Public

Relations
Departments
and Firms

blic Relations Departments
Role in Variou5 Organizational
Public Relations Firms
Structures
Names ofDepartments
Organ,ization ofDepartments
Line a,nd Staff Functions
Sources ofFriction
The Trend Toward Outsourcing How Public Relations Firms Get
Business
Pros and Cons ofUsing a Public
Services They Provide
Relations Firm
Global Reach
Fees and Charges
The Rise ofCommunication
Conglomerates
Structure ofa Counseling Firm
98 PART 1· Role

--------------------
Public Relations Departments
Public relations departments serve various roles and functions within companies and
organizations. The following sections discuss the public relations function in organi-
zational structures, names of departments, line and staff functions, sources of friction
with other departments, and the pros and cons of working in a department.

Role in Various Organizational Structures

For more than a century, public relations departments have served companies and
organizations. George Westinghouse reportedly created the first corporate public rela-
tions department in 1889 when he hired two men to publicize his pet project, alternat-
ing current (AC) electricity. Their work was relatively simple compared to the melange
of physical, sociological, and psychological elements that contemporary departments
employ. Eventually, Westinghouse won out over Thomas A. Edison's direct current
(DC) system, and his method became the standard in the United States. Westinghouse's
public relations department concept has also grown into a basic part of today's elec-
tronic world.
Today, public relations is expanding from its traditional functions to exercjse its
influence in the highest levels of management.

Importance in Today's World In a changing environment, and faced with the variety
of pressures previously described, executives increasingly see public relations not as
publicity and one-way communication, but as a complex and dynamic process of nego-
tiation and compromise with a number of key publics. James Grunig, now professor
emeritus of public relations at the University of Maryland, calls the new approach
"building good relationships with strategic publics," which will require public rela-
tions executives to be "strategic communication managers rather than communication
technicians. "
Grunig, head of a six-year IABC Foundation research study on Excellence in Public
Relations and Communications Management, continues:
When public relations helps that organjzation build relationships, it saves the organi-
zation money by reducing the costs of litigation, regulation, legislation, pressure cam-
paign boycotts, or lost revenue that result from bad relationships with publics-publics
that become activist groups when relationships are bad. It also helps the organization
make money by cultivating relationships with donors, customers, shareholders and
legisla tors.

The results of a IABC study seem to indicate that chief executive officers (CEOs)
consider publjc relations to be a good investment. A survey of 200 organizations
showed that CEOs gave public relations operations a 184 percent return on invest-
ment (ROI), a figure just below that of customer service and sales/marketing.
Ideally, professional public relations people assist top management in developing
policy and communicating with various groups. Indeed, the IABC study emphasizes
that CEOs want communication that is strategic, based on research, and involves two-
way communication with key publics. See the Insights box on page 99 about the attrib-
utes that a CEO wants in a chief communications officer.
Dudley H. Hafner, executive vice president of the American Heart Association
(AHA), echoed these thoughts:
 CHAPTER"· Public Relations Departments and Firms 99

on the job
So You Want to Make a Six-Figure Salary?
EOs of major corporations
have high expectations for
their chief communications
ffjcers, who are commonly called
'ce president (VP) or even senior
'ce president (SVP) of corporate
ommunications. The Arthur W. Page
Society, an elite group of senior com-
unications executives, surveyed
'::EOs to find out what key attributes
they were looking for in a communi-
tions head.
Detailed knowledge of the
business. Be an expert in com-
munications, but you should
also have a knowledge of
business in general and the
details of the company in
particular.
Extensive communications back-
ground. Experience and exten-
sive relationships are assumed,
but you need expertise in
what the company needs. A
company in a highly regu-
lated industry, for example,
puts a premium on govern-
ment and politica I experience.
A crystal ball. You need to antici-
pate how different audiences
will react to different events,
messages, and channels.
(-suite credibility. It's crucial to
be accepted in what is called
the "C-Suite." Experience in
actually running a business or
a division is one form of earn-
ing one's "credentials."
Extensive internal relationships.
You need to have your finger
on the pulse of the company
and know employees at every
level ofthe operation.
Team player. Decisions are made
on a collaborative basis. You
need to have strong relation-
ships with colleagues and the
respect of the CEO's inner
circle.
Educator. CEOs want you to edu-
cate them and the rest of the
company on communications
skills in general, and how to
develop strategies for com-
municating the company's
values.

In the non-profit business sector, as well as in the for-profit business of America, lead-
Cfship needs to pay close attention to what our audiences (supporters or customers as
\I'ell as the general public) want, what they need, what their attitudes are, and what is
appening in organizations similar to ours. Seeking, interpreting, and communicating
this type of critical information is the role of the communications professional.

rtance of Organizational Structure Research indicates, however, that the role of

. lie relations in an organization often depends on the type of organization, the per-
. 'ons of top management, and even the capabilities of the public relations executive.
Research sUldies by Professors Larissa Grunig at the University of Maryland and
,,' \lcElreath at Towson State University, among others, show that large, complex
;Jnizations have a greater tendency than do smaller firms to include public relations
me policy-making process. Companies such as IBM and General Motors, which
_ '-Jte in a highly competitive environment, are more sensitive than many others to
," .' issues and public attitudes and to establishing a solid corporate identity. Conse-
">ntly, they place more emphasis on news conferences, formal contact with the
i,l, writing executive speeches, and counseling management about issues that
d potentially affect the corporate bottom line. See the Insights box on page 100 for
~'Pical employment ad posted by Amazon.com.
100 PART 1. Role

In such organizations, which are classified as mixed organic/mechanical by manage-

ment theorists, the authority and power of the public relations department are quit
high. Public relations is part of what is called the "dominant coalition" and has a grea:
deal of autonomy.
In contrast, a small-scale organization of low complexity that offers a standardized
product or service feels few public pressures and little governmental regulatory intere l-
It has scant public relations activity, and staff members perform such technician roles as
producing the company newsletter and issuing routine news releases. Public relatioos
in such traditional organizations has little or no input into management decisions and
policy formation.
Research also indicates that the type of organization involved may be less significant
in predicting the role of its public relations department than are the perceptions and
expectations of its top management. In many organizations, top-level managemen:
perceives public relations as primarily a journalistic and technical function-medi'

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 C HAP TEll 4- • Public Relations Deparnnents and Firms 101

• "ODS and publicity. In large-scale mechanical organizations of low complexity,

~ is also a tendency to think of public relations as only a support function of the
·"eting department.
-uch perceptions by top management severely limit the role of the public relations
· 'rtment as well as its power to take part in management decision making. Instead,
· ~ relations is relegated to being a tactical function, simply preparing messages
· (Jut input on what should be communicated. In many cases, however, public
---'ons personnel self-select technician roles because they lack a knowledge base in
~:-ch, environmental scanning, problem solving, and managing total communica-
· 5rrategies. Research by Professors Elizabeth Toth, Linda Hon, Linda Aldoory,
; Llrissa Grunig also suggests that many practitioners prefer and choose the techni-
roles because they are more personally fulfilled by working with tactics than with
:c-g;.".
-:he most admired Fortune 500 corporations, in terms
-:--eputation, tend to think of public relations as more of a " A significant part of our func-
egic management tool. A study by the Uruversity of
- __ em California (USC) Annenberg Strategic Public tion has to do with strategic
. ''';ons Center (www.annenberg.usc.edulsprc) and the
com m unications-a Itogether
OOIIciJ of Public Relations Firms found that these companies
~ ted a larger percentage of their gross revenues to public rela- too much crisis communica-
· activities, extensively used outside public relations firms to
.. ement their own large staffs, and didn't have public relations tions.
,......,.--.n-m" g to the marketing department.
---John Buckley, EVP of
PR"Week, summarizing the survey, said, "PR Departments
_closely align their own goals with their companies' strategic corporate communications
ess goals receive greater executive support, have larger for AOL"
;_ ts, and have a higher perceived contribution to their organ-
i<lns'success."
The primary indicator of a department's influence and power, however, is whether
· :op communications officer has a seat at the management table. To gain and main-
a seat at the management table should be an ongoing goal of public relations prac-
_ers. Experts indicate that it is increasingly common for the top public relations
:-riooner in an organization to report to the CEO. In its 2006 survey of 500 senior-
~l practitioners, the Annenberg Strategic Public Relations Center found that
- ?,=~Tent of all respondents and 77 percent of Fortune 500 respondents reported to
'C-Suite" (CEO, COO, or chairman). The report adds, "They were much more
"." to indicate that their CEOs believe PR contributes to market share, financial
XDS, and sales, than those reporting to other parts of the organization."
Jerry Swerling, director of the Annenberg survey, summarizes:

C-Suite reporting leads to many other pluses for PRo Statistical correlations revealed
:hat respondents reporting to the C-Suite were significantly more likely to report that
PR is taken seriously within the organization, gets a higher level of support from senior
management, and participates in organizational strategic planning; that their CEOs
believe reputation contributes to organizational success; that the various communica-
tions functions within the organization are bemer integrated and coordinated; and that
their organizations are flexible, people first, and proactive.

Julie O'Neil of Texas Christian University researched the sources of influence for
· rate public relations practitioners. She reported in a Public Relations Review arti-
::hat having influence in the company was based on four factors: (1) perception of
102 PART"· Role

'I' They need to be able to antici- value by top management, (2) practitioners taking on th~
managerial role, (3) reporting to the CEO, and (4) yea ~
pate the reactions of govern- of professional experience. In another study, Bruce
Berger of the University of Alabama and Bryan Reber 0;
ments, private interest grou ps, the University of Georgia interviewed 162 public rela-
shareholders, factions, and so tions professionals and found that the top sources 0:
influence among those practitioners were (1) relation-
forth, in real time. , ships with others, (2) professional experience, (3) per-
formance record, (4) persuasive skills with top executives_
---CEO of a large corporation and (5) professional expertise.
on what he expects in a
chief communications officer,
in a survey by the Arthur W. Names of Departments
Page Society Survey. A public relations department in an organization goes b:\
many names. And, most often, it is not "public relations.-
In the largest corporations (the Fortune 500), the terms
corporate communications or communications outnumber public relations by almost four to
one. O'Dwyer's PR Services Rep01't, in a survey of the Fortune 500 companies, found 200
such departments and only 48 public relations departments. Among those switchin§'
from "public relations" to "corporate communications" in recent years are Procter &
Gamble and Hershey Candies. In both cases, the companies say that the switch occurreci
because the department had expanded beyond traditional "public relations" activities
such as media relations to include such areas as employee communications, shareholder
communications, annual reports, consumer relations, branding, reputation manage-
ment, and corporate philanthropy.
Such activities, however, are considered subcategories of modern public relations.
so consultant Alfred Geduldig has offered another reason. He told O'Dwyer's PR Service.'
Report that the term public relations had suffered from repeated derogatory usage, causing
companies to move away from the term. He also thought that the term corporate comm/l-
nications was a sign that public relations people were doing many more things in "
company than in the past, reflecting an integration of communications services.
Other names used for public relations departments in the corporate world include
corporate relations, marketing and corporate affairs, investor relations, public affain.
marketing conzmunications, community relations, and external affairs. Government agen-
cies, educational institutions, and charitable organizations use such terms as publi<,
affairs, community relations, public information, and even marketing services.

Organization of Departments
The head executive of a public relations or similarly named departn1ent usually has
one of three titles: manager, director, or vice president. A vice president of corporate
communications may have direct responsibility for the additional activities of advertis-
ing and marketing communications.
A department usually is divided into specialized sections that have a coordinator or
manager. Common sections found in a large corporation are media relations, investor
relations, consumer affairs, governmental relations, community relations, marketing
communications, and employee communications. The Insights box on page 104 identi-
fies the expertise needed by public relations departments.
Large, global corporations such as IBM and General Motors have several hundred
employees in various areas of corporate and marketing communications, and the IBM
organizational chart on page 103 (see Figure 4.1), is a good example of how a large
 IIIM'o,(llIl11i1,111' (Olllllllli"IIII'"',
(July 2001)

Senior Vice President

Communications

VP, Co poratO'
Citizenship and
Corporate Affairs
VP, .Business
TransformatiolJ
Geography Units

Director. Innovation
Programs

Director, Innovation
Projects VP, Communications
'VP" Communications
Business Units Northeast Europe 5MB & Ecosystem
Director Camms
. VP, Communications VP, Communicatio.ns VP, Communications VP, Co'mmuniCations . VP, COl)lffiul1ications Financial Services
Systems & . Software ." Integrated Glolial Technology 'Southwest Europe Director Camms
'Technology Group G(OUP Operations Services . Public Sector
VP, (ommunicatio'ns Director Camms
Americas IndustriaL Sector
Director Camms
. VP, CommunicatiorlS Distribution Sector
Asia Pacific Director Camms
Communication Sector
yP, Communications Director Camms
~apan
Influencer & CLi~

FIGURE 4."

This chart shows the overall organization of IBM's global communications team. It shows delegation of responsibilities by function, business unit, and
geography under a senior vice president of communications. Courtesy of Jon Iwata, SVP of communications, IBM Corporation.

o
\J..)
104 P~DT ... Role

.- on the job
Expertise Required in a Department

he Excellence in Public Rela- • Prepare budgets • Help management understand

tions and Communication Man-
agement study, funded by IABC,
identified 15 areas of specialized
Research Knowledge
expertise that should be present in a
public relations department:
Strategic and Operational
Management Knowledge
• Develop strategies for solving
problems
• Manage organizational response
to issues
Negotiation Knowledge
• Develop goals and objectives
for department
opinions of publics
• Manage people
• Use conflict resolution theories
with publics
• Perform environmental scann-
Persuasion Knowledge
ing
• Determine public reactions to • Persuade a public that your
your organization organization is right
• Use attitude theory in a cam-
• Use research to segment publics
paign
• Conduct evaluation research
• Get publics to behave as your
organization wants
• Negotiate with activist publics

Source: Dozier, David, with Grunig, James, and Grunig, Larissa. The Manager's Guide to Excellence in Public Relations and Communi-
cation Management. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, '995, p. 64.

operation is structured. Corporate communications, under a senior vice president of

communications, has almost 30 vice presidents (vps) and almost a dozen directors,
each with their own staffs. IBM staff are aligned in various divisions, which are organ-
ized by both function and product area. There are VPs of media relations and internal
communications, but there are also VPs of communications for the technology group
and global business services.
This example, however, should not mislead you about the size and budget of pub-
lic relations departments. The USC Annenberg study found that Fortune 500 compa-
nies typically have 24 professionals in the corporate communications/public relations
department. The average annual budget was $8.5 million for Fortune 500 companies
and $2.2 million for F01'7une 501-1000 firms.
The vast majority of companies, of course, are much smaller in size and have fewer
staff in the public relations area. One study by the Conference Board of mediwn-sized
U.S. corporations found that the typical public relations department had nine profes-
sionals. Another survey by PRSA and Bacon's Information, Inc. found that only 13 per-
cent of the respondents worked for an organization that had more than 10 employees
working in public relations. Another 45 percent worked in a department with two to
five employees. AJmost a third of the respondents reported that they were the only
public relations employee in their organization.
Public relations personnel may also be dispersed throughout an organization in
such a manner that an observer has difficulty in ascertaining the extent of public rela-
tions activity. Some may be housed under marketing communications in the marketing
 C HA. PT E R 4- • Public Relations Departments and Firms 105

:lIC:r:a:o::mcnt. Others may be assigned to

resources as communication spe-
producing newsletters and
'ilr.IIC:1JIcs. Still others may be in market-
<rking exclusively on product pub-
Decentralization of the public
~:IC'\)lli' function, and the frictions it causes,
The Functions of a Corporate PR/Communications
=-: discussed later in this chapter. Department

2006 survey of corporations by PRWeek asked respon-

dents what activities their departments performed.
and Staff Functions Listed below is the percentage of in-house departments
Dal management theory divides an responsible for the following public relations functions.
~:::r:::z.lrion into Lne and staff functions. A line
!I::=~_l'."r. such as a vice president of manufac- Media Relations 79.5%
__ an delegate authority, set production Crisis Management 62.6%
hire employees, and directly influence Employee Communications 59.4%
-.' of others. Staff people, in contrast, Online Communications 58.0%
:: de or no direct authority. Instead, they Special Events 56.6%
:.:~cm.' influence the work of others through Community Relations 55.7%
s::;~~'ons, recommendations, and advice. Reputation Management 54.8%
"-:cording to accepted management Product/Brand Communication 51.1%
--:', public relations is a staff function. Pub- Marketing 45.7%
_:J 'ons people are experts in communica- Public Affairs/Governmental Relations 35.2%
. e managers, including the chief Annual/Quarterly Reports 34.7%
e!II!r.::;:·,,'e officer, rely on them to use their skills Product/Brand Advertising 34.2%
~, ring and processing data, making rec- Issues Advertising 31.1 %
':1dations, and executing communication Cause-related Marketing 27.9%
~~l1TIS to meet organizational objectives. Financial/lnvestor Relations 21.5%
?ublic relations staff members, for exam- Monitoring Blogs 20.5%
=.l~' find through a community survey that Writing Blogs 12.3%
'- have only a vague understanding of Blog Relations 11.9%
e company manufactures. To improve
Source: "Corporate Survey 2006." PRWeek. October 9. 2006, p. 21.
unity comprehension and create greater
-;- the public relations department may
~rr.1·mend to top management that a community open house be held at which product
;"'-:::::&;'1jJiI~'trations, tours, and entertainment would be featured.
_'orice that the department recommends this action. It would have no direct
;l~' to decide on its own to hold an open house or to order various departments
a the company to cooperate. If top management approves the proposal, the
l2:;:;::;,mlel1t may take responsibility for organizing the event. Top management, as line
~ rs, have the authority to direct all departments to cooperate in the activity. See
'ig:hts box on this page about activities performed by a corporate department.
,\liliough public relations departments can function only with the approval of top
=cment, there are varying levels of influence that departments may exert. These
, will be discussed shortly.

s to Management The power and influence of a public relations department

" result from access to top management, which uses advice and recommen-
s to formulate policy. That is why public relations, as well as other staff func-
is located high in the organizational chart and is called on by top management
 C H ~ PTE R 4- • Public Relations Departments and Firms 1°7

allenge of Corporate Public Relations

EB
(ican Standard Companies, a global manufac-
- er with 60,000 employees in 50 countries, had
ually no communications department until
- ears ago. Then, at that time, it hired Shelly London
--" communications to build a program from scratch
~~~::::Olrt the company's three major businesses.
'lrst challenge was to gain national visibility for
~ pany's new whole-house air-filtration system in
_' nal media. She organized health influencers to
~ hird-party credibility, and also enlisted the
r---,'o ....."s employees to spread the word. Her efforts
he product 16 percent ahead of its competitor.
" er challenge of the communications team was
~~!:...,.",:> with HRto solve the problem of low prod uctivity
ian ceramics plant making toilets, bathtubs and
o
sinks. A Productivity Partnership was launched that
communicated with employees about the value of
increased productivity, which also received support
from the union. The result was that productivity
.improved by 55 percent and manufacturing costs
dropped 40 percent,
A third aspe<;t of London's job was to manage the
announcement that one of the company's ceramic
operations would be closed. The communications team
kept management visible and accessible throughout the
process. to address staff questions and concerns.
PRWeek name.d London and her staff the "Corporate
Communications Te.am of the Year 2007.''The judges
noted, "Overall, the company's communications team
proved its business value several times over."

),lst ... eventually, if there is a point of contention between PR and law, law
" \,.-ins," he explained. "In this case, the law department was actually asking us,
;:Jl only asking us for our advice, but then used it when we gave it to them. I think
:,e-cognized that this was an historic event about to take place here and that as it
- J d it was going to have to be won on the basis of public opinion."

£es of Friction
.-. public relations is part of the managerial subsystem and contributing to orga-
onal strategy. Public relations is, say professors James and Larissa Grunig, "the
_~,!"... ment of communication between an organization and its publics." However,
_ ,:uff functions also are involved in the communication process with internal and
• al publics. And, almost invariably, friction occurs. The four areas of possible
n are legal, human resources, advertising, and marketing.

The legal staff is concerned about the possible effect of any public statement
em or potential litigation. Consequently, lawyers often frustrate public rela-
, personnel by taking the attitude that any public statement can potentially be used
d the organization in a lawsuit. Conflicts over what to release, and when, often
_ J paralyzing effect on decision making, causing the organization to seem ume-
·'\'e to public concerns. This is particularly true in a crisis, when the public
nds information immediately. Public relations practitioners who are members of
::Iunagement team often combat this reality, when appropriate, by taking a tough
- and aggressively making a case to the CEO that public opinion and erosion of
J or market share may be more expensive than the outcome of potential litigation.

n Resources The traditional personnel department has now evolved into the
ded role of "human resources," and there are often turf battles over who is
108 PART"· Role

responsible for employee communications. Human resources personnel believe they

should control the flow of information. Public relations administrators counter that
satisfactory external communications cannot be achieved unless effective employee
relations are conducted simultaneously. Layoffs, for example, affect not only employ-
ees, but also the community and investors.

Advertising Advertising and public relations departments often collide because they
compete for funds to communicate with external audiences. Philosophical differences
also arise. Advertising's approach to communications is, "Will it increase sales?" Public
relations asks, "Will it make friends?" These differing orientations frequently cause
breakdowns in coordination of overall strategy.

Marketing Marketing, like advertising, tends to think only of customers or potential

buyers as key publics. Public relations, on the other hand, defines publics in a broader
way-any group that can have an impact on the operations of the organization. These
publics include governmental agencies, environmental groups, neighborhood groups,
and a host of other publics that marketing would not
consider customers.
" We're no longer in silos where This led James Grunig, editor of the !ABC study, to
marketing does its own thing, conclude, "We believe, then, that public relations must
emerge as a discipline distinct from marketing and that it
and PR does its own th ing. , must be practiced separately from marketing in the organ-
ization." Logic dictates, however, that an organization
- - - Kim Plaskett, director needs a coordinated and integTated approach to commu-
of corporate communications nications strategy. Indeed, one survey found that 65 per-
for Greyhound cent of corporate managers were now spending more time
on developing integrated communications programs.
The following suggestions may help achieve this goal:

• Representatives of departments should serve together on key committees to

exchange i.nformation on how various programs can complement each other to
achieve overall organizational objectives. If representatives from human resources,
public relations, legal, and investor relations would present a united front to senior
managers, their influence would likely be increased exponentially.
• Collaboration or coalition-building among departments with shared interests in
communication issues can also help achieve organization-wide business goals.
• Heads of departments should be equals in job title. In this way, the autonomy of
one department is not subverted by another.
• All department heads should report to the same superior, so that all viewpoints can
be considered before an appropriate strategy is formulated.
• Informal, regular contacts with representatives of other departments help dispel
mind-sets and create understanding and respect for each other's viewpoint.
• Written policies should be established to spell out the responsibilities of each
department. Such policies are helpful in settling disputes over which department
has authority to communicate with employees or alter a news release.

Some organizational charts for public relations and other departments are shown
in Figure 4.2.
 CHAPTER"· PublicReiationsDepartmentsandFirms 109

GUilE 4.~

_. chart depicts
President
Public
Relations
.....
--;ce examples
I
- rporate
I I
Human
I I

agement Production Accounting Sales

Resources
nization,
- ...ing the -- -- L.--
-- e--
--
rtant position
blic relations.
President
......... .......
I . ..
Executive
Vice President
......... .......
I
I I I I
Human Public
Resources Relations Marketing Legal

-- -- L.-- .....
-- .....

President

I
-- I
I
-- I
Vice President- Vice President- Vice President-
Production, Legal, Public Relations,
Inventory, and Human Resources, Advertising,
Engineering Sales, and Marketing, and
Payroll Employee
Relations
e..-
-- L.-- ..... L.--
--

e Trend Toward Outsourcing

major trend for American corporations has been the outsourcing of services,
ther telecommunications, accounting, customer service, software engineering, or
legal services. The trend line also is for more organizations to outsource their
unication activities to public relations firms and outside contractors. Indeed, the
·SC and Council of Public Relations Finns study found that Fortune 500 companies
. spend 25 percent of their public relations budgets on outside finns. Almost
percent of the companies use outside public relations counsel to varying degrees.
.-\ national survey by PRrveek found that companies of all sizes spent an average of
-e than 40 percent of their public relations budget on the services of outside finns.
'gh technology, the percentage was even higher-a whopping 66 percent of the
rate budget. In contrast, nonprofits allocated an average of 38 percent of their
~gets for external public relations services.
 C HAP T E R 4- • Public Relations Departments and Firms 111

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we have available. please visit the
Careers section of our website at
www.edelman.com and SC"d.fCh by office
ro apply onune for the position that besr
suits your inrerests and experience.

Edelman
Edelman is an equal opportunity employer, committed to adiverse workforce.

-~s employment ad in PRWeekfor Edelman Worldwide shows the type

:= career opportunities available in a public relations firm .

.-\merican public relations firms have proliferated in proportion to the growth of

_.::: gJobal economy. As American companies expanded after World War II into boom-
::! domestic and worldwide markets, many corporations felt a need for public rela-
-::'TIS firms that could provide them with professional expertise in communications.
.-\.Iso stimulating the growth of public relations firms were increased urbanization,
:.m.msion of government bureaucracy and regulation, more sophisticated mass media
-, ems, the rise of consumerism, international trade, and the demand for more infor-
-.1 ·on. Executives of public relations firms predict future growth as more countries
:qpt free market economies and there is greater proliferation of independent media.
- .1ddition, the skyrocketing use of the Internet has fueled the global reach of public
-. -':::ons Ii rms.
 C" APT E R 4- • Public Relations Departments and Firms 113

• Executive speech training. Top executives are coached on

public affairs activities, including personal appearances.
• Research and evaluation. Scientific surveys are conducted
o measure public attitudes and perceptions.
Crisis communication. Management is counseled on what
o say and do in an emergency such as an oil spill or a recall
of an unsafe product.
• \1edia analysis. Appropriate media are examined for target-
ing specific messages to key audiences.
• Community relations. j\1anagement is counseled on ways
o <lchieve official and public support for such projects as
uilding or expanding a factory.
• Events management. News conferences, anniversary cele-
br<ltions, rallies, symposiums, and national conferences are
::>Ianned and conducted.
• Public affairs. Materials and testimony are prepared for
?O\'ernment hearings and regulatory bodies, and back-
§!Tound briefings are prepared.
• Branding and corporate reputation. Advice is given on
programs that establish a company brand and its reputation 11
for quality. A public relations firm was retained to
Financial relations. Management is counseled on ways to publicize and organize the grand opening of
;j\"oid takeover by another firm and effectively communicate the Smithsonian's National Museum ofthe
with stockholders, security analysts, and institutional investors. American Indian. The ceremonies, which
generated extensive media coverage,
featured representatives from various tribes
Public relations firms also offer specialty areas of service as in full regalia.
~d lines are identified. Burson-Marsteller now has a practice
~-;;llty in labor to help corporations deal with unions. Earlier,
, Unll set up a specialty area in environmental communications. After September II,
~: : !. Fleishman-Hillard set up a practice in homeland security. Other firms offer spe-
.:::iry services in such areas as litigation public relations, crisis management, technology,
a:..: health care. Fleishman-Hillard has even formed an animal care practice group to
: _ "e the growing interest in the health of the counuy's pets.
,\Iany major public relations firms, as the reader should have already noticed, have
. """3rded the term public relations from their official names. Thus, it's just Burson-
> 'teller, Ketchum, Hill & Knowlton, and Porter Novelli or Edelman Worldwide.
__. ' exception is Ogilvy Public Relations Worldwide, whose institutional ad is shown
:c. ?<lge 114. Other firms use the term communications. For example, Fenton Communi-
'ons describes itself as a "public interest communications firm" because it specializes
yanous causes. One client was "WIn WIthout War," an umbrella group of advocacy
=_ )UPS opposed to U.S. policy in Iraq.
Lncreasingly, public relations firms emphasize the counseling aspect of their serv-
.J.:":':. although most of their revenues come from implementing tactical aspects, such as
.-:-:ong news releases and organizing special events or media tours. The transition to
:-. :mseling is best expressed by Harold Burson, chairman of Burson-Marsteller, who
: -e told an audience, "In the beginning, top management used to say to us, 'Here's
~' message, deliver it.' Then it became, 'What should we say?' Now, in smart organi-
.::.l "ons, it's 'What should we do?' "
110 '\ole

CREATING.A CONVERSATION IS JUST AS IMPORTANT AS DRIVING MEDIA.

WELCOME TO ANEW AGE Of PUBLIC RELATIONS.

ONE WHERE TIfE PUBLIC DOES MOST OF THE RELATING.

AND WE LISTEN AS MUCH AS WE TALK•.

WHERE THE INFLUENCERS ARE THE PEOPlE S1nlNG NEXT TO US.

Public relations firms with global reach offer prospective clients a variety of
services. This advertisement for Ogilvy Public Relations Worldwide has a lot
to do with listening instead ofjust talking in the new age of digital
communications

Because of the counseling function, we use the phrase public l'elations finn instead
of agency throughout this book. Advertising firms, in contrast, are properly called
agencies because they serve as agents, buying time or space on behalf of a client.
A good source of information about public relations counseling is the Council of
Public Relations Firms, which has about 75 member firms. The group provides infor-
mation on its Web site (www.prfirms.org) about trends in the industry and how to
select a public relations firm as well as a variety of other materials. It also offers the
popular publication, Careel's in Public Relations: Opportunities in a Dynamic Industry. The
group also operates a career center and posts f(~sumes on its \,\,Teb site of individuals
looking for employment with a public relations firm.

Global Reach
Public relations firms, large and small, usually are found in metropolitan areas. On an
international level, firms and their offices or affiliates are situated in most of the
 CHAPTER .. • PubJicRelationsDepartmentsandFirms 115

paigns in Otht!r Nations Make a Difference

blic relations firms around about how they went through • Ruder Finn Asia (Singapore),
the world handle a variety of changes at different stages of IBM's Organized a series of events cele-
assignments. Here are some history and how the changes con- brating Citigroup's 100 years of
_have recently received a Golden tributed to their careers. According to business in Asia. One event was
award from the International Ogilvy, "It assisted IBM employees to sponsorship of 21 concerts by the
_:; 'c Relations Association (IPRA): clearly internalize IBM's reoefined New York Philharmonic in 14 Asian
core values, boosted morale, and cities. As a result, Citigroup gained
• Zarakoi lIetisim agency
resonated with a diverse audience new business.
ey). Conducted a "No to Domes-
externally."
I'olence" campaign with Hurriyet • Weber-Shandwick (Germany).
paper to educate Turkish citi- • Gitam Porter Novelli (Israel). Coordinated a campaign by McDon-
about the serious social problem Conducted a campaign on behalf of ald's in Germany to celebrate World
mestic abuse. The campaign, the Israel Cancer Assocjation to Children's Day by having children
a Iso worked with various socialbring attention to breast cancer, the use tray liners to pen their wishes
~=ncies, trained 9,000 women and most prevalent form of cancer in for the future. The top two wishes:
~ in the Istanbul metro area on Israel. To this end, the firm organized peace/no war and better schools
"iet resolution and legal rights. a fashion show where top designers and playgrounds.
nference on domestic abuse created outfits utilizing the color of • United Partners ltd. (Bulgaria).
_ ~rated widespread media pink, the universal color of breast The firm, on behalf of Procter &
age. cancer awareness and femininity. Gamble, organized and publicized a
• Ogilvy Public Relations (China). The clothes were modeled by promi- "Teen Information Center" Web site.
- ed with IBM's China Group to nent female public figures and vic- Experts in psychology, sex education,
te more than 8,000 employees . tims of breast cancer. The show was drug abuse, and personal relation-
the core values of the corpora- broadcast on national television, ships were trained to answer
by producing a booklet, "Savor generated extensive media cover- inquiries from teenagers via the Web
- ~ Blue." It was a compilation of age, and increased the number of site: Procter & Gamble's objective
'es from rank-and-file employees women getting screened. was corporate citizenship.

~':, major cities and capitals. Fleishman-Hillard, for example, has more than 2,000
-: )~-ces in 83 offices across six continents. Edelman Worldwide, the world's largest
• _ ndently owned firm, has almost 1,500 employees in the United States and
::..--:-:: 2,000 employees in 48 offices worldwide. For examples of award-winning
- -h\' firms in other nations, see the Multicultural World box on this page.
The importance of international operations is reflected in the fact that most of the
:- public relations firms generate substantial revenues from international opera-
, Edelman, for example, had $325 million in revenues in 2006, but it's estimated
- :1lOre than a third of this revenue came from its international offices. Burson-
-,:eller, with 57 offices abroad and 45 affiliate offices, generates an estimated
x-rcent of its revenues from international operations. London-based Inceptal
-: ;Jte generates almost 70 percent of its income from international operations.
116 P~RT ... Role

International work isn't only for large finns. Small- and medium-sized firms aro
the world have fonned working partnerships with each other to serve client needs.
largest such group is Worldcom, with 86 finns in 39 nations. Other major groups
include Pinnacle, with 60 firms in 30 nations, PROI with 41 finns in 26 nations, Euro-
com Worldwide with 29 firms in 39 nations, and Iprex with 58 firms in 25 nations.
Essentially, firms in an affiliation cooperate with each other to service clients wi -
international needs. A firm in India, for example, may call its affiliate in Los Angeles
handle the details of news coverage for a visiting trade delegation from India. One ~
Worldcom's accounts is Bausch & Lomb, which involves 17 affiliates in 20 separ:HE
markets. Bob Oltmanns, then head of Iprex, told PRWeek, "One of the reasons we
started in the first place was to provide clients with a need for reach beyond their 0\\
markets with a viable alternative to the large multinational agencies."
International public relations is an area of growth that will be discussed in detail iL
Chapter 19.

The Rise of Communication Conglomerates

Until the 1970s, the largest public relations firms were independently owned by their
founders or, in some cases, by employee stockholders. A significant change began i
1973 when Carl Byoir & Associates, then the largest U.S. public relations firm, \\as
purchased by the advertising firm of Foote, Cone, & Belding. In short order, other
large public relations firms were purchased by major advertising agencies.
Today, both public relations firms and advertising agencies have become part 0 -
large, diversified holding companies with global reach (see the Insights box on page 11 ;).
Ornnicom, based in New York, is the largest, reporting 2006 worldwide revenues o£
$11.38 billion. It owns, for example, three major public relations firms-Fleishman-
Hillard, Ketchum, and Porter Novelli. All three have international offices and Ketchum
even did work for President Putin of the Russian Federation when he was chair of the
G8 Summit conference.
"WPP, based in London, is second in worldwide revenues, with $10.9 billion. It has
a stable of major public relations firms, including Hill & Knowlton, which was one 01-
the first firms to gain national visibility more than 50 years ago when it defended the
tobacco industry against allegations that smoking caused cancer. It gained even further
notoriety when it represented the "Citizens for a Free Kuwait" in 1991, which was a
front group for the Kuwaiti government. "WPP also owns Burson-Marsteller, also con-
sidered one of the leaders in the industry.
Interpublic Group (IPG) is third with $6.2 billion in worldwide revenues and not
only owns Foote, Cone & Belding (now called DraftFCB) and other advertising agen-
cies, but also six major public relations firms. They include Weber-Shandwick, claimed
to be the world's largest firm, as well as GolinlHarris International, Cannichael Lynch
Spong, DeVries PR, MWWGroup, and Tierney Communications.
Large conglomerates acquire public relations firms for several reasons. One is the
natural evolutionary step of integrating various communication disciplines into "total
communication networks." Supporters of integration say that no single-function
agency or firm is equipped with the personnel or resources to handle complex, often
global, integrated marketing functions efficiently for a client. In addition, joint efforts
by public relations and advertising professionals can offer prospective clients greater
communications impact, generate more business, and expand the number of geo-
graphical locations around the world.
A second reason is pure business. Holding companies find public relations firms to
be attractive investments. According to PRWeek, revenues from advertising clients
 C" A PT Ell" • Public Relations Departments and Firms 11]

rge Public Relations Firms Part of Conglomerates

n estimated 60 percent of the global business in
public relations is conducted by firms that are
owned by holding companies that also own adver-
'ng agencies, marketing firms, billboard companies,
ect mail firms, and special event specialty shops. The fol-
• ing are the three major holding companies by 2006
I worldwide revenues and what percentage came
their public relations operations.
wpp
Total revenue: $10.9 billion
Percentage of revenue from PR: 10.1% ($1.07 billion)
Major public relations firms owned: Burson-
Marsteller, Cohn & Wolfe, GCI Group, Hill &
Knowlton, Ogilvy PR Worldwide, Public Strategies,
and Robinson Lerer Montgomery

nicom Interpublic Group

--:-otal revenue: $11-38 billion
Percentage of revenue from PR: 10.1% ($1.1 billion)
,'v\ajor public relations firms owned: Fleishman-
Hillard, Ketchum, Porter Novelli, Brodeur World-
wide, Clark & Weinstock, Gavin Anderson & Co.,
Cone, and Mercury Public Affairs
Total revenue: $6.19 billion
Percentage of revenue from PR: 15.5% ($928 million)
Revenues based on three major firms: MWW Group,
Weber-Shandick, and Golin/Harris International.
Other firms are DeVries PR, Carmichael Lynch Spong,
Rogers & Cowan, and Tierney Communications.

'iource: "Agency Business Report 2007." PRWeek, April 23,2007, Supplement, pp. 1-54.

. remained somewhat static over the years, whereas public relations firms have
rienced double-digit growth in the same time frame.

rd More Integration Although earlier efforts to create "total communication

'arks" for clients often met with limited success, there is now increasing evidence
the strategy may be working. Considerable new business is also generated when
of the same conglomerate refer customers to each other. As communication cam-
~s become more integrated, even more synergy has become commonplace.
Holding companies originally started out primarily as a stable of advertising
_ ncies under one umbrella, but they have evolved considerably beyond that with
acquisition of public relations firms and other specialty communication compa-
•. London-based WPP, for example, now employs 69,000 people in more than
natIons.
Sir Martin Sorrell, chairman of WPP (London), told a TiVall Street Journal
:ernewer:
If you want to upset me, call me an advertising agency. The strategic objective is for
nITa-thirds of our revenue to corne from nontraditional advertising in 5 to 10 years.
Because of fragmentation, TiVo, and Sky Plus, clients and ourselves have to look at
everything. Instead of focusing on network television, we have to look at public rela-
tions and radio and outdoor and mobile messaging and satellite. Media planning
becomes more important.
118 PART 1· Role

Sir Martin also makes the point that one size doesn't fit all when it comes to global
communications strategies and campaigns. Campaigns still have to be tailored to local
customs, ethnic groups, and religious preferences. Muslims now constitute 26 percem
of the world's population and, by 2014, they will be 30 percent. By the same year, two-
thirds of the world's population will be Asian.

Structure of a Counseling Firm

A small public relations firm may consist only of the owner (president) and an assistam
(vice president), who are supported by an administrative assistant. Larger firms have a
more extended hierarchy.
The organization of Ketchum in San Francisco is fairly typical. The president is
based in Ketchum's New York office, so the executive vice president is the on-site direc-
tor in San Francisco. A senior vice president is associate director of operations. Next in
line are several vice presidents who primarily do account supervision or special projects.
An account supervisor is in charge of one major account or several smaller ones.
An account executive, who reports to the supervisor, is in direct contact with the client
and handles most of the day-to-day activity. At the bottom of the list is the assistam
account executive, who does routine maintenance work compiling media lists, gather-
ing information, and writing rough drafts of news releases.
Recent college graduates usually start as assistant account executives. Once ther
learn the firm's procedures and show ability, promotion to account executive may occur
within 6 to 18 months. After two or three years, it is not uncommon for an account
executive to become an account supervisor.
Executives at or above the vice-presidential level usually are heavily involved in sell-
ing their firm's services. In order to prosper, a firm must continually seek new business
and sell additional services to current clients. Consequently, the upper management of
the firm calls on prospective clients, prepares proposals, and makes new business presen-
tations. In this very competitive field, a firm not adept at selling itself frequently fails.
Firms frequently organize account teams, especially to serve a client whose pro-
gram is multifaceted. One member of the team, for example, may set up a nationwide
media tour in which an organization representative is booked on television talk shows.
Another may supervise all materials going to the print media, including news stories,
feature articles, background kits, and artwork. A third may concentrate on the trade
press or perhaps arrange special events. See the Insights box on page 119 for a first-
person account of what it's like to work in a public relations firm and then a corpora-
tion. The Insights box on page 121 gives the pros and cons of working in both settings.

How Public Relations Firms Get Business

Organizations, even if they have internal public relations staff, often use the services of
public relations to supplement staffing, do a special project, or because they need spe-
cific expertise in a particular situation. In fact, the Strategic Public Relations Center at
the University of Southern California (USC) reports that public and private compa-
nies spend about 25 percent of their total public relations budget on the services of
public relations firms.
A common approach to engaging' the services of a public relations firm is to issue
what is called a "Request for Proposal," known as a RFP. Firms are invited to make a
presentation regarding their capabilities and express their ideas about what program they
would create to address the potential client's particular needs. This is a highly competi-
tive situation and firms use their most skilled presenters to "sell" their services and ideas.

on the ·ob
paring Work in a PR Firm and a Corporation
tacy Nobles, like many profes-
sionals, has worked in a public
relations firm and also on the
rate side. She was formerly
Peppercom public relations
is now senior manager of corpo-
-=-::e communications for Wolters
er company in New York. Below
s e first-person account:
hat's it like working in an
agency versus working as an
'n-house corporate communica-
:ions professional? In myexperi-
:-nce, starting my career in the
agency world has been invalu-
ble. It's helped me gain the
:-xperiences needed to run my
n corporate communications
rogram. So, let me start by
escribing agency life.
While at a Manhattan agency,
some of my clients were major
eortune 500 companies. My day
ncluded working with my col-
eagues to craft the right messag-
ng for a company and
onversations with the media
3 out my clients' businesses and
hat differentiates them. It also
-'1cluded phone calls with top
ommunications executives to
iscuss pending media inter-
views (based on actually reading
hat a reporter had written).
Sometimes, my job included crisis
mmunications, or counseling a
lient on how to best to commu-
icate with its audiences during
an unexpected event. Other times,
'""'y job was to work with my
lient contacts-marketing and
ommunications executives-to
elp them communicate to their
oosses why their jobs are critical
________________-
CHAPTER" • Public Relations Deparnnents and Firms "9
and why they should be involved
in key company decisions.
And then I became one of
those marketing and communi-
cations executives. As the senior
manager of corporate communi-
cations for Wolters Kluwer Cor-
porate Legal Services, I now know
what my clients went through
every day. Now I'm the person
who's responsible for managing
my company's internal and
external perceptions. I handle all
aspects of media relations (e.g.,
pitch development, press release
writing, media list building,
interview prep, etc.), and all other
external communications initia-
tives, which sometimes includes
the occasional crisis. I work with
executives to ensure they're Stacy Nobles speaks from experience.
media trained and on-message,
develop a subject-matter-expert
program to increase our units. With those six business
thought-leadership through units come six marketing man-
speaking and media opportuni- agers, six executive-level man-
ties, and manage all of the con- agers, and six different sets of
tent offered at our own events customers. On top of that, my
and conferences. company is a division under a
On top of that, I also oversee bigger company, Wolters Kluwer
the internal communications (based in Amsterdam, the Nether-
function. I helped create and staff lands). So, not only is my immedi-
the position, which is tasked with ate boss a "client" with demands
creating an internal newsletter, and expectations to meet, but it's
developing a quarterly executive also as if each of the six business
video, executing four town hall units and the vice president of
meetings per year and managing corporate communications for
all internal messaging to ensure Wolters Kluwer are also clients.
the sales teams have the right And then there's the ultimate
information to communicate client, the CEO.
with customers. Working in-house means I
When I moved in-house, I actually have to juggle even more
thought my days of juggling than when I was at an agency-
multiple clients with different without a team! At an agency,
projects and needs were over. But most of the praise I received
I was wrong. I oversee and man- came from the agency execu-
age corporate communications tives. When I made a mistake, I
plans for six different business had a team and supervisors to
(CONTINUEO) J
120 PA.RT 1· Role

help fix it and teach me how I
could've done it differently. That
also meant a team of profession-
als who understood my day-to-
day work. Now,all of the work I do
is my own. I get all of the credit
and all of the criticism. I also have
to explain the rationale behind
my strategies to multiple people
without any support. Agency life
prepares you to handle things on
your own, and to clearly commu-
nicate your proposed strategies.
Whether working at a corpo-
ration or at an agency, communi-
cations is an exciting job that's
never the same from day-to-day.
There are always more challenges
to address, new messages to cre-
ate and multiple activities to
manage. Ask any communica-
tions professional to describe a
typical day and I'm sure they'll all
respond that there's no such
thing as typical in our world-
which is exactly why we chose
the profession in the first place.

A good example of a RFP situation is the Ministry of Tourism for the CaymaI:
Islands government that sought a public relations firm to promote the island nation i::
the U.S. market. The RFP specified that the winning public relations firm wouk
(1) develop and implement a public affairs/media action plan, (2) maintain an intern3-
tional news bureau, (3) provide spokesperson training as needed, (4) provide consu!t3-
tion on reactive media issues, and (5) devise an appropriate measurement strategy.
The RFP also listed the criteria for evaluating proposals. It stated that public rela-
tions firms should be well established with a proven track record and preference would be
given to firms with Caribbean experience. The RFP also specified that a decision would
be made on the basis of such criteria as: (1) quality of the proposal, (2) strategic and prac-
tical approach, (3) proven expertise of personnel assigned to the account, (4) effective use
of resources, and (5) a proven track record of working with similar clients.
RFPs can be a single page or, in the case of governmental agencies, run 20 or
30 pages. Public relations firms, after analyzing what is requested and the budget allo-
cated, then decide whether to make a presentation or to pass up the opportunity.

Pros and Cons of Using a Public Relations Firm

Because public relations is a service industry, a firm's major asset is the quality of its
people. Potential clients thinking about hiring a public relations firm usually base their
decisions on that fact, according to a survey of Fortune 500 corporate vice presidents.
Basic attributes that an organization wants from a firm, according to another sur-
vey of 600 clients, was (1) understands your business and the industry, (2) responds to
all your needs and requests in a timely manner, and (3) works within your budget.
Clients also give high priority to (1) accurate work, (2) high-quality staff, (3) consistenr
delivery of key messages to target audiences, (4) outstand-
'we use agencies almost as ing client service, (5) a measurable return on investment,
extensions of ou r i nterna Istaff and (6) creative programs that meet business objectives.
Both firms and potential clients also consider possible
We work as partners. conflicts of interest. A firm, for example, cannot ethically
represenr two clients that are directly competing with each
- - - Paul James, communications other. Other concerns can also come up. See the Ethics
manager of Harley-Davidson box on page 112 for some insights on why a public relations
firm will resign an account.

Advantages Public relations firms offer several advantages:

• Objectivity. The firm can analyze a client's needs or problems from a new perspec-
tive and offer fresh insights.
 C" APT Ell" • Public Relations Departments and Firms 121

on the ·ob
b at a Corporation or a PR Firm?

ecent college graduates often ponder the pros and cons of joining a corporate department or going to work
for a PR firm. The following summarizes some of the pluses and minuses:

I ~ FIRM: BREADTH OF EXPERIENCE CORPORATE PR: DEPTH OF EXPERIENCE

-On the Job: Insights Comparing Work in a PR Firm
2 Corporation."
=- "_ "Usually work on several clients and projects at
time. Possibility of rapid advancement.
-==-paced, exciting.
_ ~<OIn see the impact of your work for a client;
ved from "action."
"es get honed and polished. (This is where a
or really helps.)
rking with other professionals leads to better job
unities.
other skills, such as how to do presentations and
:gets and establish deadlines.
- e daily pressure on billable hours, high productivity.
firms are real "sweat shops."
what high employment turnover.
oets and resources can be limited.
traditionally low at entry level.
nee, medical benefits can be minimal.
opportunity for profit-sharing, stock options.
emphasis on tactical skills, production of materials.
Jobs more difficult to find without experience; duties more
narrowly focused.
Sometimes little variety at entry level.
Growth sometimes limited unless you are willing to switch
employers.
Can be slower paced.
Heavy involvement with executive staff; see impact almost
instantly.You are an important component in the "big picture."
Strength in all areas expected. Not a lot of time for coaching by
peers.
Sometimes so involved in your work, you don't have time for
networking.
Same "client" all the time. Advantage: Get to know organization
really well. Disadvantage: Can become boring.
Less intense daily pressure; more emphasis on accomplishing
longer-term results.
Less turnover.
More resources usually available.
Salaries tend to be higher.
Benefits usually good, sometimes excellent.
More opportunities available.

• .-1 vm-iety ofskills and expertise. The firm has specialists, whether in speech-writ-
_ 3"Jde magazine placement, or helping with investor relations.
• Extensive resources. The firm has abundant media contacts and works regularly
numerous suppliers of products and services. It has research materials, including
information banks, and experience in similar fields.
• International jobs, like handling the corporate sponsorship issues with an
LIlpics, benefits from the extensive resources of a firm.
• Offices throughout the country. A national public relations program requires coor-
. ion in major cities. Large firms have on-site staffs or affiliate firms in many cities
- ~ 'en around the world.
• Special problem-solving skills. A firm may have extensive experience and a solid
'ution in desired areas. For example, Burson-Marsteller is well known for expertise
 C HAP TEll .. • Public Relations Departments and Firms 123

~_ Fixed projectfee. The public relations firm agrees to do a specific project, such as
L__:.nual report, a newsletter, or a special event, for a fixed fee. For example, a coun-
-ce.? tirm may write and produce a quarterly newsletter for $30,000 annually. The
- -.:: 'ee is the least popular among public relations firms because it is difficult to
_ ::---=--=:-t all work and expenses in advance. Many clients, however, like fixed fees for a
'iIt::"_-: °c project because it is easier to budget and there are no "surprises."

.-\ fourth method, not widely used, is the concept of pay-fir-placement. Clients
.Co: ay for hours worked but for actual placements of articles in the print media and
tr-: cast mentions. Fees for a major story can range anywhere from $1,500 to
0
,

~ ~. :~)O depending on the prestige, circulation, or audience size of the media outlet
--:: -~ses a story proposed by a pay-for-placement firm. PayPerClip, for example,
:-cs $5,000 for a feature in a national woman's magazine.
The vast majority of public relations firms don't use this business model for sev-
=.: rc-Jsons. First, it reduces public relations to simply media relations and media
~ment, when it is a much broader field. Second, it presents cash-flow problems
Je::1- 'e payment isn't made until a placement is made. Third, media gatekeepers ulti-
d~' decide what to use and what not to use; placement is never guaranteed despite
_c:1 ess hours spent by a staff person "pitching" the story.
The primary basis of the most common methods-the basic hourly fee, the retainer
i::t. Lid the fixed project fee-is to estimate the number of hours that a particular project
ole to plan, execute, and evaluate. The first method-the basic hourly fee-is the
:.c rlexible and most widely used among large firms. It is preferred by public relations
~c because they are paid for the exact number of hours spent on a project and because
~ ~.e only sound way that a fee can be determined intelligently. The retainer fee and the
- ~ ~roject fee are based on an estimate of how many hours it will take to service a client.
.-\ number of variables are considered when a public relations firm estimates the
=:-:;:: <) • a program. These may include the size and duration of the project, geographi-
:.)L"";1tions involved, the number of personnel assigned to the project, and tile type of
:::ie::::..-\ major variable, of course, is billing the use of the firm's personnel to a client at
t:: Foper hourly rate.
-\ senior account executive, for example, may earn $60,000 annually and receive
~ °rs (health insurance, pension plan, etc.) that cost the firm an additional $13,000.
- '. the annual cost of the employee to the firm totals $73,000. Using 1,600 billable
. ~ in a year (after deducting vacation time and holidays), the account executive
pc::; about $46 per hour.
The standard industry practice, however, is to bill clients at least three times a per-
-< ;Jlaly. This multiple allows the firm to pay for office space, equipment, insur-
~. supplies, and try to operate at a profit level of about 10 to 20 percent before
". Thus, the billing rate of the account executive is about $140 per hour. The prin-
=n:-' < of a counseling firm, because of their much higher salaries, often command $200
- '00 per hour, depending on the size and capabilities of the firm. On the other
~ _an assistant account executive may be billed out at only $85 per hour. One
)nwide survey conducted by an executive search firm found that the average
0.' rate, across all public relations firm sizes and billable titles, was $213.
The primary income of a public relations firm comes from the selling of staff time,
: )me additional income results from markups on photocopying, telephone, fax,
. :m\\'ork the firm supervises. The standard markup in the trade is between 15 and
_ :xrcent. Firms occasionally do pro bono work for charitable causes. (See the PR
~oook on page 124 about a program for inner-city schools in ew York City.)
124 PART t · Role

PR K
sthma is the leading cause of school absenteeism

A and hospitalization for children nationwide, and

N-ew York City's inner-city children have an asthma
rate four times the national level.
Such a statistic prompted Fleishman-Hillard's (F-H)
New York office to do something about it as part of its
own community relations program. The'firm, with the
voluntary efforts of senior n:Janagement and staff,
researched the problem of how to reach disadva ntaged
children with,information and even medical advice. The
solution, it believed, was to reach children in the schools,
but that required permission and cooperation from school
administrators. The F-H ~eam, however, got the support of
N.Y.C. schools chancellor Joel Klein, and Project E.R.A.5.E '
(Eradicating Respiratory Asthma in S~tiools to help
children Excel) was born. The project, at no cost to the
families or the schools, had' three components. The first
one was bUilding 'support and cooperation with school
principals and parent coordinators. Medical specialists
went to parent meetings to talk about asthma and
Project E.R.A.5.E. to garner support for the program.
Second was the development of brochures and posters
that would inform parents'and children about the
symptoms of asthma. All materials were translated into Proyecto E.R.A.S.E.
appropriate languages. The third component was having' (Erradicar el asma respirataria en las escue/as
medical specialists actually visit the schools and prOVide para ayudar a los niiios a tener exita)
diagnosis, advice on'treatment, and management of
Fleishman-Hillard printed its materials in English and Spa
asthma.
to reach inner-city children in New York City. This brochure
F~H also assembled' partners from both the public and
Spanish-speaking parents, gave them tips about the sy ~
private sectors. Several broadcast stations signed on, a of asthma in their children,
a
fund-raising firm volunteered its services, and law firm
provided free legal i;ldvice. Steiner Sports, an agent for
professional athletes, arranged for a celebrity athlete,
Richard Jefferson, to be a role model for the kids because Fleishman-Hillard's E.R.A.5.E program, done as a
he also suffered from a severe asthma condition. voluntary effort, received PRSA's 2007 Silver Anvil award in
A pilot program was successful in two needy N.Y.C. multicultural public relations and also the Best of Silver
schoois and the program is continuing in' other inner-city Anvil Award. In addition, it received PRWeek's Community
schoois. Some results after the first year: School absences Relations Campaign of the Year. Julia Hood, editor of
because of asthma dropped 50 percent, hospitalizations PRWeek, editorialized ", .. What transported this
dropped 75 percent, and ER visits declined 25 percerit. The program to Campaign of the Year status was its integrity
drop in ER and hospitalizations saved low-in.come parents and authenticity, its focus on a community issue that was
and health agencies about $140;000. ' relevant for its staff, and for the greater population."
 C HAP T E R .. • Public Relations Departments and Firms
UIftIftARY
lie Relations Departments
. organizations have public relations departments.
departments may also be called by other names, such
Zi rporate communications. Organizations, depending
- eir culture and the wishes of top management, struc-
-= he public relations function in various ways. Public
ions professionals often serve at the tactical and tech-
level, but others are counselors to the top executive
, ave a role in policy making. In management theory,
ic relations is a staff function rather than a line
- ion.
SE ACTIVITY What Would You Do?
, ill graduate from college in several months and plan
rsuing a career in public relations. After several inter-
,you receive two job offers.
ne is with a high-technology company that makes
=. printers and scanners for the consumer market. The
_ rate communications department has about 20 pro-
s- nals, and it is customary for beginners to start in
- yee publications or product publicity. Later, with
= experience, you might be assigned to do marketing
unications for a product group or work in a special-
area such as investor relations, governmental affairs,
n community relations.
UE5TIO~5 forReviewandStudy
ow have the role and function of public relations
departments changed in recent years?
- In what ways do the structure and culture of an
organization affect the role and influence of the pub-
lic relations department?
; hat kinds of knowledge does a manager of a public
elations department need today?
any departments are now called corporate commu-
ications instead of public relations. Do you think the
first term is more appropriate? Why or why not?
hat is the difference between a line and a staff
'unction? To which function does public relations
belong, and why?
hy is a compulsory-advisory role within an organi-
zation a good one for a public relations department to
ave?
125
Public Relations Firms
Public relations firms come in all sizes and are found world-
wide, providing a variety of services. In recent decades, many
public relations firms have either merged with advertising
agencies or become subsidiaries of diversified holding com-
panies. Advantages of using outside firms include versatility
and extensive resources, among other considerations; but
they can also lack the full-time commitment of an in-house
department, need a lot of direction, and are often more
expensive. Revenues primarily come from charging a basic
hourly fee, plus out-of-pocket expenses.
The second job offer is from a local office of a large,
national public relations firm. You would begin as an assis-
tant account executive and work on several accounts,
including a chain of fast-food restaurants and an insur-
ance company. The jobs pay about the same, but the cor-
poration offers better insurance and medical plans. Taking
into consideration the pros and cons of working for public
relations firms versus corporations. what job would best
fit your abilities and preferences? Explain your reasons.
7. What four areas of the organization cause the most
potential for friction with public relations? Explain.
8. In your opinion, should public relations or human
resources be responsible for employee communica-
tions? Why?
9. Public relations people express a fear that they will
lose influence and be relegated to purely technical
functions if they are controlled by the marketing
department. Do you think their fears are justified?
Why or why not?
10. Name at least seven services that a public relations
firm offers clients.
11. What are the three largest communications conglom-
erates in the world?
12. How important is international business to American
public relations firms?
126 PART 1. Role
13. Why do large holding companies find the acquisition
of public relations firms so attractive?
14. What are the pros and cons of using a public relations
firm?
15. What are the standard methods used by a public rela-
tions firm to charge for its services?
SUGGESTED READINGS
Auletta, Ken. "Annals of Communications. The Fixer: Why New
Yorkers Call Howard Rubenstein When They've Got a Problem."
New Yorker, February lZ, zo07. Profile of legendary public
relations practitioner.
Berger, B. K. "Power Over, Power With, and Power to Relations: Critical
Reflections on Public Relations, the Dominant Coalition, and
Activism." Journal ofPublic Relations Research, Vol. 17, NO.1, zooS,
pp·s-z8.
Bush, Michael. "The PR Industry From the Outside." PRWeek,
September 11, zo06, p.ls.
Chabria,Anita. "Billing Models that Pay Off for Both Sides." PRWeek,
July 18, zooS, p. z8.
Cody, Steve. "Taking the Lead: Communicators as Innovation
Catalysts." The Strategist, Spring zo06, pp. 8-11.
Heyman, W. C. "Study Shows Mix of Personal, Professional Patterns
Combine to Signal Likely Success in PR Profession." Public
Relations Quarterly, Vol. 49, NO·3, Z004, pp. 7-10.
Lewis, Tanya."Relationships That Deliver Results." PRWeek, May 14,
zo07, pp.18-z7. Annual agency excellence survey.
Lewis, Tanya. "Networks Foster a Collaborative Spirit." PRWeek,April
16, zo07, P.ll Global networks of public relations firms.
16. Under what circumstances should a public relati
firm resign from an account?
17. What is an AOR and a RFP?
Lewis, Tanya. "When a Relationship Nears Its Endgame: Most
Agency-Client Relationships Have Rough Patches, But Some
Can't be Saved." PRWeek, February ZO, zo06, p. z6.
Moss, Danny, Newman, Andrew, and DeSanto, Barbara. "What Do
Communication Managers Do? Defining and Refining the Core
Elements of Management in a Public Relations/Corporate
Communications Context." Journalism and Mass Communica-
tions Quarterly, Vol. 8z, NO.4, zooS, pp. 873-8go.
O'Brien, Keith. "On the Right Track: Corporate Survey zo06." PRWef?F..
October g, zo06, pp.18-zz.
O'Neil, Julie. "An Investigation of the Sources of Influence of
Corporate Public Relations Practitioners." Public Relations Review
Vol. zg, No. z, zo03, pp.lsg-16g.
Plowman, K. D. "Conflict, Strategic Management, and Public
Relations." Public Relations Review, Vol. 31, NO.1, zooS, pp. 131-138.
Rayburn,J., and Hazelton, V. "Survey Provides Profile of Independen:
Practitioner: Examines Practice Areas,lncome and Profit." Public
Relations Tactics, March zooS, pp.ls-16.
Trickett, Eleanor. "Outside Look Shows PR's Role in Marketing
Gaining Respect." PRWeek, September 11, zo06, p. g.
 Research

e Importance of Research Focus Groups Avoid the Politically Corred

Defining the Research Role Copy Testing Answer

Using Research Ethnographic Techniques Give a Range ofPossible Answers

Research Techniques Questionnaire Guidelines

Quantitative Research
-econdary Research Random Sampling How to Reach Respondents
Archival Research Sample Size Moil Questionnaires

Library and Online Databases Telephone Surveys

Questionnaire Construction
The Internet and World Wide Web Personal Interviews
Carefully Consider Wording
Omnibus Surveys
_ualitative Research Avoid Loaded Questions
Web and E-Mail Surveys
Content Analysis Consider Timing and Context
Interviews
128 PAUT 2 . Process

The Importance of Research

Effective public relations is a process, and the essential first step in the process E
research. Today, research is widely accepted by public relations professionals as JT_
integral part of the planning, program development, and evaluation process.

Defining the Research Role

In basic terms, research is a form of listening. Broom and Dozier, in their book USill;
Research in Public Relations, say, "Research is the controlled, objective, and systematic
gathering of information for the purpose of describing and understanding."
Before any public relations program can be undertaken, information must be-
gathered and data must be collected and interpreted. Only by performing this first ste.
can an organization begin to make policy decisions and map out strategies for effecti,-c
communication programs. This research often becomes the basis for evaluating the
program once it has been completed. The results of an evaluation can lead to greater
accountability and credibility with upper management. (See Chapter 8 for details.)
Various types of research can be used to accomplish an organization's objective'>
and meet its need for information. The choice of what type of research to use reall,-
depends on the particular subject and situation. As always, time and budget are major
considerations, as is the perceived importance of the situation. Consequently, mam-
questions should be asked before formulating a research design:

• What is the problem?

• What kind of information is needed?
• How will the results of the research be used?
• What specific public (or publics) should be researched?
• Should the organization do the research in-house or hire an outside consultant?
• How wiIJ the research data be analyzed, reported, or applied?
• How soon will the results be needed?
• How much will the research cost?

These questions will help the public relations person determine the extent and
nature of the research needed. In some cases, only informal research may be required,
because of its low cost or the need for immediate information. In other cases, a random
scientific survey may be selected, despite its costs and time requirement, because a
large retailer such as Wal-Mart or Home Depot wants to know how a community
might vote on a referendum to approve the construction of a "big-box" store. The pros
and cons of each research method wiIJ be discussed later in the chapter.

Using Research
Research is a multipronged tool that is involved in virtuaJly every phase of a communi-
cations program. In general, studies show that public relations departments spend
about 3 to 5 percent of their budget on research. Some experts contend that it should be
10 percent. Public relations professionals use research in the following ways:

• To achieve credibility with management. Executives want facts, not guesses

and hunches. The inclusion of public relations personnel in an organization's policy and
 CHAPTER;; • Research 129

l1:"_-:<ion making, according to the findings ofIABC's research on excellence in commu-

ne.< "on management, is strongly correlated with their ability to do research and relate
'I:t::'...:- rindings to the organization's objectives.

• To define audiences and segment publics. Detailed information about the

n==lOgTaphics, lifestyles, characteristics, and consumption patterns of audiences helps
T. .:..- ;ure that messages reach the proper audiences. A successful children's immunization
:o:S.:>mlation campaign in California was based on State Health Department statistics
~ showed that past immunization programs had not reached rural children and that
=- _
= anic and Vietnamese children were not being immunized in the same proportion
~ xher ethnic groups.
• To fonnulate strategy. Much money can be spent pursuing the wrong strat-
-_ ~:. Officials of the New Hampshire paper industry, given the bad press about log-
o .? and waterway pollution, thought a campaign was needed to tell the public what it
1::' doing to reduce pollution. An opinion survey of 800 state residents by a public
~cions firm, however, indicated that the public was already generally satisfied with
TIC industry'S efforts. Consequently, the new strategy focused on reinforcing positive
c:nes such as worker safety, employment, and environmental responsibility.
• To test messages. Research is often used to determine what particular mes-
:=: is most salient with the target audience. According to one focus group study for a
.::I::'.paign to encourage carpooling, the message that resonated the most with com-
m:::~crs was saving time and money, not air quality or environmental concerns. Conse-
-ntly, the campaign emphasized how many minutes could be cut from an average
lUte by using carpool lanes and the annual savings in gasoline, insurance, and car
.. renance.
• To help management keep in touch. In a mass society, top management is
lU.."7casingly isolated from the concerns of employees, customers, and other important
:"lics. Research helps bridge the gap by periodically surveying key publics about
)" lems and concerns. This feedback is a "reality check" for top executives and often
dois to better policies and cOInmunication strategies.
• To prevent crises. An estimated 90 percent of organizational crises are
.:T.2Scd by internal operational problems rather than by unexpected natural disasters.
.: arch can often uncover trouble spots and public concerns before they become
':c-one news. (See the section on issues management in Chapter 10.) Analyzing
=:rnplaints made to a toll-free number or monitoring Internet chat rooms and blogs
.:r: often tip off an organization that it should act before a problem attracts wide-
cad media attention.
• To monitor the competition. Savvy organizations keep track of what the
- petition is doing. This is done through surveys that ask consumers to comment on
.=: peting products, content analysis of the competition's media coverage, and
:t:'\icws of industly reports in trade journals. Such research often helps an organization
., e its marketing and communication strategies to position a product and capitalize
a competitor's weaknesses.
• To sway public opinion. Facts and figures, compiled from a variety of pri-
ory and secondary sources, can change public opinion. Shortly before an election in
"0,90 percent of the voters supported a state ballot measure that would require cancer
J.il1ings on thousands of products from plywood to peanut butter. A coalition called
. "oans for Responsible Health Information, which opposed the bill, commissioned
:\"ersities and other credible outside sources to research the economic impact of
130 PART 2 · Process

such legislation on consumers and major industries. The research, which was us - ~
the basis of the grassroots campaign, caused the defeat of the ballot measure, wi
percent of the voters voting "no."
• To generate publicity. Polls and surveys can generate publicity for an or ='

, zation. Indeed, many surveys seem to be designed with publicity in mind. SiJ11ffi(
Mattress once polled people to find out how many people slept in the nude. Nor-'
Phillips, which introduced a new shaver for men c; •.
Bodygroom, got publicity for the new product by cio :-
Research gives a context telephone survey that more than half of the male res
in which to talk about the dents preferred a hairless back to any other body p2..-_
Another 72 percent said they used a razor blade to remen-_
prod uct. hair in even the most sensitive places. See the news rele-~
regarding the survey on page 131. A case study a
---Lisa Eggerton, SVP Bodygroom is in Chapter 13.
and head of consumer There are, however, some general rules about ha-
practice, RSCG Magnet to write news releases about the results of polls and se-
veys. (See the Insights box on page 131.)
• To measure success. The bottom line of any public relations program ~
whether the time and money spent accomplished the stated objective. As one of :~
many programs to boost brand awareness, Miller Genuine Draft sponsored a "reuniCJI:
ride" on Harley-Davidson Corporation's 90th anniversary. Ketchum generated exter:-
sive media publicity about the "ride" and Miller's sponsorship that was 98 percent p :
itive. Perhaps more important, sales increased in all but two of the cities included 1:.
the event. Evaluation, the last step of the public relations process, is discussed i.:::.
Chapter 8. The foJIowing sections will discuss ways of doing research.

Research Techniques
When the term research is used, people tend to think only of scientific surveys anc
complex statistical tabulations. In public relations, however, research techniques cas-_
be as simple as gathering data and information.
In fact, a survey of practitioners by Walter K. Lindenmann, former senior vice-
president and director of research for Ketchum, found that three-fourths of the
respondents described their research techniques as casual and informal rather than sci-
entific and precise. The research technique cited most often by the respondents \\-as
literature searches/database information retrieval.
This technique is called secondary reseanh, because it uses existing information in
books, magazine articles, electronic databases, and so on. In contrast, with primarT
research, new and original information is generated through a research design that j<
directed to answer a specific question. Some examples of primary research are
in-depth interviews, focus groups, surveys, and poJIs.
Another way of categorizing research is by distinguishing between qualitative and
quantitative research. Lindenmann contrasts the basic differences between qualitatiye
and quantitative research in Table 5.1. In general, qualitative research affords the
researcher rich insights and understanding of a situation or a target public. It also pro-
vides "red flags" or warnings when strong or adverse responses occur. These responses
may not be generalizable, but they provide the practitioner with an early warning.
Quantitative research is often more expensive and complicated, but it enables a greater
ability to generalize to large populations. If enormous amounts of money are to be
spent on a national campaign, an investment in quantitative research may be necessary.
 CH~PTER 5 • Research 131

on the ·ob
les for Publicizing Surveys and Polls
he Council of American Sur- • A description of the study's help the public make a fair
vey Research Organizations objectives assessment of the results
(CASRO), a nonprofit national • A description of the sample,
;:rode organization of more than 1S0 In addition, CASRO recommends
including the size of the sample
- rvey research companies, states that other information should be
and the population to which
t survey findings released to the readily available in case anyone asks
the results are intended to be
_llblic should contain the following for it. This information includes the
generalized
'ormation: folloWing: (1) the type of survey con-
• The dates of data collection ducted, (2) the methods used to
• The exact wording of the ques- select the survey sample, (3) how
• The sponsor of the study
tions asked respondents were screened, and
The na me of the resea rch com-
• Any information that the re- (4) the procedure for data coding
pany conducting the study searcher believes is relevant to and analysis.

This is the first page of the Philips

PHILIPS Norelco news release about the results
of a telephone survey about how men felt
Press Information about body hair. The survey was a news
"hook"to get media attention for its
jLty 12. 2006
new product BodyGroom, but the
news release followed proper research
Hair IOtay, gone lomorrowt Philips Norelco offers guys a more convenient way to trim and
s:havc unwanted body hair
protocols by providing information about
the survey and how it was conducted. See
ST ~fORD, CONN. _. I'or some gu}'S, sbedding the wint~( coat means more tba.o finding e:x:tnI the footnote at the bottom of the page.
SftlCc in the closer. " !"t'CCOf survey comnussioucd by Philips Noceko and cooduCll~J by Opinion Also, on the second page (not shown)
D:a:tmic Corporation revealed that more thao 64% of men ' are tnort: likely to trim and groom melt the company provided a seven-line
;:.r..Jy bait c.lwiog the wa.a:ner spring :wtl summer months. He-aring Olt: call of the wild, Philips description of the research methodology
:S--orclco receotly inLrotluccd 'Bodn1oom, a si.mple. easy-to-use fuU·body f,'1'T)Qmer that is designed to and also a five-line profile of the survey
sh2n: everywhere bdow the chin. organization, Opinion Dynamics
Corporation ..
·~{en :\t(' becoming incrcasinglr conscious of their body hair aod espec:i.:illy With the w:l!llle! suma:ec
~ths upon U5, they'rc looking (or eAAC( wars to trim and sba\Oc me baiL below thl.:u chin,°' said
;en Lindct1>, VP Marketing. Philip:i
.I..... Norelco. "Until DOW, there h:we 001)' been (ew optIons for the
~ry, but we're hoping [0 dl3.ngt: {hat by offcC'tng: a simpler solution in the Philips Noedeo
?--.Jygf()(lm."

\mol'lg rnL'1l wbo already groom their bodr hair. lhere is dearly a need for bcncr - nnd safer OptiOOlii.
7:::1 bet. CH)'C lhao 72% of th<: men !Surveyed indicated that they usc a razor blade to remove hair to
~ the most sensitive rlace~ -ouchl To help educate guys and provide useful information on an

,ocrw1.se tahoo 10pic. Philip!' Norclco Bodygroom launched w",',,'..sh~\'cC'\°C1)-wilC(c.com- :\ fuo Web
th:u' featucc!! an unforgettable c.b:tnletc.r who', aot a&-aid to {Uk abom the pecks 0(:\ wdl-gToomed
~xly. Proof th~t men arc looking (or advice: on a better wa~' to groom. the sile has drnwn more than
t3Ie miJlion unique visitors in the firsr mouth.

naJ telephone survey of500 men ages 24-S4 conducted by Opinion Dynamics Corporation in April 2006
132 P~RT 2. Process

Table 5.1
Qualitative versus Quantitative Research

:QUAlITATIVE,RESEARCH:
. .','
,.,...''''-'-'0'.....
,,,<: ~UAKitITATIVE'RESEARCI-j"
'.'_,". : .....

"Soft" data "Hard" data

Usually uses open-ended questions. Usually uses close-ended questions, requires
unstructured forced choices. highly structured
Exploratory in nature; probing. fishing- Descriptive or explanatory type of research
expedition type of research
Usually valid. but not reliable Usually valid and reliable
Rarely projectable to larger audiences Usually projectable to larger audiences
Generally uses nonrandom samples Generally uses random samples
Examples: Focus groups; one-on-one. in-depth Examples:Telephone polls. mail surveys,
interviews; observation; participation; mall intercept studies. face-to-face interviews,
role-playing studies; convenience polling shared cost. or omnibus studies; panel studies

The following sections briefly describe the three broad, and somewhat overlap-
ping approaches to research. They are (I) secondary research, (2) qualitative research,
and (3) quantitative research based on scientific sampling.

Secondary Research
This broad area may include a variety of techniques ranging from archival research in
an organization's files to reference books, computer databases, and online searches,
Some public relations professionals refer to some of these techniques as "qualitative"
research, which is more thoroughly discussed shortly.

Archival Research
Many public relations campaign begins with an inventory of organizational materials
that can shed light on such things as (1) the success of the product or service in the
past, (2) analysis of what geographical areas provide the most sales, and (3) a profile of
the typical customer who buys the product or uses the
Arch ives prOVide the resou rces service. The marketing department often provides the

" for backgrou nd

most detailed information about the demographics of
resea rch, who buys a product or service. A common source of this
information is the warranty or product registration cards
which IS the essential first that consumers fill out, which essentially is a marketing
step in most other research survey.
A good example is a public relations campaign for
techniques. " Rosetta Stone, a CD-ROM and online language learning
software program, to increase brand awareness and sales.
---Robert Kendall, author Rosetta Stone customer research showed that over 70
of Public Relations Campaign percent of the purchasers were men with an average age
Strategies of 38, who were already highly educated and affluent
 CHAPTER 5 • Research 133

0,000+ in annual income). Sales figures also indicated that purchase was highest in
~.e fourth quarter Gust before Christmas) and many customers had received the prod-
=-:l as a gift. Given this baseline data, the public relations firm of Carmichael Lynch
~?Ong was able to figure out new strategies to reach out to new customers and core cus-
ers in other months of the year.

"brary and Online Databases

College students are already familiar with the multiple reference books, academic jour-
::2ls. and trade publications found in every library. In many cases, these materials also
L;: on CD-ROM or online through library access or, in the real world, a subscription
:esis. Four major sources for conducting what also is known as a literature review are:

• .-\cademic Search Premier, which offers full text for almost 5,000 publications,
including more than 3,600 peer-reviewed journals.
• Expanded Academic Index (InfoTrac), which indexes about 1,500 general maga-
zines (including the New :York Times) and selected scholarly journals in the field.
• LexisNexis, which is a full-text database of newspapers, magazines, newswires,
transcripts of TV and radio news, and trade publications.
• Factiva (formerly Dow Jones Interactive), which includes full text of about 6,000
magazines and newspapers.

Some common reference sources used by public relations professionals include

=~ Statistical Abstract of the United States, which summarizes census information; the
G2llup Poll and the Gallup Index, which provide an index of public opinion on a vari-
~. of issues; American Demographics, which reports on population shifts and lifestyle
::ends; and Simmons' Media and Markets, an extensive annual survey of households on
uct usage by brand and exposure to various media.
Literature searches, the most often used informal research method in public rela-
:::'005, can tap an estimated 1,500 electronic databases that store an enormous amount
:~ current and historical information. Public relations departments and firms use
: . e databases in a number of ways:

• To research facts and figures to support a proposed project or campaign that

requires top management approval
• To keep up-to-date with news about clients and their competitors
• To track an organization's media campaigns and a competitor's press announcements
• To locate a special quote or impressive statistic for a speech or report
• To track the press and business reaction to an organization's latest actions
• To locate an expert who can provide advice on an issue or a possible strategy
• To keep top management apprised of current business trends and issues
• To learn the demographics and attitudes of target publics

.-\n example of how a literature review is helpful in formulating a campaign is the

of Lay's Potato Chips. The company made the decision to use sunflower oil (good
") while reducing "bad" fats (saturated oil) in its products, but it had to convince
'31th/nutrition influentials that the product dubbed "junk food" could have heart-
J:C.Jlth benefits.
134 PART 2 · Process

Ketchum, Frito-Lay's public relations firm, based its campaign on a thorough

review of science and medical literature for the strongest research demonstrating th
heart-health benefits of consuming a diet rich in such things as sunflower oil. Ketchu
also searched the literature to find out how healthy-oils research is positioned in othe-
products. Armed with this research, Ketchum was able to plan a campaign that con-
vinced health professionals such as dietitians to give their seal of approval, so to speak.
on Frito-Lay's "oil change."

The Internet and World Wide Web

The Internet is a powerful research tool for the public relations practitioner. An~­
number of corporations, non profits, trade groups, special interest groups, foundations,
universities, think tanks, and government agencies post reams of data on the Internet,
usually in the form of home pages on the World Wide Web.
Online search engines, such as Google, MSN, and Yahoo, make a universe of
information available on a multilane information highway readily accessible to every-
one. With literally millions of possible Web sites, search engines make it possible for a
researcher to simply type in a keyword or two, click "Go," and in a few seconds receive
all of the links that the search engine has found that relate to a given topic. In addition,
there is a Google Groups section of the Google Web site (groups-beta.google.com),
where helpful information can be found on everything from recreation to business to
the arts. Another feamre, popular with public relations professionals, is Google
Trends, a tool from Google Labs. It gives a quick overview of how often a particular
topic has been researched in a certain time frame. (See the Insights box below for more
Web-based databases).

on the ·ob
Doing Research on the Internet

ublic relations planning often begins with a litera- Statistical Abstract of the United States: www.
ture search on the Internet, which is also called census.gov/stat_abstract
secondary research. Here's a sample of sites that pub- Vanderbilt Television News Archive: tvnews.vanderbilt.
lic relations professionals find particularly useful: edu/
United States Census Bureau: www.census.gov Institute for Public Relations: www.instituteforpr.org
National Opinion Research Center: www.norc. O'Dwyer's Newsletter: www.odwyerpr.com
uchicago.edu Public Relations Society of America: www.prsa.org
Pew Research Center for the People & The Press: International Association of Business Communica-
www.people-press.org tors: www.iabc.com
Roper Center for Public Opinion Research: www. Council of Public Relations Firms: www.prfirms.org
ropercenter.ucon n.edu International Public Relations Association:
Survey Research Center: www.srl.uic.edu www.ipra.org
Bureau of Labor Statistics: www.bis.gov
 CHAPTER 5 • Research 135

.'dattel Toys, for example, saw a rapid increase in searches about toy safety in 2007
mnouncing a major recall of toys made in China. Such an increase told MatteI's
. :..: ~ relations staff that toy safety was high on the public agenda and the company
-: be aggressive in communicating its commitment to fix the problem. The dia-
.... industry no doubt used Google Trends and other monitoring software to track
_ es about the source of diamonds after the movie Blood Diamond arrived in the-
>_ ,-\gain, it was an indication that the issue was creating buzz among the public and
:ta:: the industry should proactively communicate its side of the story. More informa-
Jbout the Internet is in Chapter 13.

alitative Research
=-- ';H deal of public relations research is qualitative; such research is good for prob-
___ 'rudes and perceptions, assessing penetration of messages, and testing messages.
.......: section explores (1) content analysis, (2) interviews, (3) focus groups, and (4) copy
'J5::1g. and (5) ethnographic techniques.

tent Analysis
:cent analysis is the systematic and objective counting or categorizing of informa-
In public relations, content analysis is often used to measure the amount of media
~ :1ge and the content of that coverage. This research method can be relatively
-, al or quite scientific in terms of random sampling and establishing specific sub-
2tegories. It is often applied to news stories about an organization or issues that
the organization. See Chapter 10 for a discussion of issues management.
_-\t a basic level, a researcher can assemble news clips and count the number of col-
h.ches or minutes of broadcast time. A more sophisticated and meaningful con-
~ .malysis, however, is when the media coverage is analyzed from the standpoint of
, factors as (1) the percentage of favorable, neutral, and negative mentions about
:ompany or its product or service, (2) the overall tone of the article or broadcast
'on, and (3) the percentage of articles that contained key message points that the
_ :llzation wanted to communicate.
ofessor Robert Kendall, now retired from the University of Florida, adds that
_~nt analysis involves

.. systematic analysis of any of several aspects of what a communication contains,

:,om key words or concept references, such as company name or product; to topics,
, ch as issues confronting the organization; to reading ease of company publications;
)r ro all elements of a company video production.

.-\ good example of content analysis is how one public relations firm evaluated
--:. coverage of a campaign to celebrate the lOOth anniversary of a client.

..\;, low-budget content analysis was carried out on 427 newspaper, magazine, radio, and
rdevision placements referring both to the client and its product. The research found
:hat the client's principal themes and copy points were referred to in most of the media
coI'erage the company had received.
-her example is the Campaign to End Black AIDS, which was conducted by
"an-Hillard public relations on behalf of the Abbott Magic Johnson Foundation.
_ .......,;n'

.:0 tent analysis of media coverage found that 45 percent of the media placements
136 PART 2 . Process

contained the campaign's core message of encouraging "at-risk" African Americans in

Los Angeles to get tested. Chapter 8 will discuss measurement and evaluation tech-
niques in greater detail.
Another use of content analysis is to determine whether a need exists for addi-
tional public relations efforts. Fanellil Hall Marketplace in Boston stepped up its pub-
lic relations activities after it discovered that the number of travel articles about it had
decreased. An anniversary celebration of the Marketplace helped to generate increased
coverage. In other situations, an organization will commission a content analysis of
media coverage given to its competitors. Insights can be gained about the competi-
tion's marketing strategies, strengths, and weaknesses. The results often help shape an
organization's marketing, advertising, and public relations programs to gain a bigger
share of media attention.
Content analysis also can be applied to Internet chat groups and blogs, as well as
letters and phone calls. They provide good feedback about problems with the organi-
zation's policies and services. A pattern of blog postings, letters, and phone calls point-
ing out a problem is often evidence that the organization needs to address the
situation. A number of companies, such as Carma International, Cyrnfony, and VMS,
can slice and dice media data in any number of ways for its clients.

Surveys of public opinion, often taken by researchers on the Interviews

street or in shopping malls, help public relations practitioners
target audiences they wish to reach and to shape their
messages.
As with content analysis, interviews can be
conducted in several different ways. Almost
everyone talks to colleagues on a daily basis
and calls other organizations to gather infor-
mation. In fact, public relations personnel
faced with solving a particular problem often
"interview" other public relations profession-
als for ideas and suggestions.
If information is needed on public opinion
and attitudes, many public relations firms will
conduct short interviews with people in a shop-
ping mall or ar a meeting. This kind of inter-
view is called an intercept intenJiew, because
people are literally intercepted in public places
and asked their opinions. They are also called
convenience polls because it's relatively easy to
stand in a mall and talk to people.
The intercept interview is considered by
researchers to be highly unscientific and unre-
liable, but it does give an organization some
sense of current thinking or exposure to cer-
tain key messages. For example, a health
group wanted to find out whether the public
was actually receiving and retaining crucial
aspects of its message. To gather such infor-
mation, intercept interviews were conducted
with 300 adults at six malls. Both unaided and
aided recall questions were asked, to assess the
overall impact of the publicity.
 CHAPTER 5 • Research 137

onthe job
eaching a Diverse Audience About Electric Rates
ow do you reach an audience
when almost 40 percent of
your audience is illiterate,
o percent live below the poverty
Ii e, and many speak a language
her than English? That's exactly
hat Dittus Communications faced-
t in a developing nation, but
ashington, D.C.
The challenge was legislation
assed by the city council that
Jeregulated electricity so that resi-
rnts could choose service from
- eral competing suppliers instead
~ just one company having a
onopoly. A Customer Education
- visory Board-a partnership'of
- ernment, local utility, and
- sumer advocacy groups-was
med and given the assignment of
plementing a two-year public
ucation campaign to inform D.C.
residents .a'bout their .electricity
supply choices.
The proble~ was hovil to effec-
tively communicate with D.Cs
diverse popuiation, many of them
illiterate, poor, and having limited
English skills. Dittus Communica-
tions started with a literature search
to gain information about the
demographic p-rofile of D.c. residents.'
Personal interviews were then con-
ducted with city officials and leaders
of local nonprofit and faith-based
organizations to gain insight into
the best way to reach the popula-
tion. One key finding was that mes-
sages had to be simple, direct, and
feature one single fact at a time. It
was also necessary to have multiple
communication tools that could be
customized for hard-to-reach audi-
ences. To reach the illiterate audience,
for example, radio announcements
and talks at community and faith-
based organizations were used.
OngOing research tracking the
residents' awareness of electricity
choices found that women were
more interested in the topic than
men, so additional female models
.were used in the campaign's adver-
tising. Ultimately, the campaign
helped increase resident confidence
about making electricity choices.
Almost 45 percent ofthe population
felt more capable of decision mak-
ingthan when the effort began.
.The campaign received PRWeek's
2007 award for Best Use of
Research/Measurement. The judges
were impressed by the campaign's
"straightforward" qualities that
made it an "ideal case study for
research."

lntercept interviews last only two to five minutes. At other times, the best approach
do in-depth interviews to get more comprehensive infonnation. Major fund-raising
tS by charitable groups, for example, often require in-depth interviews of commu-
_ Jnd business opiillon leaders. The success of any major fund drive, those seelcing
: ..000 or more, depends on the support of key leaders and wealthy individuals.
This more in-depth approach is called purposive interviewing, because the intervie-
: are carefully selected based on their expertise, influence, or leadership in the
unity. For example, the Greater Durham, North Carolina, Chamber of Com-
e interviewed 50 "movers and shakers" to determine support for an extensive
:e-building and economic development program. See the Multicultural box above
bow interviews with community leaders in Washington, D.C., helped plan an
<1oon campaign.

us Groups
alternative to individual interviews is the focus group. The focus group tech-
is widely used in advertising, marketing, and public relations to help identify
138 PART \!. Process

attitudes and motivations of important publics. Another purpose of focus groups is te

formulate or pretest message themes and communication strategies before launching"
full campaign.
Longwood University in Virginia and its public relations firm, CRTrranka, is ;2
good example of using focus groups to figure out how to rebrand the university ;E
more than just an institution that trained teachers and served as a "second choice" fo~
college-bound students. More than 20 focus groups with students, faculty, and alumr-=
generated a lot of ideas and suggestions. This, along with extensive one-on-one inter-
views with business and community leaders, led to a successful marketing campaign
that led to a 200 percent increase in Web site visits and a 237 percent increase in the
number of prospective students who toured the campus.
Focus groups usually consist of8 to 12 people who represent the characteristics of
the target audience, such as employees, consumers, or community residents. During
the interview, a trained facilitator uses nondirective interviewing techniques that
encourage group members to talk freely about a topic or give candid reactions to sug-
gested message themes. The setting is usually a conference room, and the discussion is
informal. A focus group may last one or two hours, depending on the subject matter.
A focus group, by definition, is an informal research procedure that develops qual-
itative information rather than hard data. Results cannot be summarized by percent-
ages or even projected onto an entire population. Nevertheless, focus groups are
useful in identifying the range of attitudes and opinions among the participants. Such
insights can help an organization structure its messages or, on another level, formulate
hypotheses and questions for a quantitative research survey.
Increasingly, focus groups are being conducted online. The online technique can
be as simple as posing a question to a chat or interest group online. Researchers also
are using more formal selection processes to invite far-flung participants to meet in a
prearranged virtual space. In the coming years, techniques and services will be well
developed for cost-effective, online focus group research.
In another adaptation of new media, engineering management professor Hal
Nystrom recently conducted focus groups for a Monsanto subsidiary that were then
Webcast to the client. The focus group files remained available for review via password
on the Web. Time and location are becoming less relevant to conducting focus groups,
increasing the potential of this research method.

Copy Testing
All too often, organizations fail to communicate effectively because they produce and
distribute materials that the target audience can't understand. In many cases, the mate-
rial is written above the educational level of the audience. Consequently, representa-
tives of the target audience should be asked to read or view the material in draft form
before it is mass-produced and distributed. This can be done one-on-one or in a small
group setting.
A brochure about employee medical benefits or pension plans, for example,
should be pretested with rank-and-file employees for readability and comprehension.
Executives and lawyers who must approve the copy may understand the material, but a
worker with a high school education might find tlle material difficult to follow.
Another approach to determine the degree of difficulty of the material is to apply a
readability formula to the draft copy. Fog, Flesch, and similar techniques relate the
number of words and syllables per sentence or passage with reading level. Highly com-
plex sentences and multisyllabic words require an audience with a college education.
 CHAPTER 5 • Research 139

nagraphic Techniques
_ ;'!ic relations often take a page from anthropology to conduct research. One tech-
m.::-..:e is observation of individual or group behavior. One director of public relations,
T. '::i:ample, wanted to know how effective bulletin boards were in terms of informing
==;:,Io:'ees in an industrial plant, so he stationed staff near bulletin boards to record
:'" many employees actually stopped and read something off the board. In another
~tion, a public relations representative sat in a coffee house for most of one day to
~ insights about the type of customer that came in, how much they spent, and how
II : they stayed.

On occasion, role-playing can be helpful for gaining insights into the strengths
.-a:: weaknesses of an organization. One public relations professional with a college
Z> i -lient had his daughter apply to the university and several others in the area
- co see how the college compared with others in terms of handling prospective
~ 'ms. He also got feedback from his daughter about how well she was treated in the

antitative Research
7"' ' research techniques discussed thus far can provide good insights to public rela-
. - personnel and help them formulate effective programs. Increasingly, however,
;JIOC-t..: relations professionals need to conduct polls and surveys using highly precise
~ .tic sampling methods. Such sampling is based on two important factors: ran-
1I:I:::...'less and a large number of respondents. See the PR Casebook at the end of the
~:cr about a campaign based on a random survey.

dam Sampling
-.::' ~\-e polls and surveys require a random sample. In statistics, this means that every-
:n the targeted audience (as defined by the researcher) has an equal or known
~,,-l: of being selected for the survey. This is also called a probability sample.
In contrast, a nonprobability survey is not random at all. Mall-intercept interviews,
~mple, are usually restricted only to shoppers in the mall at the time the inter-
TS are working. A number of factors affect exactly who is interviewed, including
::::ne of day and the location of the intercept interviews. Researchers doing inter-
: in the morning may have a disproportionate number of homemakers, whereas
'ews after 5 P.M. may include more high school students and office workers. Also,
,esearcher stands outside a record store or athletic shoe outlet, the average age of
:. i.nterviewed may be much younger than that of the general population.
:\. random sample could be accomplished if researchers were present at all hours
- ~"1)nducted interviews throughout the mall. This would ensure a more representa-
_ SlI11pling of mall shoppers, particularly if a large number of shoppers were inter-
::J. Researchers must be careful, however, about projecting results to represent an
:= city's population. Market surveys show that the demographic characteristics of
::uoers valY from mall to mall. In other words, the selection of malls for random
~~pt interviewing often depends on how the researcher defines the target audience.
-\ survey sponsored by the International Franchise Association shows how sample
~_-;:jon can distort results. The organization touted its findings that "92 percent of
, 'se owners were successfuL" The survey, however, involved only franchises still
lUng, not those that had failed.
 CHAPTER 5 • Research 141

Sex and Alcohol: The AMA's News Release

he American Medical Associa-
tion (AMA) wanted to call pub-
lic attention to the issue of
~risky" behavior by college students
during spring break. AMA:s strategy
;vas to commission a survey of
'emale college students so it would
ave some "facts" to demonstrate
he seriousness ofthe issue.
The resulting news release stated
hat its survey of 644 college women
and graduates aged 17 to 35 showed
troubling findings about drinking
abits on spring-break trips. For
instance, 92 percent of respondents
said it was easy to get alcohol on
"these trips. The news release also
5':ated, "one in five respondents
egretted the sexual activity they
engaged in during spring break, and
12 percent felt forced or pressured
into sex." Because ofthetopic, which
included sex, the Associated Press
moved the story and many media
outlets reported the survey results.
What the news release didn't say
was that the survey was less than
scientific. It was an online survey in
which respondents self-selected
themselves to participate. In other
words, the survey was not a random
or representative sample of female
college students. The news release
also didn't mention that a quarter of
the respondents had never gone on
a spring-break trip, so their opinions
were actually secondhand impres-
sions or perceptions of what occurs
at spring break.
Carl Bialik, who writes a column
for the Wall Street Journal titled "The
Numbers Guy," tailed the AMAabout
the validity of the survey. He was told
by an AMA spokesperson, "We used
the poll mostly to bring national
attention to the issue." What do you
think of this answer? Was the news
release misleading? Do you think
sending out news releases reporting
survey results based on nonscientific
research methods is ethical? The
news release did accomplish the
objective of getting "national atten-
tion," so does the end justify the
means?

=:;::Zcn, it really doesn't matter whether the result is 15 or , ,

.~ ;>ercent. The main point is that the organization must
For public relations research to
~ immediate steps to improve its performance. provide support and assis-
ne problem with Web surveys, which will be dis-
d shortly, is that the sample size can't be determined ta nce to the strategic pia n n i ng
ld'-ance. Such surveys also lack random selection.
~rting the results of such surveys often raises some
and program development
I issues. See the Ethics box above. process, a mix of both qualita-

-------------------- tive and qua ntitative resea rch

estionnaire Construction is prefera ble. ,
. ough correct sampling is important in gammg accurate ---Walter K. Lindenmann,
. pollsters generally acknowledge that sampling error may specialist in public relations
.- I less important than the errors that result from the wording
research and measurement
~ order of questions in a survey and even the timing of a survey.

efully Consider Wording

- g the questions on a questionnaire is a time-consuming process, and it is not
>ual for a questionnaire to go through multiple drafts to achieve maximum clarity.
142 PART 2 . Process

The question "Is it a good idea to limit handguns?" differs from "Do you think reg',,·
tration of handguns will curtail crime?" On first glance, the two questions seem to Ix
asking the same thing. On closer examination, however, one can realize that a respon-
dent could easily answer "yes" to the first question and "no" to the second.
The first question asks whether limiting handguns is a good idea. The second as -"
whether people think it will curtail crime. A third question that might elicit a differen:
response would be, "Do you think that laws curtailing the use of handguns woule
work?" Thus, the questions emphasize three different aspects of the problem. The-
first stresses the value of an idea, the second explores a possible effect, and the thire
examines the practicality of a proposed solution. Research shows that people often
think something is a good idea, but do not think it would work. Another related prob-
lem is how respondents might interpret the words limit and curtail. To some, these
words may refer to a total ban on handguns, whereas others may think they suggest
that guns should be kept away from people with criminal records. It's simply a matter
of semantics, which is a good area of study for aspiring public relations professionals.

Avoid Loaded Questions

Some organizations engage in what is called advocacy research. They send out surveys
with questions that use highly charged words that elicit an emotional reaction from the
respondent. Such questions are considered "loaded" because they are intentionally
skewed to generate a predictable response. Such surveys often are done in the arena of
politics and public policy debate.
Republican Party pollsters, for example, asked respondents whether they agreed
or disagreed with the statement, "We should stop excessive legal claims, frivolous law-
suits, and overzealous lawyers." Not surprisingly, an overwhelming majority of the
respondents agreed. Another example of a loaded question is one created by the Amer-
ican Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), which asked respondents whether they agreed
with the statement, "I believe that the President does not need to use unauthorized
and illegal powers to keep us safe, that warrantless spying on Americans is unnecessary,
and illegal and that, in America, no one-including the President-is above the law."
Public relations practitioners have a professional obligation to avoid using the
rubric of "surveys" if the objective is really advocacy research. Such "surveys" are mis-
leading and tarnish the reputation of legitimate survey research.

Consider Timing and Context

Responses to survey questions are influenced by events, and this should be taken into
consideration when reviewing the results of a survey. The public's esteem for an air-
line, for example, will be lower if a survey is conducted just after a plane crash. Mattei's
corporate reputation also dipped when it recalled millions of toys in for safety reasons.
On the positive side, surveys by AT&T about its reputation and brand recognition
soared after the announcement that it would be the sole carrier for Apple's new iPhone.
Consequently, polls and surveys should be conducted when the organization isn't
in the news or connected to a significant event that may influence public opinion. In
neutral context, a more valid survey can be conducted about an organization's reputa-
tion, products, or services.
Large organizations, such as Exxon/Mobil, General Electric, and Microsoft,
counterbalance the effects of one-time events through regular monitoring of such
items as media coverage, Internet discussion groups, blogs, and measurements of
 C HAP T E R 5 • Research 143

In.::1d awareness. This technique, called benchmarking, is done by a number of compa-

'~ \-ho use software programs to track and monitor a client's reputation almost on a
.-~ basis. See Chapter 8 on evaluation for more details.

id the Politically Correct Answer

-.::her problem with questionnaire design involves questions that tend to elicit the
-':-:~cet" response. This is also called a courtesy bias. In such a situation, respondents
- ~ choose answers that they think are the "politically correct" answer that the spon-
.- ){ the survey wants to hear or reflects favorably on them as a good worker or citi-
~ For example, surveys show that more than 80 percent of Americans consider
-elves "environmentalists." As skeptics point out, however, would anyone admit
: c or she was not concerned about the environment?
- urveys of public relations practitioners about the value of research also show a
_:-<:c of courtesy bias in choosing the politically correct answer. Almost 90 percent of
:..:' relations practitioners agree that research is a necessary and integral part of
lIIC:": relations work. Almost the same percentage, however, agree that research is
, about more often than it is done.
Those conducting employee surveys also fall into the "courtesy" trap by posing such
-ons as "How much of each newsletter do you read?" or "How well do you like the
=:I by the president?" Employees may never read the newsletter or think that the
_-Jcnt's column is ridiculous, but they know the "correct" answer should be that they
: :he "entire issue" and that the president's column is "excellent."
esearchers try to avoid politically correct answers by making questionnaires con-
-al and by promising anonymity to the people who are surveyed. Because
_ - \'ees often perceive the public relations department to be part of management, it
. -_~n best to employ an outside research firm to conduct employee surveys to ensure
: ~ honest answers.

e a Range of Possible Answers

-.",r categories also can skew a questionnaire. It is important that answer choices
::-~o\-jded that cover a range of opinions. Several years ago, a national polling orga-
"::on asked the question, "How much confidence do you have in business corpora-
-:- but provided only the following answer categories: (a) a great deal, (b) only
~_ and (c) none at all. A large gap exists between "a great deal" and the next category,
-; :>ome."
.: ch categories invariably skew the results to show very little confidence in busi-
0 0 better list of answers might have been (a) a great deal, (b) quite a lot, (c) some,
:\

.::ry little, and (e) none. Another approach is to use such categories as (a) above
':"?Co (b) average, and (c) below average. The psychological distance between the
.~ choices is equal, and there is less room for the respondent's interpretation of
-quite a lot" means.
n general, "yes or no" questions are not very good for examining respondents'
.":!JDons and attitudes. An answer of "yes" or "no" provides little feedback on the
:?th or weakness of a respondent's opinion. A question such as "Do you agree with
~mpany's policy of requiring drug testing for all new employees?" can be
c ed by "yes" or "no," but more useful information would be obtained by setting
J Likert-type scale-(a) strongly agree, (b) agree, (c) undecided, (d) disagree, and
"'- ngly disagree. These types of answers enable the surveyor to probe the depth of
144 PART 2 · Process

feeling among respondents and may serve as guidelines for management in making
major changes or just fine-tuning the existing policy.
Another way of designing a numeric scale to pinpoint a respondent's beliefs or
attitudes is to use a 5-point scale. Such a question might say, "How would you evaluate
the company's efforts to keep you informed about job benefits?" Please circle one of
the following numbers (" 1" being a low rating and" 5" being a high rating).
The advantage of numeric scales is that medians and means can be calculated. In the
previous example, the average from all respondents might be 4.25, which indicates that
employees think the company does keep them informed about job benefits, but that
there is still room for communication improvement.

Questionnaire Guidelines
The following are some general guidelines for the construction of questionnaires:

• Determine the type of information that is needed and in what detail.

• State the objectives of the survey in writing.
• Decide which group(s) will receive the questionnaire.
• Decide on the size of the sample.
• State the purpose of the survey and guarantee anonymity.
• Use closed-end (multiple-choice) answers as often as possible. Respondents find it
easier and less time-consuming to select answers than to compose their own.
• Design the questionnaire in such a way that answers can be easily coded for statis-
tical analysis.
• Strive to make the questionnaire no more than 25 questions. Long question-
naires put people off and reduce the number of responses, particularly in print
questionnaires, because it is easy to see how long the survey will take to complete.
• Use categories when asking questions about education, age, and income. People
are more willing to answer when a range is used. For example, what best describes
your age? (a) Under 25, (b) 26 to 40, and so on.
• Use simple, familiar words. Readability should be appropriate for the group being
sampled.
• Avoid ambiguous words and phrases that may confuse the respondents.
• Remember to consider the context and placement of questions. A question placed
before another can influence response to the later question.
• Provide space at the end of the questionnaire for respondents' comments. This
allows them to provide additional information that may not have been covered in
the main body of the questionnaire.
• Pretest the questions with representatives of the target audience for understand-
ing and possible bias. Their feedback will help improve the final draft.

:' How to Reach Respondents

A questionnaire is only as good as the delivery system that gets it to respondents. This
section presents the pros and cons of (1) mail questionnaires, (2) telephone surveys, (3)
personal interviews, (4) omnibus surveys, and (5) Web and e-mail surveys.
 CHAPTER 5 • Research 145

il Questionnaires
~ :.:ntionnaires may be used in a variety of settings. They may be handed out at a man-
- ring plant, at a county fair, or even in a bank lobby. However, for several differ-
_ ,easons, most survey questionnaires are mailed to respondents for four primary
~ns: (1) researchers have better control as to who actually receives the question-
-. (2) large geographic areas can be covered economically, (3) it is less expensive to
_ - ;1 paper-based questionnaire than to hire interviewers, and (4) large numbers of

'X'Ople can be reached at minimal cost.

However, mail questionnaires do have some disadvantages. The biggest is the low
~nse rate. A mail questionnaire by a commercial firm sent to the general public usu-
__ ?roduces a response rate of 1 to 2 percent. If the survey concerns issues considered
~. y relevant to the general public, the response rate might increase to 5 to 20 percent.
• =:uch better response rate would be generated, however, if a questionnaire were mailed
l5" L organization to its members. In this case, the response rate may be 30 to 80 percent.
-:=:.-:- more closely people identify with the organization and the questions, the better
- response.
The response rate to a mail questionnaire can be increased, say the experts, if all
. guidelines of questionnaire construction are followed. In addition, researchers
uJd keep the following suggestions in mind:

include a stamped, self-addressed return envelope and a personally signed letter

explaining the importance of participating in the survey.
• Provide an incentive. Commercial firms often encourage people to fill out ques-
::ionnaires by including a token amount of money or a discount coupon. Other
~esearchers promise to share the results of the survey with the respondents.
• .\Iail questionnaires by first-class mail. Some research shows that placing special-
issue stamps on the envelope attracts greater interest than simply using a postage
meter.
• .\Iail a reminder postcard three or four days after the questionnaire has been sent.
• JO a second mailing (either to nonrespondents or to the entire sample) two or
three weeks after the first mailing. Again, enclose a stamped, self-addressed
erurn envelope and a cover letter explaining the crucial need for the recipient's
articipation.

lephone Surveys
'e~-s by telephone, particularly those that are locally based, are used extensively by
• ~J.rch firms. The telephone survey has four major advantages: (1) The feedback is
=:"llediate, (2) the telephone is a more personal form of communication, (3) it's less
ive than interviewers going door to door, and (4) the response rate, if the survey
:s 40rt and handled by skilled phone interviewers, can reach 80 to 90 percent.
The major disadvantage of telephone surveys is the difficulty in getting access to
-.:phone numbers. In many urban areas, as many as one-third to one-half of all num-
_ s are unlisted. Although researchers can let a computer program pick numbers
=- ugh random dialing, this method is not as effective as actually knowing who is
.ng called. Another barrier is convincing respondents that a legitimate poll or survey
being taken. Far too many salespeople, and even charitable organizations, attempt to
~ goods or get donations by posing as researchers.
146 PART 2 . Process

Personal Interviews
The personal interview is the most expensive form of research because it req --
trained staff and travel. If travel within a city is involved, a trained interviewer
only be able to interview 8 or 10 people a day, and salaries and transportation co;c
make it expensive. Considerable advance work is required to arrange interviews
appointments. Such interviews, taking 20 minutes to an hour, are much more inten~
than the mall-intercept interviews discussed on page 136.
In some instances, however, personal interviews can be cost-effective. They ('.;:::
generate a wealth of information if the setting is controlled. Many research firms co=:-
duct personal interviews at national conventions or trade shows, where there is a COD-
centration of people with similar interests. An equipment company, for example, m2~
hire a research firm to interview potential customers at a national trade show about i
products or services.

Omnibus Surveys
The word omnibus means something that serves several purposes. In survey research. i:
means that an organization "buys" one or two questions in a national survey conductet::
by a national polling firm such as Gallup or Harris. For example, General Mills may
place one or two questions in a national poll that ask respondents what professionai
athlete they most admire as a way to find new endorsers for its breakfast foods. In th-
same survey, the American Cancer Society may place a question to find out what per-
centage of women know the common symptoms of ovarian cancer. If awareness is low.
such a finding shows that a public information campaign is needed.
One reason for using what is also called a piggyback survey is cost. An organizatior:
pays much less to participate in a such a poll than to conduct its own survey. A secone
reason is expertise. Firms such as Gallup or Harris have the skill and organization to
do a survey properly and efficiently. Piggyback surveys, however, do have limitations_
An organization can get only a small snapshot of public opinion with one or two ques-
tions, and such surveys only work well if the objective is to get feedback from a broac
population.

, Web and E-Mail Surveys

The newest way to reach respondents is through the

,
On line su rveys a re easier and Internet. One such method is to post a questionnaire on
an organization's Web site and then ask visitors to com-
less intrusive than a phone plete it online. The advantage of this is that once the visi-
call. tor completes the survey, his or her response is
immediately available and the results can be added to a
---Giselle Lederman, survey running tabulation of results.
methodologist for Zoomerang A good example of an online research survey is one
that Church & Dwight, the maker of Trojan Condoms,
conducted before it launched its new Elexa line of con-
doms and sexual health products, including a vibrating ring targeting women. The
online survey, aimed at women ages 18 to 59, was to understand "women's sexual jour-
neys." The responses enabled the company to position the new product line through a
research report called the "Elexa Study of Women and Desire" that, of course, gener-
ated a great deal of media coverage.
 CHAPTER 5 • Research 147

RCASEBOOK~~_
arch Drives Ovarian Cancer Campaign
varian cancer is known as the "silent killer" because
. s vague symptoms often are not diagnosed until
he disease has started to spread. The good news is
men have a 90 percent chance of survival ifthey
-- gnosed at an early stage.
--~ challenge, however, was increasing awareness of
cancer in an environment where other forms of
had received the bulk of media coverage. The
n Cancer National Alliance (Washington, D.c.) and
,a' iona I Ova ria n Ca ncer Association (Toronto) decided
was Vitally important to "turn up the volume"when
ependent study confirmed that 96 percent of
n could not identify the most common symptoms of
can cancer, 12 percent had not even heard of the
-ese, and 33 percent wrongly believed that a Pap test
- screen for it.
.ese ala rm ing statistics were the cata Iyst for a
_pntrated media campaign by Female Engineered
ing (Buffalo, N.Y.)' which decided to donate its
-_es to making women more aware ofthis disease.
II was really startling and the media got the link; it
"Olht a lot of attention to the cause," says Annie
son, communication consultant for the National
- -an Cancer Association.
=emale Engineered Marketing (FEM) produced public
. e announcements (PSAs) for print, radio, and
television, which became the backbone ofthe campaign.
The PSAs had bold and dynamic graphics and were
designed to appeal to men and women alike. Messages
and creativity were similar in both the United States and
Canada. The poll results about the low awareness of
ovarian cancer prompted media outlets in the United
States and Canada to run the PSAs.ln Canada alone, the
radio PSAs were run more than 450 times.
The media efforts coincided with September's
Ovarian Cancer Month and the annual"Walk of Hope,"
which attracted almost twice as many participants as
the previous year. In addition, there was a twofold
increase in donations ($600,000) for ovarian cancer
research. In the United States, President Bush issued a
proclamation acknowledging the seriousness ofthe
disease and declared September Ovarian Cancer
Awareness Month.
Beth Herskovits, writing for PRWeek, commented:
The strength of this campaign grew from its ability
to provide hard metrics to draw attention to an
under-recognized problem. The importance of the
poll was evident. With the numbers in front of
them, the media did one better than running
the PSAs-many outlets produced news and
features stories, as well.

.-\5 PRWeek pointed out, "vVhat lifestyle reporter doesn't want to know that 'Arneri-
= "-omen want great sex.''' The survey found, for example, that "84% of women agree
_J good sex life is part of a healthy life," and "76% say that, at the request of a partner,
~. a\'e tried something new sexually that they have enjoyed." Cassandra Johnson,
_ xluct manager for Elexa, told PRWeek, "We were expecting that the research would
_ refine the voice of the campaign and key messages, and give us something thought-
_-oking to say to the media and to women about female sexuality."
esearchers use several methods to attract respondents to a Web site, including
b;Hllier ads announcing the survey on other Web sites or online networks, (2) send-
_ -mail invitations to members of the target audience, (3) telephoning individuals
...: 3n invitation to participate, (4) sending a postcard, and (5) offering incentives such
pl- coupons. In general, online surveys should take no more than 20 minutes to
'wer and should include a mix of closed questions, such as multiple-choice, and a few
, -ended questions. Good graphics, audio, and video also encomage participation.
148 PART 2 • Process

If reaching the exact audience is important, another approach is an e-mail sun' _

that is sent to a list of known respondents, Organizations can compile e-mail lists oc
clients or customers, but it's also now possible to purchase e-mail address lists from
variety of sources. Full-service Web survey companies can target populations, colI
responses, and deliver data to the client. Some well-known companies are zoomerang..
Biz360, Question Pro, and Qualtrics.
As in all research methods, there are advantages and disadvantages of using \Y ,
and e-mail surveys. The three major advantages are that (1) large samples are gener-
ated in a short amount of time, (2) they are more economical than even mail questio
naires or phone interviews, (3) and data can be analyzed continually. The three maio::-
disadvantages are (1) respondents are usually self-selected, (2) there is no control on,::-
the size of the sample or selection of respondents, and (3) probability sampling is no:
achievable.
Such surveys, however, often provide what is needed for the particular situario
and the information gives planners sufficient information to make educated guesscs
about an appropriate marketing or public relations strategy. And of course, if the sur-
vey involves sex or another provocative topic, any survey-scientific or not-generarcs
media coverage.

SUMMARY
The Importance of Research
Research is the basic groundwork of any public relations
program. It involves the gathering and interpretation of
information. Research is used in every phase of a commu-
nications program.
Secondary Research
Secondary research often begins by doing archival
research, which reviews the organization's data on sales,
profile of customers, and so on. Another source is informa-
tion from library and online databases. Search engines
such as Google, MSN, and Yahoo allow practically everyone
to find information and statistics on the Internet and the
World Wide Web. Thus, the expression often heard, "Let's
Google it."
Quantitative Research
This kind of research demands scientific rigor and proper
sampling procedures so that information can be represen,
tative of the general population. Random sampling allows
everyone in the target audience the chance to be in the
sample. Sample size determines the margin of error in the
statistical findings.
Questionnaire Construction
There are many factors to consider when designing a ques·
tionnaire, including wording, biased questions, politically
correct answers, and answer categories. There are a num-
ber of gUidelines, such as deciding what you want to find
out, keeping the questionnaire relatively short, defining the
target audience, and selecting the appropriate sample size.

Qualitative Research Reaching Respondents

The value of this technique is to gain insights into how
individuals behave, think, and make decisions. It's also
used to ascertain whether key messages were communi-
cated by the media. The primary techniques are (1) content
analysis, (2) interviews, (3) focus groups, (4) copy testing,
and (5) ethnographic observation and role playing.
Survey respondents may be reached by mail, telephone,
personal interviews, and omnibus surveys. Increasingly,
surveys are being done via the Web and e-mail, but these
digital methods have drawbacks because the respondents
are self-selected and may not be representative of the
population as a whole.

. . . . _ . .-E ACTIVITY What Would You Do?
- sal Manufacturing Corporation is located in a Mid-
city of 500.000 people. At 6.000 employees. it is
- : ~he largest employers in the county, and the company
::een at its present location for the past 50 yea rs. Despite
~rd, management believes that the company doesn't
a strong identity and lacks visibility in the community.
e director of public relations has been asked to pre-
_a new public relations plan for the coming fiscal year.
UESTIONS for Review and Discussion
hy is research important to public relations work?
hat questions should a person ask before formu-
ing a resea rch design?
entify at least five ways that research is used in pub-
.- relations.
w can survey research be used as a publicitytool?
'st at least five informal research methods.
hat are online databases? How are they used by
blic relations professionals?
w can the Internet and World Wide Web be used as
<?Search tools?
I hat is the procedure for organizing and conducting
a focus group? What are the pros and cons of using
focus groups?
UGGESTED READINGS
-rl. "Watching the Pollsters." Wall Street Journal Online,
CCl,2006.
,Bernie. "The Mantra of Metrics: A Realistic and Relevant
- oach to Measuring the Impact of Employee Communica-
,." The Strategist, Fall 2004, pp. 30-32.
,Matthew. "Sharing Intelligence: PR People Should Be
ing for More Access to Better Research." PRWeek,
ary 9, 2004, P·17·
L..Joe. "Building Web Traffic With On-Site Polls." Public Relations
- '-(5, April 2003, p. 6.
•Erica. "Getting Straight to the Point." PRWeek,July 24, 2006,
_ ,_. Research shapes messages in campaigns.
CHAPTER .'j • Research 149
She recommends that the company first conduct research
to determine exactly what its image is in the community.
If you were the public relations director, what kind of
secondary research would you do? What qualitative and
quantitative research would you recommend? The idea is
to get some hard data on which to base a community rela-
tions campaign with the appropriate core messages
directed to various segments of the community.
9. What is an intercept interview?
10. What is the difference between probability (random)
and nonprobability samples?
11. What guidelines should be followed when releasing
the results of a survey to the media and the public?
12. What percentage margin of error is associated with
various sample sizes? What size samples are usually
adequate for public relations work?
13- Identify at least five guidelines that should be fol-
lowed when preparing a questionnaire.
14. What are the pros and cons of each of the following:
mail questionnaires, telephone surveys, personal
interviews, and piggyback surveys?
Lacono, Erica. "Leading the Brand: Solid Research Can Take a Brand to
a Whole New Level." PRWeek,July 18, 2005, p. 27-
Lindenmann, Walter K. "Public Relations Research for Planning and
Evaluation." May, 2006. A monograph available from the
Institute for Public Relations (www.ipr.org).
McQuire, Craig. "When Research Made a Difference." PRWeek,
February 6, 2006, p. 17.
Stacks, Don W. Primer ofPublic Relations Research. New York:
Guilford Press, 2002.
Ward, David. "Master of All Whom You Survey." PRWeek,
September 26,2006, p. 22.