at ieast thc original buildings at thc n o r r l r ! \ c ( t e r tnr l d i r i o n . .l n c o n t r a stto p a i n t i t t g .
site rverc already in place. Yet, tl.rcstrong favor strictly of thc Kaimiri mode, howcvcr, Iike the
of the Pala idioln in thc paintings suggcstsdrat examples in thc Sur.n-tsek,the shacling of the
it might have beeq creatcd not long aftcr the skin, particularly seen in tl.rc two standing
great castern lndian patlrlita, Atisa, had come to boclhisattvas, does not crcatc the sense of a
 KASMiRAND RrrATrD scHoors jid5

glow or sheenbut rather appearsmonled, which
"-ieht
,uqg.rt that arrists of the easrernschool
h"J .o.i to Ladakh and had added some
misunderstood "touches" of the KaSmrri idiom
to their works. Such hybridization could, of
course,be the rerult of many factors;it is also
Dossible,for example.that artiststrained in the
kaimiri srylehad modified their works bccause
of a desire to emulate the paintings in manu-
scriptsbrought to this region from the east'
A second-composition from the Lha-kharg-
so-ma shows Kalacakra, a tutelary deity of the
Vairayana/Tantric Buddhist pantheon whose
name literally means "time-wheel" (Pl. zo)'
iron southeast. He is shown as blue in color, multiarmed, and
3:- third quarter in tlre pose of sexual union (yugaxaddha) with
his female cowterpatt (yajfi6) while surrounded
by a na4dalicarrangement of subsidiaryfigures.
Tiough the style of the painting clearly shows
ties to the easternIndic traditions, we can only
xened his in-
ound ro5o-54. infer thar such complex painred compositions
lia paintings,
bout the third
C o Nc t u s l o u
wele once produced in Bihar and Bengal, for
large-scale wall pajntingshave vani'hed almost
wiihout a trace from the casternregions and
the extant miniatures on palm leafdo not display
the intricate arangements of forms seen here.
However, later Tibetan and Nepali paintings,
which are clearly bascd on Pala prototypes,
offer some documentation of the earlier Indic
compositions, and from surviving texts and the
known teachings of great religious masters, it
may be inferred that such iconographic arrange-
-"nt, -"r" in use during the Pala pcriod. The
paintinqs of the tha-khang-so-ma. tlren. are
erp.ciaiiyimportant. for they provide a glirnpsc
of th. i"rtein rradition. tfiough modi6cd by
Ka{miri form, at an early datc and testify to the
imponanceof the Ladaklrrcgion in transmining
the beliefs and art of the Buddhist religion from
the Indic regions to those of the Himalayan
realms.

buildingis ex-
The Buddhist and Hindu art of Kaimir came several sites in Inner Asia, especially Qizil
ot Valrocana/
to an abrupt end when the Muslims bccame and Tun-huang, the paintings from the cache
re north wall
the dominant political force in the region at Tun-huang, and some iconographic manu-
much grander
around 1339, when Shah Mirza, a Muslim scripts from Japan. for cxamplc. should bc
lost a metef In
adventurer,overthrew the Lohara dynasryend evaiuaredwith Ka6mir in mind as a possible
-' compared to
maior patronage was no longer avail:rble. source. Kaimir's position relative to the rest
iod palm leaf
ffo*.u"., rhe traditions of Kaimiri art lived of South Asia and its geographic isolation
rng the distinc-
on in other regions, most notably Gu-ge in allowed the Ka6n.rrristo maintail a kind of
d knees of the
western Tibet, wbere it remained the dominant independence.Yet its role as a trade and cul-
. their arched
style for some time. There is still much to be tural center berwccn ancient India, Gandhara
!- lne use or a
learned about the movements within and in- and related regions, western Tibet, and Jnner
rurs and forms
fluences uDon Kairniri artistic traditions, as Asia left it subject to intcrcoune with a vast
n is alsotypical
well as the impacr of Kainttri art on orhcr variety of artistic and cultural sources.A full
iie the Buddha
oarts ofAsia. Clearly, Kaimir served asa source understanding of the transmission of Buddl.rist
: suongly based
of i*"g"ry and influence for the northern and art through Asia is dependent on dcveloping a
modeled" in a
eastem movements of Buddhist art. The Yun- greater knowledge of Kaimlri art.
ngal paintings.
rv and shading kang caves in China, the wall paintings from
i sr,vleand the
erived ftom the
ast ro paintings
's'ever, like the
shading of the
ts'o standing
the sense of a
 -1-
rn r'\
uzF N
F {rn
a <t;
F --'!O .", i
'7 <-= -L Y.'', 9 r
ao-fii:= sE
r,. = j.) ! Y
x+< )\F 1s
Y-z Yz 3 e
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 Detail oI 18.r3-

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

Bihar and Bengal

Under The Ptla and SenaKinss

From the eishth to the twelfth centuries, the
.asternresioi of the South Asian subcontinent,
roughly equivalent to the modem states of
Bihar and West Bengal in hdia and the nation
of Bangladesh (East Bengal), was host to a
florescenceof artistic activity.l Under the Pala
dvnasw. which ruled large portions of this
,Jeion'for nearly the entiri Four-hundred-year
sp""n,as well oth.t -or" limited ruling fami-
",
lLs, such a, the Senas,and, to a lesserextent, the
Candrasand Varmans, vital centersofBuddhism
and Hinduism fourished. In Bihar, which derives
its name from the many Buddlist viharas that
once dotted the land, and particularly in the
region of Magadha, the homeland of Sakyamuni
Buddha, Buddhism reachedan apogee.During
this period, Buddhist monks and pilgrims from
near and distant parts of Asia, including China,
Southeast Asia, Nepal, and Tibet, came to
Bihar and Bengal to study Buddhism and
ultimately to transmit to their homelands.much
of the religious, cultural, and artistic heritage
of this region. Indeed, the art of the so-called
Pala-Senaperiod is as notable for its influence
abroad as it is for its rolc as a major art school
in the Indic sphere. Hinduism, particularly
Vai5r.ravism,also reached a peak during this
period and became especiallyprominent in the
cuhural region of Bengal (West Bengal and
Bangladesh) during the eleventh and twelfth
centuries.
The Pala dynasty came to Power around 75o,
when the first king, Gopala, is said to have
ended the "reign of fishes,"zthat is, the Practice
of the larger principalities swallowing up
the smaller ones that had characterized the
politics of Bengal after thc collapseof Sa6airka's
empire in the seventh century. Taranatha, the
Tibetan historian writing in the seventeenth
century, claimed that the school of Pala art,
however, was not founded until the reigns of
Dharmapala and Devapala, the second and

362
 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

i*
J86

lli'iiir'*t+t*'ff;.';tir:q:*!Sttlli:
J:'.rFi{t*;tti'i"''1ffi
*r11 t;.,.'ru'lr*"''*
tr1J",ffi
*r#'*ml:*[x
ffi'?::"ffi
w#'*ffi :; **:l'::11"u"'l"lillii'l"iiill'*3";
l'i,f:tr*J"j'
:T.::::i:'::::ri.l;:';.l;:l";]liii':'.ffi
r*'.'.g,;;i;
l':';i,:l'lT[=t;it1;;;*.;';4ip;,i5*
jtt*t*i:{}*l:ffi:l:rxr**T:,
:r;{:''#tiiirq :i#
[[:t'd,*:**;]i::r,*;iiili'';il"t:-iqi:{}},,
*Hlfr::ffii':?:,i";il'-Tj'ij+:;:i::'+,r-:^:1'i;.3
f*,
if;:"3h:";:pliTiii"a# c,irna,e
nois,
,he
li3'#:-11;
;**1:n;u.;r ""a
ill*{ji;Tftiff;#}ffi
'$l.;ilJ:j:L}n1
:#,r""**i+
r-r'xlit:**i -i*t exampres'
i# T"l'"yllfi orarchi'lcc'lurar
rack
"'':"iT't t =
=i,t[l**,",':mg*thlE#1',:f
mru:x1'i:il:i:r1;:,::l;
f#*a*lt$, **l*ijtrffi
[i}F5*t+**ii':]".":
ri*"'*#',*liq*'','ffi
;;$t5gi':ffi*i
t*T,;*T$*t:,iffi
l*,t+ur *i+Lt1[l*:tfi$i
s**$*J*ry*
'.:'iii.Xiii"il,"l"i'il1,'llli"i,'Iil"i:il
;jrl:-:::::ii:T,ffT';l*t'li'::|:.:l
'"",'J,":1
,#"",r*,- s
"ial,,u'r,, i',.,.,*,
iilji,i,j;fi
this cxodus causcdthe Buddh
::**11';:tf
:::'J,TL1#
 UNDERTHE ?AIA AND SENATfiNGS J69

crion ascribed and many exanples made of bronze had gilded tended period was toward increasedelaboration
he practiced surfaces. In general, metal images fiom this of detail and complexity oficonography, greater
urndred years region are hollow cast, except in the case of stylization of forrn, stiffening of body postures
Llmost to the the smaller works, which are usually solid. and facial features,as well as increasedemphasis
lgin, although Mctal sculpturesserved alone or in groups as on the detailing of the back-slabor surrounding
e religion in objects of meditation and devotion and many elements at the exoense
-of of the orominence of
rt and culture must have formed part of three-dimensional the central figure the composition. These
m incursions, flal!{alas.'fhe varieties of wood sculpture in featuressuggestthat the developmentsin Bihar
rially under- this region can only be imagined,but surviving and Bengal were part ofthe overgll cultural and
rital force in examplcs suggest that wood carvings were artistic pattems of South Asia during the post-
used as part of architectural decoration, and for Gupta periods.s
rcriviry of the the creation of objects of veneration as well. As i-po.t"ttt th" regional and chronological
".
mlctureswere Although works of art from Bihar and distinctions of Pala-period art is the fact that
rese buildings Bengal of the eighth through twelfth centuries this corpus of images displays a tremendous rich-
g alrnost no sharea number of features,many distinct work- nessof iconograpbic types. Some of the fonns
d and making shops wcre responsiblefor the vast artisric preserved in this artistic tradition may refect
Et a systenatic output. Some atelier., Iike thosc at major religious concepts that had been formulated in
:lopments.6In religious centers such as Nalande or Bodh earlier periods. Others undoubtedly indicate the
may be ex- Gayt, wcre sustained over the centuries and vitality of the Buddhist and Hindu religions in
ot stone, was their lengthy histories r.nay be traced for the Bihar and Bengal from the eighth through the
I other fragile full four-hundred-year span of this period. twelfth centuries and are innovations resulting
r. and thatch, These rnajor centersserved as sourcesof stylistic from the keen insight and advanced religious
rhe continual and iconographic inspiration for smaller, less understanding of spiritual masters who lived
moist clirnate prominent establishmcnts. Thus, within the at that time. The present discussion, while
,hich organic broad geographical range of Bihar and Bengal, touching on some of the stylistic developments
built of these regional subschools,largely based on the styles of the period, primarily focuseson the religious
ive over the of the main centers,may be discemed. and iconographic developments.The Buddhist
Along with regional developn.rents, very icons demonstrate the vigor of the Buddhist
ural examples, precise cLronological distinctions may be made religion at this time and comprisc a point of
ferv paintings for thc arr of this period. Such refinemenrsare departure for studying the Buddhist art of
'
rhe sculptures possible bccause several dozen sculptures, in- many other regions of Asia. The Hindu sculp-
a ferv wooden cluding cxanples in both stone and rnetal, with tures document the intensity of Hindu belief in
n the case of inscribed dates, survivc fiorn this period. Thc the eastcrnregions, in spite of a rathcr delayed
naterials were basictendencyofthe sculpturalstyleover tlis ex- advent of Brahmanism there.
irere generally
itic stone local
allr: created in Buoonrsr Arr
t itould h"ve
a, part of the During the Pala pcriod, a number ofmonasteries in Bengal, for cxample, measuresmore than
r might have and relieious sites that had been founded in one hundred meters fiom north to south (Fig.
s of devotion. earlier periods grew into prominence. At the r8.r). It is set within a vast quadrangularcourt-
aqes from this
-specific sarne time, the intense religious activity and yard that containsa number ofsmalier structures,
: alloy apparent wealth of the region fostered the suggestingthat the main conpound may have
r ro rvorkshoP establishmentof many new centers throughout been a product of more than one building phase
a high copper the regions of Bihar and Bengal. In spite ofthe (Fig. r8.z). It is believed to have been founded
e\ls, the alloy paucity of architecturalmonuments surviving during the reign of Dharmapala, the second
\a:tadhntu),1 ^ll frorn this period, it is evident that ambitious Pala king, around the latc eighth or early rrinth
r rirual correct- and impressive structureswere built. The large century, though other objects from thc site
: gold or silver, cu,clform stula at Pahelpur (ancient Somapura) ciating fiom later periods suggest that xrtistic
 SCHO'L\
J9O LATFR NO]]TI]ERN

tury'

tcrracesof
lhe PlrltPerioJ' Thc rvrils of thc plinth and lorv"r
. r c r r v i r vc o n r i n u ( di l t r o t r g l t o r r t -""ti-tt' *"t" decorated rvitlr
i,..".''''y"jtont'in r,77 irrdi\idtrrl.,h"';;t1t;;;, r8 3) aod :r rorv of
ii" of ;"-.;;;i' ;kr*'
(Fig
j i ' i r"trri.i
'rit.t '. .".,1 at 'lrritrc' ln tlre certtcr
sirrr-rlrrce ,rone in'^get on tlre llinrh firrrlrcr
.o,"pound,"..l]
,;"'";;,i' :ll:,i::iliTi';: .";iJ ;;, rlrc 'crrlpi'rr"l <rnbclli'ltr'cnr' An
(ntr.rDce. ind cnl'Irged ccll bLocKs thecc dccnr'rttotts n1'
5lde\'sllg- rcor,-,tr.rplticprogr"rn for
. - . , " , o- .i a .t "h"c' ' 's' toyt r t l t ' c J ' t r n L l \ \ e \ l rhotrgh drc
i", ft*tt .itrbliJrcd' .terr,n
g ' t e \ \' l ) s l l l i ' J r r ' r l ) g c l r l ( n l "", q f t c n c l r ' L r r n t l l gl'r c c t y
O.5,** r v t t l t p c c ir l l l
c o t r . r . r . '*-ft
"s
i " r , , t . l ' L r ' . , t " t l i ' " i - d i " t c n ' i o n ' l ' r r a ' r f/ oa r/ r' rt 'r r t .-"."*.f shorving ninor clivinities' rni-
r . t i ' p t "c c t l t e r c udi t l t i r t s r t c l tr
, t r "t , t . , t , t , r r do tl r e n t r b j et' ' '
u i t l r t l t en ' ' r r r l ' : r ' ' t t ' r n . r l s .
, , , . , tf r " a i , , t t t 1 c o t r t p r r e d o tlrc prrrcityof rrcllltcctllr'rl
l r r o r t t r " ' t t',lti'
c
' t r r v i v c , f r o r Nr c p ' r lr r r d
r
r
i ; ", , 1 , , , r t ' a r i i ,
t' r. ,i b l t r r p""td' ihe thousirnds of
, , . i n w h r c l t l r ' c c t r r r ' t' le n t p l e -"-,"t"^i..- llllLo\t ov(r-
ir' ' u r . i u i n q ' c t r l p t ' r r c 'P r e \ c 1 l J! n
rvirh 're''
i " " t ' ; t . ,"l.t,' r. ti it."'a, 1' a b 1 " c o r r r p ' - ' t r n d 3rvith ;i ;i";i; .',",1or fo""' A bl'|(|
sculP-
srorrc
ii-'pir*ro* temPlcis cruciforn plan' in r84) irrrPortrnt
pd4(aratna , , u . i r o n i N i l . , n d a 1 li 3 -an
e.c1r'it1c bci"goff'ersur\'rr t,ris ol rltc Bucldhist nionastcry and onc
of the prtncrpu
t*t"p' the north' u'hich is fr"rn 'pproxt-
0"" t"tltrl ui'itty ."-"r. oi Pal.'-pcriod'rrt d rrcs
cl' 'rrly dcrllon-
\\a,
"til:if l;..IlJJ"ill,",..,''.,,,onun,e'r. t".r"n, ,f,. 5cvcntllcenrlrr) 'rld
P:'lr-pcrio'lstylisic
tn'ttc
elrboralcol tltc
:;;,;.1 ,1'. p,"-Pil "n'l caril
n.ob"lriv on" ofthe rrlo't 'crrlPttrrJl
o f " r r c i r c dJ s ' t J c p c n , l c n c <o r l c r r l i c r B r ' d ( l l r l s t
Lr"..i..r'ut''"t"'* 'n'l ir ^ :;ti:'. ;'.1,.t' trt't [ronr \''rnaLlr'
lhe 'lcttder'
:::;;;;; ior the tcrr"ced edirrccsor 'vho m"v
rhc Prlrrpur ;j:;;.';;..1 fiq"'e or r)'i' bodhiutrvJ' e
{ ' i " , " , " a t . " t f t ' r ' r A s ir ' Y c t il' .';il
Lbhrdr"
or \''11r'rnt
iu.'lokir..u.,r.'
i r r B i l r r r''rrdli'"rgJl
" < l 't t i q r r <
, t l l ' 1 , , ' t " ' ' ' "'.t"ttr.'r.t ;, .;;;tit.""t of lete Gupta-periodcarvi.gs'
plan.orlp'et the sitcof of the
iit'"' ,t-ti"t
(thought to bc--t}.rc iJ trt*rt,ro rclxxeclPostttrc'trcatmcnt
^"ri.f*t- ttt easternBiirar i"tt, 'i"tplitity in particularrecall
rt encient Vikranairla n-ronestcryl "tT""tJt crl\Pncqs
,,,-, rhc ..,rlrcr rdolt. Horvcver. .l ErcAte-r
',,-0"'L',t''""f " 'rrchbrril'lings 'l'I ol the lotrl\
lril:,i:,1::; rn tltc crrvinq rnd rhe dcr'Liling
,.it-"d . popui"' rnd cl.r'rr:iclerts anci jeweiry indicate a dcParturc
trom
fedestri
tIPC.
 UNDER THE PALA AND STNA KINGS ?01

o c
Stupa Stupa

n-er tgrracesof
lecorated with
md a row of
plinth further t JJ
F-:i i

ffi
llishment. An ;=-l -'--.{
lecorations has
gh the terra
Lrming, fieely
tEEI
dirinities, ani-

f architectural
M an y
thousands of
almost over- S u b s l d i ar y
:k stone sculp-
STTUCIUTES
an important
'
rhe principal
&orn approxi-
:learly demon-
-period stylistic
rist sculptural
. lne slenoer,
n'a. who may
runantabhadra,9
0 32 6' 4 9' 6 1'2, 4 1 '6, A 1'9 2 2'2, 1
riod carvings. F', ',

2rment of the
15
ardcular recall
:eater crlsPness
1 of the lotus r8.2. Plan of Great Sr[pa. Paharpur,Bangladesh.pala period, prob-
leparture from ably reign of Dharmepela. Ca. late eighth<arly ninth century.
392 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS
r8.3. Tena-cotta plaqucson Great StaPa Pahalpur, Bangladcsh.
Ptla period, probably rcig11 of Dhrrmap:la. Ca. late eighth-
early nirth ceiltury.
the early style. Accompanying thc bodhisatrva
are two femalc figures. Tl.rcc iila Buddhas
appear on his l.ralo and a fourth, perhaps the
spiritual progenitor of the bodlrisattva, aPPcxrs
in his headdress.
Another inage from Nalanda, this tirne identi-
fiable as the Bodhisattvlt Khasarpana Avaloki-
te6vara,was probabiy carvcd in the late elevcnth
centLrryand sl-rowsluauy of the charactcristicsof
the fully dcvelopcd Pala-Sena tradition (Fig.
i8.5). Tl.reccntral {igure and his attendantsstand
in the accentedtribhaiga, or thdce-bcnt Posture.
Not only is this positiolr collllr1only seen in
imagcsfrom this datc, but the anguler transitions
between thc sectionsof the body are typical of
this pcriod as well and imPart a stylizcd, rather
than naturalistic,effect to the figurcs. In contrast
to the earlier inage frorn Nalanda, thc back-slab
is now pointed at the top, rathcr than rolrndecl,
and it has been grcatly elaboratcd upon in
its dccoration as well as in thc iconographic
additions of the various attendants and other
figurcs. Even the clothing of thc bodhisattva is
more detailed than that of thc earlier fignrc.
Also typical of this later plnse of Pala art, the
lotus pedestal upon which the ccntral figurc
stards is l.righly ciaborate xnd is carvcd in a
scries of thrcc-dimensionally conccivcd layers.
Khasarpaqa Avalokite6vara is attcndcd by his
usual con-rpanions,Tara and Sudhanakun-rara
(Very Rich Princc) to his right and Bh;kurr and
Hayagriva (Horse-Ncck) to his lcft, while above,
 UNDER THT PALA AND SENA KINGS J9J

r8.4. Bodhisatwa.From Nelanda,Bihar, India. Pre-P,la r8.J. Khasarpa4a Avalokiteivara. Frour Nalanda, Bi-
period. Ca. seventhcentury. Black stone. H: 2oo cm. har, India. Pela pcriod. Ca. late eleventh century. Black
Nelanda Site Muscum, Ntlandl. stone. H: r2J cnl. Ndlarde Site Museum, Nalandt.

ures.In contrast all five of thejinc Buddhas are represented.Like dhologically, this is an exarnple of the compas-
la. the back-dab many other Pala-period sculptures, the image sion exhibited by the bodhisattvaof conpassion.
r rhan rounded, may have been painted in its original state, ac- This specificaspectof Khasarpa4aAvalokiteivara
rrared upon in cording to the iconographic precepts of the is known as Prctasarhtarpita Lokeivara, the
r iconographic sadhanas, theBrddhist textual ritual guide. Thus, pr et a-satlsfying Loke6vara.
hnrs and other Khasarpap might bave been white; Tara, green Numerous other bodhisattvas and forms of
e bodhisattva is or white; Sudhanakumera and Bhgkuti, gold; bodhisattvas are also represented within the
: :arlier figure. and Hayagriva, red. The {ivejiza Buddhas might span of Pala-period art. A repres6ntation of
o: Pala art, thc also have been painted their respective colors. SadakgariAvalokite6vara found at Colgong, in
' ;cntral figure The arimal-headed,skeletalfigure at the extreme eastemBihar, was probably carved in the latc
i. carved in a bottom left of the stele is the preta Socimukha. eleventh or twelfth century as indicatcd by thc
::r;cived layers. Pretas are a form into which beings who have elaboration of the various elernents in the
---- r.t L., h;. been lustful and greedy are born. This preta, composirion(Fig. r8.o). Ir is inrererringto note
S:ihanakumara whose destiny it is to be insatiably hungry, is that the foliate motifs are suggestive of the
nj Bhrkuli and being saved by the bodhisattva, who lets him Nepali painted designs of the thirteenth and
r-. rvhile above, suck the nectar that falls from his hand. Bud- fourteenth centuries tlut are based upon Pala
394 LA'|ER NORTHTRN SCHOOIS
r8.6. $adaktari Av:lokitelvara. From Colgong, Bihar'
Indie. Palapcriod. Ca. lxle elevcnth or trl'clfih centurt.
Blacksrone.H: t43.3cm. PatnaMuseunr,Pxtrla.
prototypcs. Iconographically, this figure is yet
anothcr nanifestation of the ubiquitous bod-
hisattva Avalokiteivara. Thc two principal
hands, now lost, would have bccn in aiTjali
tndra, d:'e second right hand should have
carried a rosary, and the sccond left, a lotus.
The central figure is accor.npaniedby Mani-
dhara, the n.ralcon the figurc's proper right, and
by $adaksari Mahavidya, the Gn.rale to his
left. These two attcndants exhibit the same
attributes as thc central figure, that rs, thc anjali
'lhe
wdra, the losary, and the lotus. five jin
Buddhas are representedalong the top of the
stele and the irnagc of Amitabha probably aP-
peared in the headdressof SadaksariLoke(vara.
Sadaksari(Six Syllables)reGrs to tl.'e tdtitra of
Avalokiteivara, Oth naqi padne hutir, ',vhtch
consistsof six syllables.A trarr,"a is a phonetic
syrnbol that both evokesand vivifies thc diviniry
Bi-
r8.7. Sirihan,daAv.lokitc(varr'FrourSultangafrj,
har, lndiA. Pala pcriod. Ca. late elcvclth or early
rwelfih ccntury.Blackstone.H: ca.r8o cDl.Birming_
hamMuseumandArt Gallery,Birrningham.
being propitiated, and this sculpnrre therefore
reprcsents a personification o{ the maxtra of
-fhe
Avalokitc(vara. padna or lotus held in his
hand signifiesthe lamily (Arrla)of this figure and
is his principal emblcm. The rosary (rriala)is thc
ritual tool used in reciting rhe ruanha the
ncccssarynumber of times (usually one hundrcd
eight) in thc propitiation of Avalokite(vara.
Thc trvo principal hands were rt aiijali nudrd to
signify the deep respcct and devotion that the
practitioner is supposedto feel whilc performing
tl:'e fidt1trq. In csoteric teachings, $adaksari
holds between his two hands drc gem of en-
lightcnment that, while concealed from the
casual viewer, is promised to tlle devotee who
visualizeshimsclf as $adaksari.
A figure of Sirirhanada AvalokitcSvara, also
found in eastcrnBihar, at Sultangaiij,and prob-
ably of the san.rc approximate date, further

to its roar, or his teachings.Thus, Avalokite6-
vara-of-the-lion's-roar leiterates the complete
r8.8. Avalokitelvara. Frorn Tapandighi, West Bengal,
India. Pale period. Ca. late eleventh-early twelfth
century. Black stone.H: ro5 cnr. StateArchaeological
Museum of Beugal, Calcutta.
exemplifies the great iconographic variety of
this school (Fig. r8.7). This stele was found in
:tr :i1 his associationwith the famous, larger than human-
a :::a and sizemetal image of a Buddha (Fig. rr.6) and two
--:;the elaborately carvcd black stone pillars that were
unearthedin r87z during the courseofconstruc-
tion of a railroad, The nearby ruins suggest
that these sculptures belonged to a monastqry
and might have been hidden when the establish-
ment was attacked by Muslim invaders. The
carving is again highly refined and the figure
and back-slabare detailedwith the precision and
care found in the finest of theseworks. The ac-
cented posture, sharply outlined Gatures of the
face,and detailing ofthe back-slabindicate a date
of the late eleventh or early twelfth century for
h:.'r':ra. also this sculpture. The name Sirhhanadais a direct
lc- . =ad prob- reference to the teachings of the Buddha, the
;::. further Buddha being the lion or sithhaandnadarefetritg
UNDERTHE PALAAND SENAKINGS J95
body of dharna that the Buddha Promulgated.
The analogue of the lion's roar stemsfrom the
fact that the Buddha was considered a lion
among people aswell asa menb.r ofthe Sakya
clan, which had the lion as its totem. The voice
ofthe lion is, ofcourse, a roar, asbefits one of the
mightiest animalsLnown in India. The Buddha's
teachingsamong people are thus likened to the
roar of the lion among animals. There is a
trident with a serpent entwined about it to the
right of the bodhisattva and the remains of a
lotus bearing a flaming sword aloft may be seen
to his left. The sword is equated with ptajna , the
Buddhist concept of transcendentalknowledge.
An unusual Gature of this stele is the Posture
o{ the jixa Buddhas above the central figure,
with their legs akimbo in the manner of flying
gaxdhoruasor uidyadharcsrather than their usual
uajroparyahkdsano.
The full richnessof the srylistic develoPments
of Buddhist art under the Palasor Senasmay be
seenin a figure ofthe BodhisattvaAvalokite6vara
of about the late eleventh or early twelfth
century from Tapandighi in West Bengal
(Fig. I8.8). While clearly deriving from the
same stylistic milieu as the Colgong $adak-
sari, this sculpture is more elaborate and three
dimensional. The fowers and jewels are not
simply incised, but have become deeply carved
forms rising out of the surfaceof the stcle.The
main figure occupies only a relatively small
portion of the total spaceof the stele and the
viewer's attention is captured by the variety of
other features. In contrast to thc KhasarPalp
Avalokite(vara image from Nalande (Fig. r8.5),
this bodhisattva is attended only by Hayagriva
and Sudhanakumara; Tare and BhJkuti are
absent.
Buddha images also abound from the Pala
and Senaperiods.Typically, Pala-Senadepictions
show seated Buddhas displaying bhanisparla
ruu&a.lrst as tlte prevalenceof dharnacakramudrd
and the prominence of Samath (where Sakya-
muni Buddha first preached)during the Gupta
period are undoubtedly correlated, a rclation-
ship seemsto exist between thc PoPuladty ofthe
bhunisporla mudra ar.d the importance of Bodh
396 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS
moment of calling thc eath to witncss depicted
by thc bhamispaiamilra and the prcsenceof the
bodhileavesabove the head of thc central Bud-
dha, but also,immediately surrounding him, the
armics of Mdra arc shown in the act of attacking
him with stones and other weapons in thcir
attemDt to swav him from his resolve.
Io iddition to this event in the life of Sakya-
muni Buddha, sevenother ircidents are depicted
in the stele. From thc botton left, along the
perimetcr. the sceuesare: tl)e offering of rhe
monkcy: the 6rsr sermott;tlte dcsccnrfrom t]re
hcavenof the thirty-rhreegods:rft pariniruana;
rhe taming of rhe wild elcplratrr;the miracleof
Sravavi; and the birth of Salyrmrrni Buddha.
Each of thesescenesbearsat least one distinctive
featurc that identifics it as a specilic event in the
lifc of Sakyamuni Buddha. Thus, in the offering
of tlre nonley, the Buddha rs tn dhyana tuudta
holding a bowl and is ofi-eredanother bowl by a
mork.y. Th" first sernon is indicated by the
two small dccr ilanking the wheel of the law
bencath thc Buddha's scat and the Buddha is
showrr in dharnacakranudra.'flrc descentGom
Trayastrirh6a, the heaven of the thirty-three
r8.9. Victory over Mara, ard other Lifc Eventsof
SakyanuniBuddha.At Jagdilpur(Neland.),Bih.r' gods, is also easily idcntified because of the
India.Pelaperiod.Ca. late tenthcentury. Black stone ores.oce of the Brahmanical deities, Indra and
H: over3oocm. b."hme, -ho accompanied thc Buddha on his
rctnrn to eartl.I,and by the un.rbrella being hcld
aloft ovcr tl.re Buddha's head. The reclining
Gaya (the site of the Sekyamuni Buddha's en- Buddha at the top ofthe stelc, with the mourning
and the pair of
lightenment) in Magadha during the Pala-Sena attcndants, thc strtpa in the sky,
hands beating hcavenly drums is a standard
periods. The Pala-period image within the
Mahabodhi temple.at Bodir Gaya shows a Bud- reprcsentationof the grcat deccase(pariniruatla)
dha, trndoubtedly Sakyamuni, ln tbe bhimispario The gcsture of the standing Buddhe in the next
mudrdin contrnernorationof the Buddha's defeat sceneand the rcprescntationof the clephant are
of Mdra at that very site. This image must llave asain spccific referenccsto a well-known subject
scrvedasa model for nruch of the imagery of the iti luailirt literaturc, that is, thc taming of thc
art of this period, not only in India but in other wild clcphant, Nelegiri, who had becn releascd
Buddhist lands where Bodh Gaya was looked to by thc Budclha'sevil cousin Dcvadatta with the
asa spiritual center. Often, a represcntation of intcntion of killing the Buddha. The second
liaky"-"ni Buddha in bhrtntispaia mudra served representation of a prcaching episodc may be
asthe central image in a stele, around which wcre identifred asthe n.riracleofsravasti becauseofthe
depicted sevcn morc events from his life. A secondary Buddha figurcs occurring to cither
paiticularly fine and cxplicit cxaurple of such side of the n.rainfigurc, indicating the occasion
at
an "eight scencs"stele is enshrined JagdiiPur when the Buddha muitiplied himself in order
(a modern village at thc ancient sitc of the to confound tl-rc schisr-natics.Thc scene at the
around lower right rcpresents Sakyanuni's birdr, with
Nalanda monastery), which dates fiorn
the late tcnth century (Fig. r8.9). Not only is the Qr-reen Maya grasping the branchcs of the jal
 UNDER THE ?ALA AND SENA KINGS
J97
tree while the child is bom fiom her risht
side.
Numerous other versionsof theseeigf,t scenes
togethe.r appear in stelae of the pa[ period.
A small devotional image from Nalanda
i
of
about rhe renrh century offers an abbreviated,
--:eir
but more typical version rhan the
Tasdiipur I
relief(Fig. r 8.ro). The order o[ rhe,..n"id;fi..,
a: ,.-
trom the previousexample and the weahh
::cted of
specificderailhas nor been included.The army
: rhe of Mera attacking the central figure is impliej,
r j rl'"
not shown, and in each of the o-th., ,.""o, ,t
fc= the identifying characteristics have been limited to"
b-. ana; only the barest necessities. In this version. the
i::,e of presenceof rhe drree Buddhas benearhthe main
k:dha. image adds a new dimension to the alreadv
n:--:tive complicated iconography. Indeed, the nu-.ror',
r :r the stela-eshowing rhe eighr scenesof the Buddha,s
of:ring lile trequentlyhave addirionsand variations
rhar
a':,{lfa amplify their iconographic meaning. These
s. bya -
suddhas.togerherwith the centralfigure.
t,.' the may
represent four of the five Buddhas of-the aaAri_
[e ]aw jitta na4dala. The three figures alone
mav
lciu is depicrrhe threesragesoIBuddhahood: the or.i-
lt from present,and furure. Speci6cally.rhe Buddha
r-tlree on
the lett. who5f uaradamudrd offers the gift
of r8-ro. Vicrory over Mera and orher
of the enlighrenmenr.might represenrrhe prediclon Life fvenr of
of 'r*IrIr], r,uddha.From Nai.lnda.Biher, India.pala
ra and enjrghrenmenr;rhe centralBuddha. medirating
on his
Lgheld
t:. dh!*! nudrd wirh a serpent. p.csurnrbly ffiiff ""iiil'.|,lT,K,i:::" stone
H:47.5
cm.
Mrrcaiinda.who prorectcdSaiyanrrrniBucldha
clining lrom rhe rains during his post_enJighten ment
urrung medrratlons.could indicatethe achievemenr
of such.an example, for it does not depict Sakya_
oair of enlightenment; and the Buddha at the dghr,
utdard muni. bur.rather Aksobhya. recognizedby
whose a[haya mudra grants rhe abscnccofiear ihe
atla). bhumispariamudraas well as the elephantuihana
rhroughlnowledge oIBuddhahoodmay indicatc
e next beneath his lotus seat. A lotus vrne emerges
the teaching o{ thc dharna and therefore the
Ilt AIC
fiom the point of the halo and issues lo"tus
postenlightenmentactivities of a fullv enlisht_
ubject flowe-rsupon which the five jina Buddhas
cned Buddha. As has been seen in other .1n_ are
of the seared.. The. cenrrrl figLrrc is again Ak.,qbhys.
terts. mulriple lcvelsof meaningare ch.rracteris_
leased tndrcatlngthat he is in thi. cascrhc centcr
ric oI Btrddhistinragery.end during this pcrio<1 of
th the the matllala and as such is sfibhauikqkaya-
or Increasedrconographiccomplexiry rhey are
-'cond Vajrasdepictedalong the siderofthe srele,
rnvanably present. about
rt be halfway up. are further references ro Aksobhya
While' ernphasis on Sakyanrunr Buc{dha
oithe sincc his is known as irc vojra hmtiy aid,
(and rhereby the nirnnnakayajrenraincclgreat .[ala
:irher as such.rhl\ eJemcnrsyrnbolizesborh his
rhroLrgirour Pala-.rndSena-pciiodBrrddhisiart, own
4510n
exrstenceas well as that of thc bcings who are
growrng cxplicitnessand anenrion ro rhe jiaa
order his progeny.
BuddL,.s(anbhogaAaya)is also apparenr.An
r rhe Another stele of about the eleventh century
approxlmatety elevcnI h_centr try representarion shows -
s'ith rhc jira. Rarna.ambhava.recognizedby
of a seatedBrrddlra.again in bhunisparianudra,
re J4t
tus characteristic uaruda nudrd and lLis horsc
tron Bareya, in West Bengal (Fig. rS.rr),
is uahana d,eptcted beneath his lotus seat (Fig.
 398 L^TER NORTHERN SCHOOLS
r8.rr. Akgobhya. Frorn Bareya, Nadia distlict, West
Bengal, India. Pala period. Ca. eleventh century.
Black stone.H: 70 cln. Siate ArchaeologicalMuseum
ofBengal, Calcutta.
r8.rz). Iconographically. the. format is quite
similar to representationsof Sakyamuni found
tluoughout Bihar and Bengal and, stylistically,
it rellecrsfeaturesboth of central Bihar (mainly
Magadha) and of Bengal, as miglrt be expected,
sinceit was found in the Bhagalpur district that
is situarcd between Bengal and central Bihar.
The arrangement of the stele with its centrally
placed Buddha, the coniguration of the throne,
the treatment of the halo, and the position of
the vidyadharascan be rraced to the earliest
examples of the Pala school in Magadha, al-
though the elongation of the head and buoyant
featuresof the face impart a speciallivelineis to
the image. While the fo.,n"t of the stelefollows
ninth-century examples rather closely, the
pointed top suggestsan eleventh-century date
and indicatcs that this sculpture is an intentional
copy of an earlier mode of representauon,
r8.r2. Rahasanbhava.From Bhegalpur district, Bihar,
Indie. Pala period. Ca. eleventh century. Black stone.
H: 67.4cm. Bangiya SahityaParisad,Calcutta.
except for a few features that clearly assignit
to its own time.
More typically Tantric in nature are a number
of images that show angry forrns of deities
(krodhahaya). Heruka, a name given to a specific
deity as well as to a classof angry deities that
are euunations of Aksobhya, was undoubtedly
known in Buddhist theory long before his
images became cornmon in art. One example
fiom Subhapur, in Bangladesh, of about the
early eleventh century shows a specific form
of Heruka that stands in the irdhaparyaika
-
(half-squatting, that is, one-leg-folded) pose
a t o p a - l o r u sp e d e s r a1l F i g .r 8 . r 3 ) . H i s b u l g i n g
eyes. bared langs. and ornamenral details,
including the garland of severed heads, all
suggest his krodha natrlre. While frightening
perhr.psro rhe uninitiared. worship of rhe deiry
by advancedpracuirioners is intendedto destroy

r8. r3.. Heruka. From Subhapur, Bangladesh.pala
penod. Cr. e.rrly elevenLhcenrurl. Black stone.
H:
I65.2cm. DaccaMuscum,Dacca.
all Maras and confer Buddhahooo on oevorees.
In his left hand, Heruka holds a now damaged
khatvaigawnh a bejl and srreamers;rt ls nor
known what the right hand held as it has been
desrroyed.A khatuitipais a typc of staff or
clut. rhar symbolizesvictory iou.. d"mons).
While surviving representationsof Heruka and
Heruka-class deities are relatively rare in the
Indic.sphere, images such as thi; undoubtedly
servedas-thebasisfor rhe nrany dcpicions o[
the god found in Nepali and Tibetan art of a
slightly later date.
Heruka+ype deities sometimes appear alone,
as in, the case of the example from^subhapur,
but they uray also be shown with a female in
yuganaddha union). In this case.rhc dciry
,(ssxLt
rs oJten callcd Hcv;rjr.r.I he femalc represents
P:aiia or, knowledge_andthe malc symbolizes
rne methods of achieving rhi. knowledge
UNDER THX PETA AND SENA KINGS
Ji99
I8.r4., HevJjra,-_FroDrprhirpur, Bangladesh.pila
pcnoo..La.t\ elirh cenrury.Blackstone.H: ca.
7.5crn.
IndlanMuseum,Crlcutta.
(upaya). When the rwo are combined,
differen_
tirtion-ceasesto exisr. By meansof the rcaliza_
tron ot rlusnondifcrentiationthrough a
Jcngthy
ritual, the Buddhist practitioner hopes to
achleve
lanyata, wlu,ch is somctimes defined as neither
being nor nonbeing. In this state,hc has
ceased
to have desiresof any kind and rhus.by
defini_
uon. carurolbc concernedwirh rhe erotic aspccts
of the representation.
A very small imagc of Hevajrawas found
^ at
P,aharRur..rndicaring thar advancedTantric Bud_
dhologrcal
_rheorywas known and apparenrJy
praciced therc,(Fig. r8.r4). probabiy daring
rrom,thc rwelfth cenrury. as suggeved
by the
comPlcxlry,ol the rrnage,and rhus represenring
rhe lare5rphaseof Buddhistarr in rhe
.r,te.i
portion of the subcontinent, the deity is
shown
with a profusion of arms and heads, in
inter_
coursewith his female companion. The standing
 SCHOOLS
40O LATEIINORTHERN
posture shown hcrc is most commonly found
in Ncpali and Tibetan paintings and sculptures
o f . r l - r e r J r t e . r l t h o u g h a g a i n .i r i s a p p a r e n t
rirat (]rc source[or t]rosctradlrionswas.rncicnt
India. Lnagcs such as this were reservcd for
.:.r:
thosc initiated to the highest level of Anut-
tarcyogifti-tatra, The proponents of Anuttara
yoga recognized that the initiations and their
t:;
ir'
prictices should be kept secretin order to avoid a';
misreprc.cntation.mi'underscrnding.and per- ::i
secrtion. Indeed, such images have often been
misread in modem timcs by those who ascribe
an crotic aspcct to them and who viewcd the
sexualsyrnbolisn.runderlying many of thc basic
concepts as degcnerate. Rather than being
intcnded as erotic works, such images express
the basic principle of the duality within the
unity of the universal that is a basic themc of
much religious symbolism in India. Sexually
explicit images and the rituals associatedwith
them were kept secret to Protect from danger
thosc individuals who might bc ill-prepared to
runder takcthesepracticcswil]rolrl ProPertrrinilrg
and initiation. The incorrect uscofthese practices
held thc very real possibility of severepsycho- rs.rj. Parnaiaben. From Vikramapura, Bangladesh.
logical or rnoral damage and many would Pala period. Ca. eleventh ccntury. Black stone H: rrz
crn. DaccaMuseum, Dacca.
ersily lose thcir wry .rlongthr' Prtlr if not
deterred.
An itrage suchasthis would have beenhanded
down from mastcr to disciple, fiom generation
ro generalion.as cach tcacher[c]t -r ncw initiate Vikramapura, an ancient capital city and rnajor
was ready to acccptthc teachings.It is ofinterest art center near present-day Dacca (Dhaka) in
that in the Buddhist context, an imagc that had Bangladesh,closely follows the textual descrip-
belongcd to a series of iilustrious teachers is tion of thc goddessgiven in the Sadhanamala in
consicicrcdto bc of tntrcll grcrter importance her six arms, three faces,garment rnade of leavcs
than one that has only aesthctic appeai. This and the attributes held in her hands, including
vicwpoint does not dcny an interest in tl.re the 'ajra, clusterof leaves,and bow (Fig. r8.r5).
visual n.reritsof a work, for it is known that She tramples on personifications of uighnas
artists were sought out arrd praised for thc (obstacles)and holds her front left hand in
quality of their creations.Yet it can be inferred tarjanT nu&a, a threatening gesture, as if ad-
fiorn the traditional histories associatedrvith monishing other t'ighnas.In spite of her own
devotional objectsin countries whcre Buddhisn.r terrifying appearance,suggestedby her bulging
is still practiced today that the illrportance of a eyes,bared fangs, and flan.relikel.nir, worship
rcligious image cven at an early dete in ancient of Parna6abariis said to remove the Gar of the
Lndia was bascdprimarily on its sPiritual $'orth. terror stricken.
Parqa(abari,t fcnale ktodhdkayadeity, is also Judging frorn the abundant remains of metal
an enunation of Aksobhya. Gencraily, she is ilnages dating from the Pala and Sena periods,
depicted as a stout, dwerflikc figtte. An in.rage the Bihar and Bengal regions rnust have been
of Parnaiabari of the eleventh century from important centers of metal image production.