THE WORLD COMMUNICATES

INTRODUCTION
In transmitting information from source to receiver, energy is transformed from one
form into another.
When we use an ordinary fixed telephone, energy has been transformed from
sound mechanical electrical then backelectricalmechanicalsound.
When we use a mobile phone, sound energy is converted to electromagnetic
energy (microwaves high frequency radio waves) and is transferred from source
to receiver via radio transmitters. The electromagnetic energy is then transformed
back into sound energy by the receiver.
WAVE TYPES
A wave transports energy from one point in space to another. Waves do not
move matter.
Mechanical waves are those that require a physical medium through which to
travel eg sound waves, water waves, earthquake waves etc. Electromagnetic
waves require no medium through which to travel and thus can travel through a
vacuum eg light, radio waves, gamma rays etc. In this topic we will study both
categories of waves.
MECHANICAL WAVES
There are three types of mechanical waves: Transverse, Longitudinal (or Compression)
and Torsional.
TRANSVERSE WAVES:
Transverse waves are waves in which the particles of the medium through which the
waves are traveling vibrate at right angles to the direction of travel of the wave motion.
Eg a wave travelling on a rope, water waves on the surface of a lake, S-waves of an
earthquake.

LONGITUDINAL WAVES:
Longitudinal waves are waves in which the particles of the medium vibrate
parallel to and anti-parallel to the direction of motion of the waves. Eg sound waves
and P-waves of an earthquake.

WAVE TERMINOLOGY

+ The y-axis = displacement, the distance of a
particle from its equilibrium position
+ The x-axis can represent either time or
distance from a specified point within the
medium. A displacement-time graph shows the
displacement of one particle of the medium as
time goes by. A displacement-distance graph
shows the displacement of all particles of the
medium at one instant in time.
+ A = amplitude, the maximum displacement from equilibrium of any
particle
+ Crest and trough are the points of maximum displacement from equilibrium above
and below equilibrium position respectively.
+ = wavelength, the distance between two consecutive identical points on the
wave eg between two crests or two troughs.
+ v = velocity, the speed with which the energy is being transferred in the direction of
motion.
+ period, T, which is the time in seconds for one complete wave to pass a given
point, or the time for any particle to make one complete vibration.
+ Frequency, f, which is the number of complete waves that pass a given point in
one second or the number of complete vibrations in one second undergone by
any particle due to the passing wave. Frequency has units of s
-1
or hertz.
Clearly, T and f are reciprocals of one another and so: T = 1 / f
Since a wave will advance a distance of one wavelength in a time of one period and
since velocity is defined as the displacement of a particle per unit time, we have:
Velocity, v = displacement/time = / T = f . , since T = 1 / f.
So we have that: v = f . Units of v are m/s or
ms
-1
.
Consider the following representation of a continuous longitudinal wave:

Note that the term compression is used to denote any area where particles of the
medium have moved closer together than when they are at equilibrium. The term
rarefaction refers to any area where particles of the medium have moved further
apart.
Note that by definition the amplitude, A, of the longitudinal wave is the maximum
displacement from equilibrium of any of the particles. Likewise, the wavelength is
the distance between any two consecutive, identical points on the wave, in this case
the centre to centre distance between two consecutive compressions. Clearly then,
the centres of compressions and rarefactions are equally spaced along the wave.

SOUND WAVES
All sound waves are produced by the vibrations of particles in a medium. For
instance, in order to speak we must exhale air over vibrating vocal cords in our
larynx. The vocal cords force the air particles to vibrate in the form of a longitudinal
wave and this wave moves from our throat, out through our mouth and strikes the
ear drum of the person to whom we are speaking. The eardrum is forced to vibrate
with the same frequency as the longitudinal wave and these vibrations are
interpreted by the brain as speech. The human ear can perceive vibrations with
frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20000 Hz.
All sound waves are longitudinal waves. As such, all sound waves require a medium
through which to travel. Whatever the medium, sound waves progress as a series of
compressions (high pressure regions) and rarefactions (low pressure regions)
produced by the original vibrating source. When a tuning fork is struck with a rubber
hammer, the prongs of the tuning fork initially move towards each other. This
produces a compression of the air molecules between the prongs and a
corresponding rarefaction outside the prongs. As the prongs move apart, a
rarefaction is produced between them and a compression outside them. As this
motion continues, the air molecules vibrate with the same frequency as the tuning
fork and transfer sound energy from the tuning fork to the listener via a series of
collisions. The air molecules themselves do not undergo any net movement but
vibrate about their equilibrium positions.
SOME SOUND TERMS:
The pitch of a sound (how high or low it is) depends on its frequency. The higher the
frequency, the higher the pitch. For a sound or note of specific frequency, like that
produced by a tuning fork, the pitch is the same as the frequency. However, for a
complex sound such as a chord played on a piano, the pitch is not so easily defined.
It can no longer be taken as identical to the frequency of the sound, since the sound
contains several nearly equal amplitude waves of various frequencies.
The loudness of a sound depends upon the amplitude of the wave that produces it.
The greater the amplitude, the louder the note, because more energy is used to
produce a larger amplitude.The term volume is sometimes used instead of
loudness.
DRAWING LONGITUDINAL WAVES:
It is usually more difficult to draw a longitudinal wave than a transverse one. This is
because for a longitudinal wave, the particle displacements lie in the same direction
as the wave travels. So, it is often convenient to represent such a wave as a
transverse wave equivalent. This is accomplished by simply using a vertical axis to
represent the longitudinal displacements of the particles from equilibrium.
Longitudinal displacements to the right are represented as vertical displacements
upwards. Longitudinal displacements to the left are represented as vertical
displacements downwards.
In the diagram that follows, a longitudinal wave and its transverse wave equivalent
are shown together. The numbers at the top indicate the longitudinal displacements
(in cm) of the particles from their indicated rest positions at an instant in time. Minus
means to the left, plus to the right. The numbers at the bottom indicate the
corresponding vertical displacements (in cm) used to produce the transverse wave
equivalent. Minus means down, plus means up. Note that the compressions and
rarefactions in a longitudinal wave are NOT analogous to the crests and
troughs in a transverse wave (inspite of the Syllabus stating otherwise). The
compression and rarefaction centres of the longitudinal wave occur at positions of
zero displacement of the particles and therefore correspond to the zero displacement
points of the transverse wave. The points on the longitudinal wave where the particle
displacement from equilibrium is maximum, correspond to the crests and troughs of
the transverse wave equivalent.

REFLECTION OF SOUND:
When any wave strikes the boundary between the medium in which it is travelling
and a different medium, three phenomena occur. Wave is:
Transmitted across the boundary into the new medium.
Reflected into the medium through which it has just come.
Absorbed by the boundary
The extent to which any of these happen depends on the nature of the wave, the
media and the boundary.
Reflection occurs when a wave incident on a boundary is forced to return into the
medium in which it was originally travelling. In the diagram below an incident sound
wave strikes the boundary surface at X and is reflected along the line shown. Note
the use of rays, lines with arrows, to show the direction of travel of the waves.
Laws of Reflection and apply to both longitudinal and transverse waves. Note that a
wave incident on the boundary surface with an angle of incidence of zero degrees (i
= 0
o
) will be reflected back along the same line.

1. The incident ray, normal and reflected ray are in the same plane; and
2. The angle of incidence, i, is equal to the angle of reflection, r.
When a sound wave is reflected back to its source, it is known as an echo.
Echoes are used in a wide variety of applications. Sonar (SOund Navigation And
Ranging) is a method of finding the depth of water or the size and shape of objects
under the water by sending out ultrasonic (> 20000Hz) pulses and measuring the
time of travel and angle of return of the echoes. Ultrasound is used in medicine to
produce images of internal body organs and babies in the womb and in industry to
detect flaws in metal.
THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION FOR SOUND WAVES
When two or more sound waves travel through the same medium at the same time
they produce effects on each other. This is called interference.
The Principle of Superposition states that when waves interfere, the total
displacement of the medium at any point is the algebraic sum of the individual
displacements at that point. Note that in all the graphs that follow in this section,
the horizontal axis represents time and the vertical axis represents displacement
of particles of the medium from their equilibrium positions.

Graphs 1 (blue) & 2 (green) represent two sound waves of equal wavelength and
frequency passing through the same medium simultaneously. Wave 2 has twice
the amplitude of wave 1. Wave 3 (brown) represents the resultant wave produced
by adding the individual displacements of waves 1 & 2 at each point. The resultant
sound that would be heard would have the same wavelength and frequency as
waves 1 & 2 but would have higher amplitude and would therefore be a louder
sound. In interference terms waves 1 & 2 have interfered constructively to produce
wave 3.
In the following example, Graphs 1 (blue) & 2 (green) represent two sound waves
of equal wavelength, frequency and amplitude passing through the same medium
simultaneously. Note that at all points in the medium the two waves interfere with
each other destructively. The result is a series of nodes (points of zero
displacement) and no sound would be heard (Graph 3 - brown).

To study sound interference effects, the waves must have the same frequencies
and wavelengths. To allow complete destruction, as in the case above, the
amplitudes must also be the same. When sound sources of different frequencies,
wavelengths and amplitudes interfere, the result is just noise. In the special case
below, where the two waves have slightly different frequencies, beats are
produced.

The two interfering waves travelling in the same direction have been drawn to a
different scale than the resultant wave, shown below. This complex waveform
represents a beat a periodic fluctuation in sound intensity or loudness. The graph
clearly shows a gradual increase in loudness up to a maximum followed by a gradual
decrease to zero. The pattern then repeats. The audible beat frequency is the
difference between the frequencies of the interfering waves.
F
b
= f
2
f
1


THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
You will recall that the two basic categories of waves are mechanical and
electromagnetic. Let us say a little about the latter. Electromagnetic radiation
consists of waves of energy that are caused by the acceleration of charged
particles. Electromagnetic waves (or radiation) consist of electric and magnetic
fields vibrating transversely and sinusoidally at right angles to each other and to the
direction of travel of the waves.
EM waves require no medium through which to travel and thus can travel
through a vacuum. In free space all EM waves move with the same speed 3 x
10
8
ms
-1
.
The wide range of wavelengths (and corresponding frequencies) over
which EM waves exist in nature is called the electromagnetic spectrum.
This spectrum is as follows:

The cut-off wavelengths or frequencies for each of the different types of EM radiation are
not precise. There is some overlap. Some types of EM radiation can be further broken
down into sub-types. The radio wave band of the spectrum contains the AM radio
communications band at its higher wavelength end, followed by the TV band and then
the radar and microwave bands at the lower wavelength end. The very narrow visible
light band contains all the visible colours: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
violet, in order from higher to lower wavelength. The visible light band occupies the
position between about 780nm and 380nm wavelength.
USES OF EM RADIATION AND METHODS OF DETECTION
EM radiation has many effects and uses in everyday life. As mentioned above, the
radio band is used extensively for communications of all kinds. The Ultra-High
Frequency (UHF) band, ranging from 300 megahertz (MHz) to 3,000 MHz is used
mainly for communication with guided missiles, in aircraft navigation, radar, and in
the transmission of television. FM radio stations use the Very High Frequency (VHF)
band from 30 MHz to 300 MHz. Short wave radio uses the High Frequency (HF)
band from 3 MHz to 30 MHz because waves in this band are easily reflected by
the Kennelly-Heaviside layer (the E-layer) of the ionosphere, allowing very long
distance communication by short wave radio. AM radio broadcasts use the
Medium, Low and Very Low Frequency (MF, LF, VLF) bands from 3000 kHz down to
3 kHz. The ionosphere also reflects these waves. Note that the exact allocation of
frequency bands varies from country to country and is usually controlled by
government authorities.
Radio waves can be detected by the combination of (i) an aerial for receiving the
electromagnetic waves and converting them into electrical oscillations and (ii) diodes in
appropriately tuned electronic circuits in the receiver that produce an audio-frequency
signal.
Microwaves, which occupy the very top of the radio wave band from 3GHz up to
300 GHz, can pass through the ionosphere and are used in radar, space
communication such as with satellites, radio and television, meteorology,
microwave landing system (MLS) for aircraft, distance measuring, materials
research and even ordinary old cooking. Microwaves can be detected using a
waveguide. This is a hollow conducting tube containing a dielectric (insulator) and
is used to guide UHF EM waves along its length by reflection off the internal walls.
A cavity resonator may be added to collect the energy.
Infrared radiation is heat radiation and is used in guidance systems of missiles, for
linking computers in networks, as a diagnostic tool in medicine (thermography), in
remote sensing aerial and satellite IR photography to search for minerals or
monitor crops, in night-vision goggles, in cooking, heating, drying and so on. IR can
be detected by a thermopile or a photo transistor.
Visible light is the means by which we view the world, mainly by reflection. It is also
used in communication to transport huge volumes of information over very large
distances by internal reflection of light in optical fibres. Light waves have high
frequencies and the information-carrying capacity of a signal increases with frequency,
making light perfect for the job. Light is detected by our eyes, by photo cells, cameras
and light sensitive diodes.
Ultraviolet radiation is largely responsible for damage to skin and eyes exposed to
sunlight for too long. It is used in the treatment of skin complaints, for killing
bacteria, for fluorescent lighting, in burglar alarms, automatic door openers and
counters and a host of other applications. UV radiation can be detected by
photographic film, photovoltaic cells and by the fluorescence it causes in ZnS and
other salts.
X rays are used in medicine both to supply images of internal body structures and
to destroy tumours, in industry for detecting cracks in metal and in research
laboratories for determining crystal structure by diffraction. X rays can be detected
by photographic plates and film, ionization of gases and by the photoelectric effect,
where the X rays knock electrons out of a metal surface.
Gamma rays (-rays) can be used to destroy cancerous tumours, to detect flaws in
metals and to sterilize equipment. -rays can be detected by Geiger-Muller tubes
and photographic plates and film.
ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS
The energy carried by an EM wave is related to its frequency. An EM wave of
frequency f, has an energy E, given by Plancks Law: E = hf, where h = Plancks
constant (6.63 x 10
-34
Js). (As an aside, this law forms the basis of Quantum
Theory.) A quick look at the EM spectrum diagram shows that -rays (high
frequency) are the most energetic EM radiation and that radio waves (low
frequency) are the least energetic.
Another frequency related characteristic of EM radiation is its penetration power
through the Earths atmosphere. EM radiation of different frequencies is
scattered, reflected and absorbed by different amounts in the atmosphere. Of
the EM radiation that falls on Earth from space, only the visible and radio bands
make it all the way to the ground without much attenuation taking place on
the way down. Some low frequency ultraviolet radiation and some regions in the
infrared are able to traverse the atmosphere but other frequencies of EM radiation
are completely blocked. For all intents and purposes most of the UV and all of
the X-ray and gamma-ray wavebands of the EM spectrum are effectively
filtered out by the atmosphere well before they reach the ground.
It is useful to know how the intensity of EM radiation varies with distance from the
source. Intensity is defined as the rate of energy transfer per unit area normal to
the direction of travel of the wave at any given point. It can be shown
experimentally, that the intensity I, of light falling on a surface varies inversely with
the square of the distance d, between the source and the surface. That is, if the
distance between the source and the surface doubles, the illuminance (the intensity
of illumination on the surface) decreases by a factor of 4. This relationship is called
the inverse square law and applies only where the distance is large compared
with the size of the source.
For example, if a surface receives 1 lux of light at a distance of 2 metres from a source
and the surface is then moved to be 4 metres from the source, that surface will then
receive (1/2)-squared, or 1/4, lux of light.
It can be further shown that this inverse square law applies to all EM radiation, not
just to light. Therefore, in general, for EM radiation:
I 1/d
2

WAVE MODULATION
Modulation is the process of impressing one wave system upon another of higher
frequency. Audio-frequency (AF) waves such as speech and music from a tape or
microphone must be combined with radio-frequency (RF) carrier waves in order to be
transmitted over the radio. Either the frequency (rate of oscillation) or the amplitude
(height) of the carrier waves may be modified in a process called modulation. The AF
waves enter the modulator and interact with the carrier to determine either the
amplitude of the carrier wave (amplitude modulation AM) or the frequency of the
carrier wave (frequency modulation FM). The modulated carrier wave can then be
transmitted to its destination. Once it is received, the modulated carrier wave is fed into
a decoding device or de-modulator that extracts the original AF wave from it.
Let us examine frequency modulation as an example. In this type of modulation the
frequency of the carrier wave is varied above and below its unmodulated value by an
amount that is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal and at a frequency
equal to that of the modulating signal. The amplitude of the carrier wave remains
constant.
where E
m
= amplitude of the carrier wave, F = frequency of the unmodulated carrier
wave, AF = the peak variation of the carrier wave frequency away from the frequency F,
caused by the modulation, f = frequency of the modulating signal. Note that this
example is simply meant to emphasize that there is a clearly defined mathematical
process behind signal modulation. You do not have to remember or even be able to use
such equations in this course. An example of frequency modulation is shown below. The
waveforms are not drawn to scale.


Compared with amplitude modulation, frequency modulation has several advantages.
The FM signal is not susceptible to electrical interference, unlike that for AM, and a
properly tuned receiving-set can take advantage of its larger frequency range and
dynamic range to reproduce high-fidelity sound. Also, FM signals are broadcast in the
VHF short wave band and such waves are not reflected by the Earths ionosphere. This
means that FM signals can only travel as far as the horizon, which has the advantage of
reducing interference, and coverage is therefore more stable than with AM.
The same modulation processes outlined above are used with microwaves and visible
light to transmit information from one place to another. Narrow-band frequency
modulation is the most common mode of transmission for the microwave signals used
with mobile phones. Each call is assigned a carrier wave unique to the transmitter from
which it is sent. Frequency-modulated radar can determine the distance to a moving or
stationary object.
Optical glass fibres are rapidly becoming common features of communications systems
around the world. Visible light is used as the carrier of information in optical fibres. Light
can be amplitude or frequency modulated and then transmitted over huge distances with
little loss in intensity. It should be noted however, that analogue systems such as AM or
FM, where the signal consists of a continuously changing pattern, are not the primary
transmission modes in fibre optics systems. Despite the huge bandwidth available, it is
almost impossible to handle large numbers of channels (conversations) with acceptably
low levels of distortion. A digital system, in which information is transmitted as a series
of on-off pulses (pulse modulation), is used for high volume transmission of information
through optical fibers.
Just as an aside, it is interesting to ask why we need carrier waves at all? In radio
transmission, you could theoretically transmit radio signals at audio frequencies.
However, because the wavelength of electromagnetic waves at audio-like frequencies is
huge and the frequency of a radio transmitter dictates the size of the antenna and the
power requirement, you would need a very big antenna and a very big power supply to
do this. So, we've learned to transmit at higher "carrier" frequencies, modulating either
the amplitude or frequency of the carrier signal with our audio and subtracting the
carrier at the receiver end. (Basically, for an antenna, the lower the frequency to be
transmitted or received, the larger the physical size of the antenna. For example, a VHF
half-wave dipole will be about three times the size of a UHF dipole.)
BANDWIDTH LIMITATIONS IN THE EM SPECTRUM
As we have seen, a large portion of the EM spectrum is used for communication
purposes. However, since each particular type of communication medium, AM radio, FM
radio, TV and so on, requires a certain minimum range of frequencies to ensure
successful transmission, an obvious problem arises. The EM spectrum used for
communication purposes has a finite range.
The technical name for the range of frequencies that an EM signal occupies on a given
transmission medium is bandwidth. So, for example, a typical VHF-FM radio broadcast
signal has a bandwidth of about 200 kHz (0.2 MHz), while a typical analogue television
broadcast video signal has a bandwidth of 6 MHz. In Australia VHF-FM radio stations are
allocated a 200 kHz bandwidth between 88 and 108 MHz. So the available radio channel
frequencies are 88.1 MHz, 88.3 MHz and so on up to 107.9 MHz. Obviously there is a
limit to the number of channels available and therefore to the number of FM
radio stations that can broadcast a signal.
The same problem exists for all forms of communication that make use of EM radiation
transmitted through the atmosphere or free space. A government authority strictly
controls access to the available bandwidths in each particular band of the spectrum (AM,
FM, TV, mobile phones, microwave, etc) and competition for bandwidth allocation is
intense. From time to time people or organizations that can no longer demonstrate
efficient & effective use of their allocated bandwidth are not re-allocated that bandwidth
when their license comes up for renewal.
Research scientists are constantly trying to expand the range of the EM spectrum that
can be used for communication purposes. For instance much work is being done at
present on carrier frequencies in the millimetre wave region (near-infrared).
Just in passing, it should be stated that this bandwidth limitation does not apply to hard-
wired systems such as digital cable and fibre optic systems. Available bandwidth in
such systems can be expanded without limit by installing more cable.

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF EM WAVES
The laws of reflection as stated in the section on reflection of sound, apply to EM
waves as well. They will not be re-stated here. The only further comment required
is to stress that when EM waves reflect from a plane surface, they may suffer a t
phase change. Sound waves do not.
Two particles that move in step with each other on a wave, that is have the same
displacement and move in the same direction at the same time, are said to be in
phase. If two particles A and B are simultaneously located at the top of crests on
the same wave, they are in phase. As A moves back down to equilibrium and then
down to a trough, so too does B.
On reflection from a plane surface EM waves undergo a 180
o
or t phase
change, if they strike the plane surface from the side of lower optical density (eg
light travelling in air & reflecting off glass). That is, a crest striking the surface is
reflected as a trough. Likewise a trough becomes a crest. This does not happen with
sound waves. For instance, a compression striking a plane surface is reflected as a
compression.
Examples of the use of reflection of EM waves in the transfer of information
are many. Reflection of short wave radio waves by the ionosphere and the internal
reflection of light through optical fibres have already been mentioned. Another
example is that of Radar (RAdio Direction And Ranging) for locating distant objects
by the reflection of microwaves. Pulses or continuous waves of microwaves are
broadcast, reflect off a distant object and the reflections are picked up by a
receiving aerial. The distance and direction to the object are given by the direction
of the receiving aerial and the time between the transmission of the wave and the
reception of its reflection. The transmitting and receiving aerials can be made to
rotate to scan an area. The reflected pulses are recorded by a cathode ray tube
circularly scanned in synchronization to produce an echo map of the scanned area.
Other examples of the application of reflection include:
+ A plane mirror usually consists of a coating of metallic silver at the back of a
flat sheet of glass. Reflections from this surface produce images of objects in
front of the mirror. These images are called virtual images, since the rays of
light reaching our eyes do not actually come from the point where we see the
image. See Diagram (a) below.
+ Parabolic reflectors are parabolic concave mirrors that focus parallel
beams of light at a single point. They are used in solar furnaces, reflecting
telescopes, car headlights and many other applications. See Diagram (b)
below.
+ Diverging mirrors these are convex mirrors and cause parallel beams of
light to spread apart. The image is always upright and smaller than the object,
which allows the observer to see a wide-angle view. They are used to help
people see around corners in driveways and shops and as rear view mirrors
on trucks and buses. See Diagram (c) below.



Doubtless we have all seen examples of the light bending properties of water.
Recall the experiment where a ruler is placed in a beaker of water and appears to
bend upwards. The end of the ruler in the water appears to be higher in the water
than it actually is. The reason for this is that the light reflecting from the end of the
ruler bends down towards the water surface as it passes from water to air. When it
enters our eyes, the light appears to have come from a position in the water above
the actual position of the end of the ruler. This bending of light rays as they pass
from one medium to another is called refraction.
For the rest of this section we will use light as an example of EM waves. The
velocity of light in a medium depends on the optical density of the medium. The
higher the optical density, the lower the velocity of light. Water is more optically
dense than air and so the velocity of light in water is lower than its value in air. It is
this difference in the velocity of light in different media that causes the light to
bend as it passes across the boundary between two media.
In the following diagram several wavefronts (lines of crests) of light are shown
travelling towards the boundary between two media of different optical density.
Their direction is shown by the ray (arrowed line) at right angles to the wavefront.
The waves have a velocity v
1
in medium 1 and a velocity v
2
in medium 2. Note that
we will assume that the density of medium 1 is less than that of medium 2 and
therefore that v
1
> v
2
. The waves strike the boundary at an angle of incidence i,
measured as always from the normal to the boundary around to the incident
ray. As the waves move across into medium 2, they slow down and therefore
their direction changes. As indicated by the ray, the waves bend towards the
normal and are transmitted into medium 2 with an angle of refraction r, measured
from the normal to the refracted ray.
Notice also that because the velocity has decreased as the waves pass from
medium 1 to medium 2, so too has the wavelength. This happens because the
frequency of a wave remains the same as it passes across the boundary
between two media. Therefore, from v = f , since v decreases and f remains
constant, must decrease.

The relationship between the velocities of light in the two media and the angles of
incidence and refraction is given by Snells Law:

It can be shown that the ratio of the velocity of the wave in medium 1 to the
velocity of the wave in medium 2 is a constant. This constant is called the relative
refractive index for waves travelling from medium 1 into medium 2 and is a
measure of the amount of bending of the waves that occurs as the waves move
from medium 1 into medium 2.
Every material has a specific refractive index () value. This is called the absolute
refractive index of the material and is defined as the index of refraction of light
going from a vacuum into the medium in question. A more complete statement of
Snells Law can then be written as:

Where
1

2
= the relative refractive index for waves moving from medium 1 into
medium 2,
1
= the absolute refractive index of medium 1 and
2
= the absolute
refractive index of medium 2.
VELOCITY CHANGES CAUSE WAVEFRONTS TO BEND
Let us outline how the change in velocity that a wavefront experiences as it passes
across the boundary between two media of different optical densities causes the
wavefront to change its direction of travel and therefore bend. Consider the following
diagram that shows a single plane wavefront striking the boundary between two
media at point W.

Wavefront WY strikes the boundary and moves into a medium in which its velocity is
reduced. From W, the wavefront travels to X in the same time as Y takes to reach
the boundary. Since WX < YZ, clearly WY cannot be parallel to XZ. The change in
velocity of the wavefront has caused the wavefront to bend.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION AND CRITICAL ANGLE
Clearly, if a ray of light travels from a slower (more dense) to a faster (less dense)
medium, as in the example used earlier of the ruler in the beaker of water, the ray
of light bends away from the normal towards the boundary surface. As the angle of
incidence increases from zero, there comes a case where the angle of refraction is
90
o
, ie the ray travels along the boundary between the two media. This angle of
incidence is called the critical angle. Any ray having an angle of incidence greater
than the critical angle, is totally reflected back into medium 1. This phenomenon is
called total internal reflection and plays an important role in several areas of
physics and particularly in communication technology such as the transmission of
light through optical fibres.
From Snells Law we can write:

and therefore that:

Where i
c
= the critical angle and medium 2, the faster medium, is a vacuum or air.
Note that for a vacuum is defined as 1, while for air is close enough to 1 for
most purposes.
Total internal reflection can only occur for light passing from a more optically dense
medium to a less optically dense one. Typical critical angles include 49
o
for water,
42
o
for crown glass and 24
o
for diamond.
One application of total internal reflection is found in fibre optics. Good quality
glass of high refractive index is coated with a thin layer of glass of lower refractive
index. Light is passed into the end of the thin fibre. Any ray of light striking the
boundary between the two glass media at an angle greater than the critical angle,
will be totally internally reflected along the whole length of the fibre. Light can
therefore travel from one end of the fibre to the other without loss. See below.

DEVELOPMENTS IN COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Many types of communication data are stored or transmitted in digital form:
+ Fibre optics communication data phone calls, computer data
+ Mobile telephone calls
+ Sound and picture recordings on magnetic tape, Compact Discs (CDs) and
Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs)
+ Computer data itself the huge volume of data available on the internet,
computerized records kept by businesses, banks, governments, local councils,
the police and military and so on.
+ Digital TV signals & Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) signals - DAB combines
two technologies digital sound recording & data compression.
+ Communications satellites utilise very small aperture terminals (VSATs) which
relay digital data for a multitude of business services.
+ Holographic data - holograms can store large quantities of data by varying the
recording angle relative to the photographic plate. To retrieve the data the
hologram must be illuminated with a laser beam at different angles.
+ Smart weapons eg tomahawk missiles can be launched over 1000 km from
the target and follow precise directional instructions to reach its target.



ELECTRICAL ENERGY IN THE HOME
INTRODUCTION:
Although electrical effects have been known since the time of the ancient Greeks at
least, the development of electricity as a source of usable power has really
happened only in the last 200 years or so. Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) was an Italian
anatomist who discovered animal electricity (about 1786). Galvani was
investigating the effects of electrostatic stimuli on muscle fibre in frogs, when he
discovered that he could make the muscle twitch by touching the nerve with various
metals without a source of electrostatic charge. He found that the best reaction was
obtained when two dissimilar metals were used. He attributed the effect to 'animal
electricity'. In other words, he believed that the electricity was produced by the
animal.
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) was a French physicist who invented the voltaic pile
(the first battery) and thus provided science with its earliest continuous electric
current source. Voltas invention (about 1800) demonstrated that animal electricity
could be produced using inanimate materials alone, thus ending a long dispute with
Galvani, who insisted that it was a special property of animal matter. Volta had
always suspected that the source of the electricity produced in Galvanis experiment
was the interaction of the two dissimilar metals, rather than the animal.
Over the last 200 years, society has become increasingly dependent on
electricity as a source of power. Consider for a moment the difference that
electricity has made to the quality of life of people today compared to 200 years ago.
Think of how electricity is used today in lighting, heating or cooling, refrigeration,
food preparation, transport, communication, manufacture of goods and materials,
entertainment, data storage and manipulation, household cleaning tasks, medical
applications and building & construction industries to mention just a few areas.
Electricity is employed wherever possible as a medium of energy transfer and use
for several reasons: (1) It can be efficiently transported from generators to the point
of use through a network of wires. (2) It can be very efficiently converted into other
usable energy forms, such as heat, light, mechanical, and chemical energy. (3) It is
easily controllable at the point of use, requiring a simple flick of a switch to turn an
electrical device on or off.
Indeed, the availability of large, inexpensive supplies of electricity is important to the
maintenance and development of all modern countries. Without electricity, industry
would grind to a halt, communications would cease, and our food supply would be
seriously affected. The easy availability of electricity allows us to enjoy our present
standard of living.
ELECTROSTATICS
As early as the 7
th
Century BC, the ancient Greeks were aware that amber, when
rubbed vigorously, could attract dust and cloth from a distance. Today, we say that
such objects are charged. For example, a plastic ruler when rubbed has the ability
to pick up tiny pieces of paper. Electrostatics is the study of stationary charge.
CHARGE
Experiments by William Gilbert (1544-1603), Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) and
others suggested the following rules regarding charge:
+ There are only two kinds of charge called positive and negative. These were
originally called vitreous and resinous respectively, because of the materials
which produced each type of charge.
+ Like charges repel.
+ Unlike charges attract.
Charles Coulomb (1736-1806) discovered the following law governing the behaviour
of charges:
For two charges q
1
and q
2
, distant r apart, the force between them varies directly as
the product of the two charges and inversely as the square of the distance between
them.
Mathematically,

The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C). One coulomb of charge is equal to the
charge on 6.25 x 10
18
electrons.
2
2 1
.
r
q q
k F =
ELECTRIC FIELDS
A field in physics is a region of influence of some kind. If a stationary charge
experiences a force in a particular region of space we say that there is an
electric field present in that region.
The magnitude of the electric field strength at a particular point in space is defined as
the force per unit charge at that point.
E = F/q
where E = electric field strength, q = size of the charge and F = force experienced by
q at the point in question. Both E and F are vector quantities and thus, must be
specified in terms of size and direction.
The SI units of electric field strength are NC
-1
.
The direction of the electric field at any point is defined as the direction in which a
positive test charge would move if placed in the field at that point.
The relative strengths and directions of different electric fields may be represented
diagrammatically by using lines of force. The spacing of the lines of force indicates
the strength of the field. The closer the lines are together, the stronger the field. The
direction of the field at a given point is indicated by the direction of the tangent to the
lines of force at the point in question. Lines of force, also called field lines, are
always drawn as emanating from positive charges and as terminating at negative
charges.
The following are examples of the electric field around various objects.




A dipole consists of a positive and negative charge separated by a short distance.


Note that in (c) the field is uniform between the plates but non-uniform towards the
edges.


As shown in (d) above, the electric field inside a conductor under electrostatic
conditions is zero. Also note that charge tends to accumulate at narrow or sharp
ends of objects. You may like to think about why this would be expected and any
consequences that may follow from such a phenomenon.
Once you think you have an explanation have a look at Explanation of E-Field
Around A Pear-Shaped Conductor.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Consider a charge of + q coulombs in a uniform electric field as shown below:


To move charge +q from A to B back against the field direction, we must do work.
The amount of work, W, that we must do is found from:

where F = the force applied to move the charge & d = displacement moved by the
charge in the direction of the applied force. The SI unit of work is the joule (J).
In the E field, the force, F, on the charge is given by
d F W . =

Therefore we have:

as the work done.
Since we have done work on q to move it from A to B, we can say that we have
increased its potential energy (ie its ability to do work for us).
Further, we can say that there is a difference in potential between points A and B,
in the E field. In general, we can say that there is a potential difference between
any two points in an electric field, whenever we have to do work to move a charge
from one point to the other. By definition:

That is, the potential difference between A and B, V
AB
, equals the work done in
moving the charge from A to B, W
AB
, divided by the size of that charge, q. Since the
work done is the change in potential energy of the charge, we can say that the
potential difference between two points is the change in potential energy per
unit charge moving from one point to the other.
Note that another term often used for potential difference is voltage. The SI unit of
potential difference is the volt (V). 1V = 1JC
-1
.
ELECTRODYNAMICS
Electrodynamics is the study of moving charges. A current is defined to be a flow of
charge. By definition, the direction of a current is taken to be the direction in which
the positive charge flows. This is called a conventional current.
This direction was chosen because the early researchers in this field did not know
whether the moving charges in a current were positive or negative. Today we know
that it is the electrons that actually carry the charge in a current, but for convenience
we still use conventional current direction as the direction of flow of a given current.
Mathematically, we define current as the rate at which charge flows (ie the amount
of charge flowing per unit time):
qE F =
qEd W =
q
W
V
AB
AB
=

The SI unit of current is the ampere (A). 1A = 1Cs
-1
.
When current flows continually in one direction it is called a direct current (DC).
When a current consists of charges that periodically change direction, backwards
and forwards, it is called an alternating current (AC).
CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Substances containing large numbers of electrons that can move from one atom to
another (free electrons) are called conductors, since they can be used to conduct a
stream of electrons from one point to another. At ordinary temperatures, silver is the
best conductor but it is too expensive for most uses. Copper is nearly as good a
conductor as silver and far less expensive.
No material used at ordinary temperatures is a perfect conductor. There is always
some opposition to the flow of electrons. This opposition results in the loss of
energy from the moving steam of electrons. This lost energy appears in the form of
heat, which warms the conductor. If too much energy is lost the rise in temperature
may melt or vaporize the conductor.
In many substances, including glass, most plastics, rubber and wood, the outer or
valence electrons are linked by chemical bonds to the corresponding electrons of
adjacent atoms. In these substances the electrons are not free to move. Since
electrons cannot move from atom to atom within these materials, they cannot
conduct a flow of electrons. These substances are called non-conductors or
insulators.
RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTORS
The opposition that conductors offer to the movement of electrons across them is
called the resistance of the conductor. Resistance is a property of a body due to the
arrangements of the atoms of the body. Every material has a certain ability to resist
the passage of an electric current through it. Thus, every material has a certain
resistance value.
The resistance of a conductor is found experimentally to depend on four
physical factors:
t
q
I =
+ Type of material different materials can have different atomic arrangements
(different geometrical arrangements, different spacing between the atoms,
different sized atoms etc). Silver, copper and aluminium are all metallic
conductors used to conduct electricity in various applications. If all other factors
are equal the three metals still have different resistance values because of their
slightly different structures on an atomic scale.
+ Length of conductor the longer a conductor, the higher the resistance
(resistance length).
+ Cross-sectional area of conductor the larger the cross-sectional area, A, of a
conductor, the smaller the resistance (R 1/A)
+ Temperature Temperature effects on conductors are quite complex. In general,
the metals used as conductors suffer an increase in resistance as their
temperature increases. A formula exists which allows the resistance values of
conductors to be determined for temperatures other than the reference
temperature of 20
o
C. This formula is beyond the scope of the current syllabus.
OHMS LAW
Consider a current, I, flowing through a metal conductor, the potential difference
across its ends being V.


In 1826 George Ohm found that for a given conductor at constant temperature, the
ratio of the potential difference across its ends to the steady current flowing
through it was a constant. This constant is called the resistance of the conductor.


This relationship is now called Ohms Law.
I
V
R =
The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (O). A conductor is said to have a resistance of
one ohm if when the potential difference across its ends is one volt, the current
flowing through it is one ampere. It is worth noting that Ohms Law does not apply to
all conductors. Those conductors obeying Ohms Law are called ohmic conductors.
A conductor may obey Ohms Law over a particular temperature range and be non-
ohmic outside that range.
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

COMBINATIONS OF RESISTORS
(i) RESISTORS IN SERIES:
Resistors joined end to end, so that the current only has one path along which it may
travel, are said to be connected in series. For the circuit segment shown below the
potential difference between points A and B is V.


Clearly, the current through each resistor is the same. Also, the total potential difference
across the segment is equal to the sum of the potential differences across each resistor
(Kirchhoffs Voltage Law). Therefore, the total resistance, R, of the segment is found
from:
IR = IR
1
+ IR
2
+ IR
3

IR = I.(R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
)
R = R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3

Thus, the effective resistance of a number of resistors in series is equal to the
sum of the resistances of the individual resistors.
(ii) RESISTORS IN PARALLEL:
Resistors in parallel provide two or more different paths by which the current can
travel through the circuit. In the following diagram the total current, I, splits into three
components I
1
, I
2
and I
3
, such that I = I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
(Kirchhoffs Current Law).


The ends of each resistor are connected to the same points, A and B, in the circuit. It
follows that the potential difference across each resistor is the same and in each case is
equal to V.
Since I = I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
, we can write (from Ohms Law):


Thus, the reciprocal of the effective resistance of a number of resistors in
parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of each individual resistance.

MEASURING CURRENT & VOLTAGE IN CIRCUITS
An ammeter is used to measure the current flowing in an electrical circuit or in part of
a circuit. The ammeter is placed in series in a circuit to enable it to sample the
current that it is to measure. The ammeter is designed so that it has a very low
resistance, so that it does not alter the current flowing in the circuit.
A voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference across an electrical circuit
or across elements in a circuit. The voltmeter is placed in parallel with an element
to enable it to measure the difference in potential between one end of the element
and the other. The voltmeter is designed with a very high resistance to ensure that
it does not change the current in the element across which it is connected. If it
3 2 1
R
V
R
V
R
V
R
V
+ + =
3 2 1
1 1 1 1
R R R R
+ + =
changed the current in the element, it would have changed the voltage across the
element, which is what it was trying to measure.
THE WORK DONE BY A CURRENT
In crossing a conductor, work must be done by the electrons to overcome the
resistance of the conductor. The energy expended by the electrons is transformed
into heat. Thus, a conductor gets hot when current passes through it.
Consider a current of I ampere flowing through a conductor of resistance R ohm,
with a potential difference of V volt across its ends. Remember that the work done in
taking q coulombs of charge between two points differing in potential by V volts is
given by: W = qV.
So, the energy expended, W = qV
= VIt, since I = q/t
= RI
2
t, since V = IR
= V
2
t/R, since I = V/R
Clearly, the total amount of energy used by an electrical component or circuit
depends on the length of time the current is flowing.
POWER IN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Power is the rate at which energy is transformed from one form into another. By
definition, power is equal to the rate at which energy is expended.

Therefore

So clearly, the power dissipated by an electrical component is determined by multiplying
the current through the component by the voltage across the component. The SI unit for
power is the watt (W).
Or using Ohms Law to re-arrange the equation, P = I
2
R or P = V
2
/R.
t
W
P =
VI P =
UNITS FOR ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION
If you take a look at your parents electric power bill you will notice that the amount
of electrical energy consumed by your household is quoted in units of kWh
kilowatt-hours. This seems strange considering that the correct SI unit for energy is
the joule (J). Lets see why the kWh is used in place of the joule in this instance.
Consider an electric radiator. The amount of electrical energy used by a radiator can
be calculated as follows: Say the radiator has a power rating of 2000 watts. Using
the definition of power, that means the radiator will use 2000 joules of energy every
second. Thus, the total energy used in a time of t seconds will be 2000 t joules,
since W = P t.
Lets assume we use the radiator for 90 days at an average of 4 hours use per day.
The amount of energy used will be:
Energy = 2000 x 4 x 60 x 60 x 90 = 2 592 000 000 joules.
Rather large isnt it? And remember this is just the energy used by one radiator for a
few hours each day for a quarter of the year. Imagine how large the total energy
usage for a whole household would be! Here we have the main reason as to why
the kilowatt-hour is used to measure electricity consumption rather than the
joule. The joule is a very small unit of energy, while the kilowatt-hour is a much
larger unit. Electrical energy authorities in Australia use the kWh as the unit
for energy simply because it produces more friendly, easily understood energy
consumption figures.
The kilowatt-hour is defined as the amount of energy used in one hour by an appliance
rated at 1 kW (1000 W). The equivalent energy in joules is:
1 kWh = (1 x 10
3
watts x 60 x 60 seconds) = 3.6 x 10
6
J
Clearly, the kilowatt-hour is a much larger unit than the joule.
So, for our example of the radiator, the amount of energy used in kWh is:
Energy = 2 kilowatts x 360 hours = 720 kWh
I think most people would agree that this is a much more manageable figure than the
roughly 2.6 billion joules calculated above.
MAGNETIC FIELDS
Electric currents produce magnetic fields. In fact, any moving charge has a
magnetic field associated with it. These magnetic fields are the same as those produced
by ordinary bar magnets.
We know that if we bring the north poles of two bar magnets close together, they repel
one another. The same thing happens if we bring two south poles close together. If we
bring a north pole and a south pole close together, they attract one another. In
summary, like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
Just as we did in the case of electric fields, we can use lines of force to represent a
magnetic field. The direction of the field is indicated by arrows on the lines. The strength
of the field is indicated by the separation of the lines.
By definition, a magnetic field is said to exist at a point if a compass needle (small bar
magnet) placed there experiences a force. The direction of the field is the direction
of the force on the north pole of a compass needle placed at the point in
question.
The shape of the magnetic field around a bar magnet is as shown below. Note that the
field lines emerge from the north pole and re-enter the magnet at the south pole. The
magnetic field lines themselves are continuous. They travel through the magnet. Note
also that no example of a single magnetic pole (monopole) existing on its own has ever
been found. (Some experimental physicists are still looking for magnetic monopoles
certain theories on the nature of matter in the universe suggest that they could exist.)


GENERATION OF NATURAL MAGNETIC FIELDS
Bar magnets and other so-called permanent magnets are made out of a material called
ferromagnetic material. Iron, cobalt and nickel and the many alloys made from these
are all ferromagnetic. This implies that these substances are all attracted strongly by a
magnet.
Ferromagnetic materials derive their magnetic properties from the spin motion of
electrons in atoms. The spinning of an electron makes it behave like a little current
loop, which has a magnetic field like that of a bar magnet, but on a much smaller scale.
In most materials, the field from one electron cancels that from another, the net effect
being no magnetic field. Ferromagnetic materials, however, consist of small regions (10
-
12
to 10
-8
m
3
volume) called magnetic domains in which the spins of electrons line up
with each other to produce north and south poles. In the absence of an external
magnetic field, these domains
point in random directions. In
the presence of a weak
magnetic field, the domains
line up in a particular direction
and produce a net magnetic
effect.
If a magnetic field is required
to keep the domains aligned,
the magnet is called a
temporary magnet (eg soft iron). If the domains remain aligned, the magnet is called
a permanent magnet (eg hard steel). Note that even in permanent magnets, the
domains will eventually relax into a random orientation, once out of the influence of the
weak external magnetic field. This relaxation may take many, many years.
MAGNETIC FIELDS CAUSED BY CURRENTS
Since every moving charge has a magnetic field associated with it, a current must also
have a magnetic field associated with it. In fact, for a current moving through a straight
conductor, the magnetic fields of the component charges add together to produce
circular magnetic field lines concentric about the conductor. See below.



The direction of the field is given by the Right Hand Grip Rule, which states: Hold the
thumb of the right hand in the direction of the conventional current flow through the
conductor. The direction in which the fingers of the right hand naturally curl around the
conductor, is the direction of the magnetic field. In the example below, the X in the
middle of the conductor indicates that the current is flowing down into the page,
perpendicular to the page. The field is then clockwise, looking from above the page, by
the RH Grip Rule.

SOLENOIDS
A solenoid is simply a coil of insulated wire. If we pass a current through a solenoid, we
find that the solenoid has a magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet. This
field can be intensified greatly by adding a soft iron core inside the solenoid. Such an
arrangement is called an electromagnet.


Another way of representing a solenoid is to draw it in cross section, as shown below.



In the diagram above, the solenoid has been cut through vertically. The current is
coming up out of the page through the bottom row of conductors (indicated by the
dot in the middle of each conductor) and down into the page through the top row
of conductors. Using the RH Grip rule, the magnetic field direction is as shown.
We can understand why a solenoid has such a magnetic field by realizing that the
fields due to each turn of wire in the coil, simply add together to produce the typical
bar magnet field. Note that at points inside the solenoid and reasonably far from
the wires, the magnetic field is fairly uniform and parallel to the solenoid axis.
In the limiting case of adjacent, square, tightly packed wires, the solenoid becomes
essentially a cylindrical current sheet and the requirements of symmetry then make
the previous statement necessarily true.
APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETIC FIELDS IN HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES
In the home various appliances make use of magnetic fields. The electric motors
that drive many labour saving items of electrical equipment rely on magnetic fields
for their operation. Entertainment devices, such as the TV and stereo require
magnetic fields for the operation of their speakers and various other components.
Cassette and video tapes use magnetic tape to store music only and pictures &
music respectively. Computers are now common household appliances used for
entertainment or work. They use magnetic means of storing and manipulating data
(eg hard disk drives). Some people use magnetic devices for controlling household
pests, such as cockroaches. The effectiveness of such devices is still a matter of
some controversy. Some people use magnetic bracelets and amulets as a treatment
for all sorts of medical conditions eg arthritis. In the home, applications of magnetic
fields have resulted in improvements in the standard of living. They save time and
human energy; they provide entertainment and relaxation; and they may have other
uses in keeping houses free from insect pests and in treating various medical
conditions.
EXERCISE: Explain ONE application of magnetic fields in household
appliances.
HOUSEHOLD CIRCUITS
In Australian homes electrical energy is available from the mains supply at a voltage
of 240V AC* and a frequency of 50Hz. This electricity is supplied by the nearest
substation. Two wires carry the electricity into each house. One wire is called the
active and carries one of the available three phases of electricity supplied by the
substation. The other wire is called the neutral and is connected to the ground at
the substation. At the house there is a third wire, called the earth wire, which is also
connected to the ground, via a copper rod literally driven into the ground.
The active wire is connected to the Main Switch at the Meter Box. The neutral wire and
the earth wire are connected to the neutral bar in the Meter Box. From the Meter
Box, a number of circuits branch out through the house for different purposes.
The Meter Box contains switches to electrically isolate the whole house or parts of it, an
electricity meter that measures the amount of electrical energy taken from the Power
Station, a mains fuse and a fuse (or circuit breaker) for each of the separate circuits in
the house. For houses with off-peak electric hot water systems, there is also a separate
electricity meter and timer to turn the water heater off and on.
The number of separate circuits branching out from the Meter Box depends on the
size and design of the home, including the number of electrical appliances to be
used. There is a limit to the amount of electrical energy that can be safely
carried by household circuits. If there are too many power points to wire into one
circuit, one or more other circuits will be used. There will always be at least two
different circuits the lighting and power circuits (to power points and fixed
appliances). These are kept separate since the lighting circuit usually requires a
smaller fuse than the power circuit.
* Note that the 240V value of the mains supply is really an average value. It is really
the RMS (root mean square) voltage, which is the DC equivalent potential difference,
which would be required for a direct current to deliver the same energy to a circuit as
the changing AC supply. The actual voltage varies from 339 V to 339V during each
AC cycle.
CONDUCTORS USED TO SUPPLY HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICITY
Copper is the most common conductor used to provide household electricity. It is
relatively cheap and a better conductor than all metals other than silver.
Consequently, copper is used in most household wiring. Silver is occasionally used
in some high quality electronic equipment due to its higher conductivity but it is not
used widely due to its high price. Gold is also used sometimes for electrical contacts
not because it is the best electrical conductor but because it is perhaps the least
chemically reactive of metals. Aluminium is not as good a conductor as silver or
copper but it is used in the wires for overhead power line distribution because of its
light weight. The light weight allows the supporting structures to be placed further
apart and this reduces the overall cost.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
As mentioned above, fuses and circuit breakers are common devices found in
household electrical circuits. Both devices are designed to protect the house wiring from
overload and thereby prevent fires. For each separate household circuit, a fuse or circuit
breaker is placed in the meter box, in series between the external power supply and the
internal house wiring. In the case of a fuse, if too much current is drawn for too long a
time, the fuse simply melts, thus breaking the circuit and protecting the wiring. In the
case of a circuit breaker, if too much current is drawn for too long, the circuit breaker
opens, breaking the circuit and protecting the wiring. Circuit breakers are rapidly
becoming more common than fuses, as they can simply be reset after use.
All household electrical appliances are either earthed or double insulated (explained
below). Many appliances are earthed by connecting a conducting wire from the metal
body of the appliance to the earth wire of the household. As mentioned previously, this
earth wire is connected to the ground. If a fault within the appliance results in current
from the active wire leaking to the metal body of the appliance, two things will happen
almost simultaneously. Firstly, the current will flow safely to the ground via the earth
wire. Secondly, due to the large increase in current flowing in this household circuit via
the short-circuit to ground, the fuse in this household circuit will blow or the circuit
breaker in this household circuit will open, as the case maybe.
Insulators play an important part in making household electrical appliances safe to use.
Individual electrical conducting wires are covered with insulating material such as PVC
(polyvinyl chloride) to prevent leakage of current. Power cables that enclose sets of
insulated wires connected to appliances are also made from PVC or similar material.
Light switches and power point plates are made from hard plastics. Fuse wires are held
in place in household circuits using porcelain plugs. The internal insulation of electrical
equipment may be made of mica or glass fibres with a plastic binder.
Many small electrical appliances are double insulated which means that not only are
the wires inside insulated but also the body itself, being made of plastic, is an insulator.
Desk lamps, battery rechargers, electric drills, hair driers, electric mixers and electric
razors are just a few examples. Such appliances have only two wires connected to them
and a plug with two pins, one for the active and one for the neutral. Any metal screws or
pins used to hold parts together are totally enclosed in plastic tubes. There are no
electrically conductive parts that give a path for a current to the outside, even if a fault
inside puts the body in direct contact with the active wire.
Having mentioned some of the safety features present in household electrical circuits
and appliances, it is appropriate to consider the dangers of electricity. Electricity
can kill a person in two ways:
+ It can cause the muscles of the heart and lungs (or other vital organs) to
malfunction; or
+ It can cause fatal burns.
Even a small electric current can seriously disrupt body cell functions. When the electric
current is 0.001A or higher, a person can feel the sensation of shock. At currents ten
times larger, 0.01A, a person is unable to release the electric wire held in his/her hand
because the current causes his/her muscles to contract violently. Currents larger than
0.02A paralyze the respiratory muscles and stop breathing. Unless EAR is started
immediately the victim will suffocate. A current of 0.1A passing through the region of the
heart, will shock the heart muscles into rapid, erratic contractions (ventricular
fibrillation) so the heart can no longer function. Death would usually follow in a matter of
a few minutes. Currents of 1A and higher through body tissue cause serious burns.
Typically, the 240V AC mains supply causes a 25mA (milliampere) current in
the body, which can easily cause death. This is the reason why some countries use
110V AC as their mains supply voltage it is safer in the event of an electric shock. With
AC, the frequency of the supply also affects the damage that the current causes. Since
heart muscle is most sensitive to electricity of frequency 30-100Hz, the Australian mains
frequency of 50Hz is ideal for inducing fibrillation. Higher frequencies, DC electrical
current, and AC which does not pass through the heart do not cause fibrillation but
rather heat up and burn the muscle they flow through, sparing skin and fat.
Overall, the most important quantity to control in preventing injury is the
electric current. Voltage is important only in that it can cause current to flow.
Even though your body can be charged to a potential thousands of volts higher than the
metal frame of your car, simply by sliding across the car seat, you feel only a harmless
shock as you touch the door handle. Your body cannot hold much charge on itself, and
so the current flowing through your hand to the door handle is short-lived and the effect
on your body cells is negligible.
MOVING ABOUT
MECHANICS:
The branch of Physics that is concerned with the motion and equilibrium of bodies in
a particular frame of reference is called mechanics. Mechanics can be divided
into three branches: (i) Statics which deals with bodies at rest relative to some
given frame of reference, with the forces between them and with the equilibrium of
the system; (ii) Kinematics - the description of the motion of bodies without
reference to mass or force; and (iii) Dynamics which deals with forces that change
or produce the motions of bodies.
Some common terms used in the study of mechanics (and indeed many other
branches of Physics) are: scalars, vectors and SI Units.
1. Scalars A scalar is a physical quantity defined in terms of magnitude (size) only
- eg temperature, mass, volume, density, distance.
2. Vectors A vector is a physical quantity defined in terms of both magnitude and
direction - eg force, velocity, acceleration, electric field strength.
Diagramatically we can represent a vector by a straight line with an arrow
on one end. The length of the line represents the magnitude of the vector
quantity and the direction in which the arrow is pointing represents the
direction of the vector quantity. We will say much more about vectors later in
this topic.
3. System International (SI) Units The internationally agreed system of units.
There are seven fundamental units. The three that we will use in this topic are the
metre (length), the kilogram (mass) and the second (time). Various prefixes
are used to help express the size of quantities eg a nanometre (1 nm) = 10
-9
of a
metre, a gigametre (1 Gm) = 10
9
metres.
MOTION:
The following terms are commonly used to describe motion.
1. Displacement is the distance of a body from a given point in a given direction. It
is a vector quantity. The SI unit of displacement is the metre (m).

2. Speed The speed of a body is the rate at which it is covering distance. It is a
scalar quantity. The SI units are m/s, which can also be written as ms
-1
.



where v
av
= average speed, d = total distance travelled and t = total time taken to
travel distance d.

3. Velocity The velocity of a body is its speed in a given direction. In other words,
velocity is the rate of change of displacement with time. It is a vector quantity with
the same SI units as speed.



where v
av
= average velocity, Ar = change in displacement and At = change in
time taken to achieve that change in displacement.

Another way to express average velocity is as the average of the initial and final
velocities.



where v
av
= average velocity, u = initial velocity of the body and v = final velocity
of the body. Note that this equation applies ONLY when the velocity of the
body is increasing or decreasing at a constant rate.


4. Acceleration The acceleration of a body is the rate of change of the velocity of
the body with time. It is a vector quantity, with units of (metres/second)/second,
written as ms
-2
.

OR



where a
av
= average acceleration, Av = change in velocity of the body and At =
change in time over which the change in velocity took place.

where a
av
= average acceleration, v = final velocity, u = initial velocity, and t =
time over which the change in velocity took place.

Note that a body accelerates when:
a. It speeds up;
b. It slows down;
c. It changes direction.
MOTION GRAPHS:
Note that in this section the variable s will be used to represent displacement
instead of r. You will find in Physics that these two variables are both in common
use to denote displacement.
Displacement-Time Graphs .

Clearly, the gradient (slope) of a displacement-time graph gives the velocity.
Gradient =
AS/At
= velocity
Note that a positive gradient implies a positive velocity and a negative gradient
implies a negative velocity.
For a curved displacement-time graph, the gradient of the tangent to the curve at a
particular point equals the gradient of the curve at that point, which in turn equals the
velocity of the object at that particular time. Such a velocity, that is, the velocity at a
particular instant in
time, is called the
instantaneous velocity.

An example of an
instrument that
measures instantaneous
velocity is the
speedometer in a car. In
older cars the
speedometer was linked
mechanically to the
transmission. These
days, however, a device located in the transmission produces a series of electrical
pulses whose frequency varies in proportion to the vehicle's speed. The electrical
pulses are sent to a calibrated device that translates the pulses into the speed of the
car. This information is sent to a device that displays the vehicle's speed to the driver
in the form of a deflected speedometer needle or a digital readout.
Note that a straight line displacement-time graph implies that velocity is constant. A
curved line displacement-time graph implies that velocity is changing with time (ie
the object is accelerating).
Velocity-Time Graphs
These may be used to gain information about the displacement, velocity and
acceleration of an object at various times.

The gradient is clearly the acceleration of the object.
Gradient =
Av/At
= acceleration
Note that a positive gradient implies a positive acceleration and a negative gradient
implies a negative acceleration.
Also, the area under the graph,

in the case above, has units of: seconds x metres per second = metres. Thus, the
area under a velocity-time graph is equal to the displacement travelled by the
object in the time At.
Note that a horizontal straight line velocity-time graph implies that acceleration is
zero ie velocity remains constant.
A non-horizontal, straight line velocity-time graph implies that acceleration is
constant and non-zero.
A curved line velocity-time graph implies that acceleration is varying.
Acceleration-Time Graphs
These may be used to gain information about the velocity and acceleration of an
object at various times.

The area under an acceleration-time graph gives the change in velocity of an
object during the time interval At. Check the units of the area: (ms
-2
x s = ms
-1
).
A horizontal straight line acceleration-time graph implies that velocity is varying at a
constant rate (ie velocity is increasing or decreasing by the same amount each
second). That is, acceleration is constant.
RELATIVE VELOCITY:
Often it is necessary to compare the velocity of one object to that of another. For
instance, two racing car drivers, A and B, may be travelling north at 150 km/h and
160 km/h respectively. We could say that the velocity of car B relative to car A is 10
km/h north. In other words, driver A would see driver B pull away from her with a
velocity of 10 km/h north.
Likewise, two jet aircraft, C and D, flying directly at each other in opposite directions
(hopefully as part of an aerobatics display) may have velocities of 900 km/h north
and 1000 km/h south respectively. We could say that the velocity of D relative to C is
1900 km/h south. In other words, jet C will observe jet D flying towards it at a speed
of 1900 km/h.
Clearly, when the objects are travelling in the same direction, the velocity of one
relative to the other is the difference between their speeds, taking due care to state
the appropriate direction. When the objects are travelling in opposite directions the
velocity of one relative to the other is the sum of their speeds, again taking due care
to state the correct direction. There is a vector equation which can be used to
calculate the relative velocities of objects, even when the objects travel at various
angles to one another but this equation is outside the scope of the present syllabus
(for some unfathomable reason).
FORCE:
What is Force?
A force can be defined as a push or a pull that can cause a change in the state of
motion of an object or a change in the shape of an object. In fact, all accelerations
(and decelerations) are caused by forces.
Does every force cause acceleration?
Again, from our everyday experience, we know the answer to this question is no. If
a person pushes on the brick wall of a house, the house does not accelerate.
Sometimes when we want to push or pull an object from one place to another we
find that no matter how hard we push or pull, we just cannot move (accelerate) the
object.
What is the relationship between force and acceleration?
We could perform an experiment to determine the relationship between the size of a
force applied to an object at rest on a laboratory bench and the change in velocity
experienced by the object over a set period of time (ie the acceleration). Such an
experiment would produce results as shown below.

The graph above shows that:
+ The change in velocity does not happen instantaneously. A certain amount of force
is required before the object begins to accelerate. This makes sense, since the
force of friction between the bench and the object must be overcome before the
object can move. So, we can say that a net external force is required in order
to change the velocity of an object.
+ The acceleration produced is directly proportional to the force applied. If we
repeated the experiment on a frictionless surface (eg using a dry-ice puck on a
very smooth, polished table top) the straight-line graph would even pass through
the origin.
What is the relationship between acceleration and mass?
We could measure the accelerations produced when the same sized force is applied
to different objects. Such an experiment would produce results like those below.

The graph above suggests that there is an inverse relationship between acceleration
and mass. A plot of acceleration versus the reciprocal of mass, using the same data,
would produce a graph similar to that below.

This graph clearly shows that:
+ The acceleration produced by a given force is inversely proportional to the
mass of the object.
From experiments such as those above, we can say that:
and
NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION
Newtons First and Second Laws:
By combining the results above and defining the units of force appropriately, we can
write that:


.
This can be taken as a statement of Newtons Second Law. The SI Unit of force
is the newton (N), defined so that 1N = 1kgms
-2
.
Note that in the above equation, F is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the
object, m is the mass of the object and a is its vector acceleration. To remind us of that
fact we will write:


.
Note that if the resultant force on the object is zero, there is no acceleration. Therefore,
in the absence of a resultant force, an objects velocity will remain unchanged. In other
words, an object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will remain
in motion with uniform velocity, unless acted upon by a net external force. This
is a statement of Newtons First Law, which in fact is contained in the Second
Law as a special case (for EF = 0).
[Top]
Newtons Third Law:
Forces acting on a body originate in other bodies that make up its environment. Any
single force is only one aspect of a mutual interaction between two bodies. We find by
experiment that when one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body
always exerts a force on the first. Furthermore, we find that these forces are equal in
size but opposite in direction. A single, isolated force is therefore an impossibility.
If one of the two forces involved in the interaction between two bodies is called an
action force, the other is called the reaction force. Either force may be called the
action and the other the reaction. Cause and effect is not implied here, but a mutual
simultaneous interaction is implied.
This property of forces was first stated by Newton in his Third Law: To every action
there is always opposed an equal reaction; or, the mutual actions of two bodies
upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts.
In other words, if body A exerts a force on body B, body B exerts an equal but oppositely
directed force on body A; and furthermore the forces lie along the line joining the bodies.
Notice that the action and reaction forces, which always occur in pairs, act on
different bodies. If they were to act on the same body, we could never have
accelerated motion because the resultant force on every body would be zero.
Consider the following examples:
1. Imagine a boy kicking open a door. The force exerted by the boy B on the door D
accelerates the door (it flies open); at the same time, the door D exerts an equal but
opposite force on the boy, which decelerates the boy (his foot loses forward velocity).
The force of the boy on the door and the force of the door on the boy is an action-
reaction pair of forces.


2. When you walk, you apply a force backwards on the earth. Likewise, the earth applies
a force to you of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction. So, you move
forwards.



The force of the person on the earth and the force of the earth on the person is an
action-reaction pair of forces.


3. Consider a body at rest on a horizontal table:



Each of the pairs of forces above is an action-reaction pair of forces.
Definitions of Mass and Weight:
The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter contained in the
object. Mass is a scalar quantity.
The weight of an object is the force due to gravity acting on the object. Weight
is a vector quantity.
The weight, W, of an object is given by Newtons 2
nd
Law as:



where m is the mass of the object and g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 ms
-2

close to the earths surface).
USEFULNESS OF VECTOR DIAGRAMS:
Many of the quantities with which we deal in Physics are vectors. Sometimes we
need to add a number of vectors together. For instance, we may be trying to calculate
the total or resultant force acting on a car when several forces act on the car
simultaneously the wind, friction, gravity and the force supplied by the engine.
Sometimes we need to subtract two vectors. For instance, we may be trying to calculate
the change in velocity of a car as it goes around a bend in the road. The change in
velocity of the car equals the final velocity of the car minus initial velocity of the car.
When the need arises to add or subtract vector quantities, this proves to be
easy only when the vector quantities act along the same straight line. If the
vectors act at an angle to each other we really need to draw a vector diagram
to assist in solving the problem.
Vector analysis is an extremely important aspect of Physics and there are
several different methods available to add, subtract and even multiply vectors.
Unfortunately, the current Syllabus requires that you have only a very basic
understanding of vector analysis. So, we will examine a single, simple but very
useful method of adding and subtracting vectors.
VECTOR ADDITION:
The method we will use is called the Vector Polygon method. To find the sum of
a number of vectors draw each vector in the sum, one at a time, in the appropriate
direction, placing the tail of the second vector so that it just touches the head of the
first. Continue in this fashion until all of the vectors in the sum have been included in
the diagram. Note that it does not matter which vector you start with.
The vector that closes the vector polygon in the same sense as the component
vectors is called the equilibrant. It is the vector which when drawn into the diagram
gets you back to where you started. The vector that closes the vector polygon in
the opposite sense to the component vectors is called the resultant. The
resultant is the answer to the sum of all the vectors. Its size can be calculated
mathematically or measured using a ruler if the vector polygon has been
drawn to scale. The direction of the resultant can be calculated mathematically
or can be measured using a protractor if the vector polygon has been drawn to
scale. Either way, the direction of the resultant must be stated in an
unambiguous way.
Sometimes in Physics our vector additions only involve two vectors at a time. In this
case, the polygon formed is a triangle, making the mathematical calculation of the
magnitude and direction of the resultant quite straight forward.
EXAMPLE 1: A fighter pilot flies her F-14D Tomcat jet with a true airspeed of 400
km/h North. A crosswind from the East blows at 300 km/h relative to the ground.
Calculate the jets resultant velocity relative to the ground.
Note: For aircraft, the true airspeed (TAS) is the actual speed of the aircraft
through the air (the speed of the aircraft relative to the air). The wind speed is
usually measured relative to the ground. Groundspeed is the speed of the
aircraft relative to the ground. The groundspeed of the aircraft is the vector
sum of the true airspeed and the wind speed.
Obviously, a vector diagram would be very useful in solving Example Problem 1. See
the diagram below.

By Pythagoras Theorem, the magnitude of the resultant velocity of the jet is:

and the direction can be found using basic trigonometry as follows:

So, the velocity of the jet relative to the ground is 500 km/h N36.9
o
W.
Note that if the angle between the two vectors being added together is other than
90
o
, Cosine Rule and Sine Rule can be used to solve the problem mathematically.
Note also the use of the compass in the diagram to establish direction.
EXAMPLE 2: In the previous problem, in which direction should the pilot head and with
what airspeed in order to actually fly north at 400 km/h relative to the ground?
Again a vector diagram is useful. Our intuition tells us that the pilot must fly into the
wind. So, when we draw a diagram that shows all of the information that we know to
be true, we obtain the diagram shown below.

Clearly, if the pilot flies N36.9
o
E with an airspeed of 500 km/h, the wind will
bring her back to a heading of due North at a speed of 400 km/h relative to the
ground. Remember also, there is usually more than one way to give the direction.
The direction the pilot should fly in this example could just as correctly be given as
E53.1
o
N or as a True Bearing of 36.9
o
.
EXAMPLE 3: Four children pull on a small tree stump firmly stuck in the ground.
Looking down on the tree stump from above, the forces applied by the children are
as shown below.

Determine the resultant force applied to the tree stump.
To solve this problem mathematically we would need to add two of the vectors
together, then add our answer to the third vector and finally add our answer to that
addition to the fourth vector. It is actually far quicker and easier to solve this problem
graphically. To do this we construct a vector polygon, using the rules stated above
and simply measure the size and direction of the resultant. See the diagram below.

The resultant force, R, is found by measurement to be 3.1 N at an angle of 39
o

clockwise from the direction of the 4.5 N force.
Note that when using a graphical approach, the scale must be clearly stated on
the diagram. Always choose a sensible numerical scale. Also, choose a scale that will
produce a large diagram. The larger the diagram, the more accurate the answer. For the
example problem above, the scale used was 1 N = 1.5 cm. This is certainly the smallest
scale I would use for this particular problem. Anything less is too inaccurate. A scale of 1
N = 2 cm would be preferable. The smaller scale was used here to fit the diagram neatly
onto this page.
Note also, that depending on which printer is used to print these notes, there
may be a small discrepancy between the stated scale and the actual scale on
the page.
VECTOR SUBTRACTION:
If vector A is as shown below:

then vector A is a vector of the same magnitude as A but opposite direction.

In order to find the difference between two vectors, add the negative of the
second vector to the first.
EXAMPLE 4: A Maserati (car) is moving due East at 20 ms
-1
. A short time later it is
moving due North at 20 ms
-1
. Calculate the change in velocity of the Maserati.
To find the change in size of any quantity, you subtract the initial size of the quantity
from the final size. Obviously, with vector quantities you must do a vector
subtraction not just an arithmetic one, since vectors possess both size and
direction.
Change in velocity = final velocity initial velocity
This should really be written as:
Change in velocity = final velocity + ( initial velocity)
since that is how we draw the vector diagram. We literally add the negative of the
initial velocity to the final velocity. Study the vector diagram below to ensure you
understand the process of vector subtraction.

Using Pythagoras Theorem and basic trigonometry as shown in Example 1 above,
we find that the change in velocity of the Maserati is 28.3 ms
-1
at an angle of 45
o

West of North.
Note that even though the car has the same initial and final speeds, because
the direction of the car has changed, so too has its velocity.

VECTOR COMPONENTS:
Sometimes we are only interested in part of a vector rather than all of it. For
instance, if we push a car that has run out of petrol, we apply a force to the car.
However, if we are not careful some of the force we apply pushes down vertically on
the car and the rest of it pushes horizontally on the car. Obviously, we are trying to
maximise the component of the force that is applied horizontally. The angle at which
we apply force to the car will determine how much of our force is applied horizontally.
Any vector may be broken into two component vectors at right angles to each
other. These components are called the rectangular components of the vector.
The rectangular components of a vector add up to the original vector.
Consider, the example we used above. We may push on the car with a force F at an
angle of u to the horizontal, as shown below.

The force F may be broken into its vertical and horizontal components as shown below.

The magnitude of each component can then be calculated using simple trigonometry.
The size of the vertical component of F is Fsinu. The size of the horizontal
component of F, the one that must overcome the force of friction if we are to move the
car forward, is Fcosu.
EXAMPLE 5: A block of mass 20 kg is being pulled up an inclined plane by a rope
inclined at 30
o
to the planes surface as shown in the diagram below.

The plane is inclined at 45
o
to the horizontal. The friction force, F, opposing the blocks
motion is 10 N. Determine the tension, T, in the rope if the net acceleration, a, of the
block up the plane is 4 ms
-2
.
You will observe that we have resolved two vectors in the diagram into rectangular
components the tension, T, in the rope and the weight, W, of the block. The
rectangular components we have chosen are those acting parallel to and perpendicular
to the inclined plane. These components are the most useful ones in a situation like this.
Now the total force acting down the plane is the sum of the friction force, F, and the
component of the weight force of the block acting down the plane (W sinu). So, from
the diagram we have:
F
D
= F + mg sinu (since W = mg)
F
D
= 10 + 20 x 9.8 x sin 45
o

F
D
= 148.59 N
Total force acting up the plane must be:
F
U
= ma + F
D

F
U
= (20 x 4) + 148.59
F
U
= 228.59 N
Note that the logic we have used to obtain an expression for F
U
is as follows. The force
up the plane MUST be sufficient to overcome the 148.59 N force down the plane and to
provide the required force of 80 N to give the block the correct acceleration up the plane.
Now we are in a position to calculate the tension in the rope. The total force up
the plane F
U
is actually the component of the tension force parallel to the plane. This is
the part of the tension force that is applied parallel to the plane.
Therefore, we have:
cos 30
o
= F
U
/ T
T = F
U
/cos 30
o

T = 228.59 / cos 30
o

T = 263.95 N
So, the tension in the rope works out to be 264 N.
Tensions In Strings (Extension Topic)
Consider a mass, m, supported by a thin, inextensible string of negligible mass. The
two forces acting on the mass are T, the tension in the string acting upwards and
mg, the weight force acting downwards on the mass.
The vector equation describing the net force acting on the mass is best studied in
three separate cases.
Case 1: The mass is supported by the string and there is no acceleration. The mass
could be at rest or could be moving up or down at constant velocity. In each case the
net force equation is the same. The tension upwards is exactly balancing the weight
force downwards.

Case 2: The mass is accelerating downwards with net acceleration, a. The tension
upwards in the string is not sufficient to fully balance the weight force downwards.

Clearly, with the mass accelerating downwards, the tension, T = m ( g a ).
Case 3: The mass is accelerating upwards with net acceleration, a. Here, the
tension upwards in the string is doing two jobs. It is fully balancing the weight force
downwards and supplying the required force upwards to accelerate the mass with
the net acceleration of a.

Clearly, with the mass accelerating upwards, the tension, T = m ( g + a ).
Many problems in Physics can be solved by applying the knowledge
summarized above. Consider the following two examples.
EXAMPLE 1: Two masses X of 10kg and Y of 24kg are connected by a light
inextensible string.

X and Y hang on opposite sides of a frictionless pulley as shown above. Determine:
(a) the net acceleration of the system of masses
(b) the magnitude of the tension, T, in the string.
Assume that the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 ms
-2
.
SOLUTION: There are two slightly different approaches possible.
Solution 1: The Intuitive Approach
Firstly, determine the net force on the system, the total mass of the system
and then obtain the net acceleration from F = ma. Once the net acceleration of
the system is known the tension in the string can be found by realising that
the tension upwards on the left side of the pulley must balance the weight
force down on the mass & supply sufficient force to accelerate the mass
upwards with the net acceleration of the system.
(a) Force of gravity on 10kg mass = 10 x 9.8 = 98N down on left
side of pulley.
Force of gravity on 24kg mass = 24 x 9.8 = 235.2N down on
right side of pulley.
Thus, the net force, F, applied to the system of two masses by
gravity:
F = 235.2 98 = 137.2 N down on right side of pulley.
Total mass of system upon which this net force acts = 10 + 24 =
34kg.
Therefore from F = ma, the net acceleration of the system of two
masses is:
a = F / m = 137.2 / 34 = 4.035 ms
-2
.
Note that as you get used to using this method, it really only takes a couple of
lines of working at the most.
(b) Once the acceleration is known the tension can be calculated from either mass.
Lets use the 10kg mass first. Clearly, the tension in the string on this side of the
pulley must be sufficient to balance the acceleration due to gravity down on the 10kg
mass and to accelerate the 10kg mass upwards at 4.035 ms
-2
. Therefore,
Tension, T = (10 x 9.8) + (10 x 4.035) = 138.35 N upwards.
OR if we decided to use the 24kg mass instead - the tension in the string on the right
side of the pulley must be sufficient to balance the acceleration due to gravity down
on the 24kg mass less the 4.035 ms
-2
that the mass is being permitted to accelerate
downwards already. Therefore,
Tension, T = (24 x 9.8) (24 x 4.035) = 138.36 N upwards.
This is the same (to one decimal place) as the answer we obtained using the other
mass. This must be the case. It does not matter which mass you use to calculate the
tension, you must get the same answer in both cases because there is only one
string and can therefore be only one tension.
The tension in the string is therefore 138.4 N to one decimal place. Any
discrepancy in the above answers after the first decimal place is simply due to
rounding off the (137.2 / 34) calculation for the net acceleration in the first place.
Solution 2: The Mathematical Approach
(a) First we write down the two vector equations of motion for the masses.
For mass X: T m
x
g = m
x
a - (1)
For mass Y: m
y
g T = m
y
a - (2)
Now, we solve these equations simultaneously. So, adding equation 1 and 2
together we have:
a = (m
y
g m
x
g) / (m
x
+ m
y
) = (24 x 9.8 10 x 9.8) / (10 + 24)
= 4.035 ms
-2

(b) Then from either equation 1 or 2, we can calculate the value of T.
From equation 1: T = (10 x 9.8) + (10 x 4.035) = 138.35 N
This second solution is probably the more mathematically pleasing to the eye.
For my liking though, the previous solution is the more physically intuitive
method. Both solutions are equally acceptable and in the end its really only
the setting out that differs. Suit yourself as to which one you use. You will find
the more mathematical approach is safer as the problems become more
complex.
EXAMPLE 2: Three masses of 2kg, 4kg and 6kg are connected by three light
inextensible strings, X, Y and Z as shown below. The masses are supported from the
roof of a lift of mass 1000kg. The lift is accelerating downwards with a net
acceleration of 3 ms
-2
.

SOLUTION:
Note that since the lift is accelerating downwards at 3 ms
-2
, we can write for any
string supporting a mass inside the lift or indeed for the supporting cable itself that:
T = m (g a), see Case 2 in the notes above.
(a) Tension in X = 12 x (9.8 3) = 81.6 N upwards

(b) Tension in Y = 10 x (9.8 3) = 68 N upwards
(c) Tension in Z = 6 x (9.8 3) = 40.8 N upwards
(d) Tension in the supporting cable = 1012 x (9.8 3) = 6881.6 N
Circular Motion
An object moving in a circular path at constant speed is said to be executing
uniform circular motion. Obviously, although the speed is constant, the velocity is
not, since the direction of the motion is always changing. It can be shown that for an
object executing uniform circular motion (UCM), the acceleration keeping the object in
its circular path is given by:
a
c
= v
2
/r
where a
c
is called the centripetal ("centre-seeking") acceleration, v = speed of the object
and r = radius of the circular path. As the name implies, centripetal acceleration is directed
towards the centre of the circle.
Using the fact that force can be written as F = ma, the centripetal force, F
c
, acting on
an object undergoing UCM is given by:

where m = mass of the object. This force is also directed towards the centre of the
circle.
Example: A car of mass 900 kg moves at a constant speed of 25 m/s around a
circular curve of radius 50 m. Calculate the centripetal force acting on the car.
(11250 N, towards the centre of the circle)
WORK
A force applied to an object is often capable of moving that object through a certain
distance. Whenever this happens we say that work has been done on that object.

Work is a scalar quantity defined mathematically as:

where W = work done on object, F = force acting on object along the line of motion and
s = net displacement of object caused by the force along the line of motion.
The SI unit of work is the joule (J). 1J = 1 Nm
EXAMPLE: Calculate the work done when an object is moved through a
displacement of 20m north by a force of 10N north.
ANSWER: W = F.s and so W = 10 x 20 = 200J (Note that there
is no direction, since work is a scalar quantity.)
ENERGY
Energy and work are closely related quantities. An object can do work only if it has energy.
Energy, then, is the property of a system that is a measure of its capacity for doing
work. The amount of energy an object has is equal to the amount of work it can do.
Like work, energy is a scalar quantity with an SI Unit of the joule (J).
Energy has several forms: electric energy, chemical energy, heat energy, nuclear
energy, radiant energy (ie EM radiation such as light), mechanical energy (eg kinetic
energy) and sound energy (ie the kinetic energy of the vibration of the air). In a closed
system (ie one in which no mass enters or leaves), energy can neither be
created nor destroyed, although it may be transformed from one form into
another. This is called the Law of Conservation of Energy.
KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the name given to the energy associated with a moving body. It can
be shown that the amount of kinetic energy possessed by a body is given by:

where m = mass of the body and v = velocity the body.
Moving vehicles have kinetic energy. Consider a small car of mass 920 kg moving at a
constant speed of 60 km/h (16.67 m/s). The kinetic energy of the car can be calculated
as:

E
k
= 0.5 x 920 x 16.67
2

E
k
= 1.28 x 10
5
J
To change the velocity of a moving body, or to set a body at rest into motion, a
net force must be applied to it and work must be done on it. The work done on
the body is equivalent to the change in kinetic energy of the body.
POTENTIAL ENERGY
Stored energy is called potential energy, since it has the potential to do work for us.
Examples of potential energy include: the energy stored in a stretched (or compressed)
spring; the chemical energy stored in a car battery; the energy stored in the water in a
damn above a hydroelectric power station; and the energy stored in the chemical bonds
holding compounds together.
ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS
Energy transformations (changes) are an important aspect in understanding motion. In a
car battery, chemical potential energy is transformed into electrical energy. In an
internal combustion engine (such as a car engine) the chemical potential energy stored
in petrol is transformed among other things into mechanical energy in the form of kinetic
energy of motion.
When cars collide, various energy transformations take place. Some of the kinetic energy
(KE) of the cars is transformed into sound we hear the collision. Some KE is changed
into radiant energy (light energy) we see sparks fly as the wreckage scrapes along the
ground. Some of the KE is transformed into heat the friction produced by metal
scraping on metal and tyres gripping the road under heavy braking produces heat. Some
KE is transformed into potential energy of deformation the car bodies are compressed,
compacted and twisted during the collision and some of the KE is stored in the deformed
wreckage. In a worst-case scenario, where an explosion takes place, chemical energy
stored in the fuel is converted into kinetic energy (and sound, heat, light) as parts of the
wreckage are flung far and wide.
MOMENTUM:
Everyday experience tells us that both the mass and velocity of an object are important
in determining things like (i) how hard it is to stop the object or (ii) the effect the object
has in a collision with another object. An 85 kg man running at 5 m/s is a lot harder to
stop than a 15 kg six year old child running at the same speed. A 50 gram bullet fired
from a rifle with a muzzle velocity of 500 m/s will do a lot more damage than an
identical bullet thrown at the target by hand.
Isaac Newton spoke of the quantity of motion of an object. Today we define the
momentum of an object to be the product of mass (m) and velocity (v).

Momentum is a vector quantity with SI Units of kgms
-1
(or Ns, since 1N = 1kgms
-2
).
Newtons 2
nd
Law can be re-written as:



where Ap = the change in momentum of the object and At = the time taken for the
change in momentum to occur.
This quantity Ap (the change in momentum) is given the name impulse.
Clearly, from the above equation, impulse, I, is defined as the product of force
and time and has SI Units of Ns. Impulse is a vector quantity.

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
According to Newtons 1
st
and 2
nd
Laws of motion, there is no change in momentum
without the action of a net external force. Thus, if no net external force acts on a
particular system, the total momentum of the system must be constant. This is
known as the principle of the conservation of linear momentum.
A system on which the net external force is zero is given a special name. Such a system
is called an isolated system. So, another way to express the principle of the
conservation of linear momentum is to say that within an isolated system the
total momentum is a constant. This principle is applicable to many important physical
situations.
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM DURING COLLISIONS
One important physical situation to which the principle of the conservation of linear
momentum is applicable is the case of collisions between bodies. In such cases, if we
assume that no external net force acts during the collision, we can say that the total
momentum of the system before collision equals the total momentum of the
system after collision. This proves to be an extremely useful starting point for
analysing many collision situations.
To see that momentum is conserved during collisions we can use Newtons 3
rd

Law. Consider a collision between two particles, A and B, as shown below.

During the brief collision these particles exert large forces on one another. At any instant
F
AB
is the force exerted on A by B and F
BA
is the force exerted on B by A. By
Newtons 3
rd
Law these forces at any instant are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction.
The change in momentum of A resulting from the collision is:

in which the bar above the F
AB
indicates that we are taking the average value of F
AB

during the time interval of the collision, At.
The change in momentum of B resulting from the collision is:

in which the bar above the F
BA
indicates that we are taking the average value of F
BA

during the time interval of the collision, At.
Note that it is necessary to take the average value of the collision forces since the
magnitudes of both forces will vary over the duration of the collision.
If no other forces act on the particles, then Ap
A
and Ap
B
give the total change
in momentum for each particle. But we have seen that at each instant:
F
AB
= - F
BA

So that:

And therefore that : Ap
A
= - Ap
B
.
If we consider the two particles as an isolated system, the total momentum of the
system is:
P = p
A
+ p
B

And the total change in momentum of the system as a result of the collision is zero, that
is:
AP = Ap
A
+ Ap
B
= 0.
Thus, using Newtons 3
rd
Law and our knowledge of impulse we have shown that if
there are no external forces, the total momentum of the system is not changed
by the collision. Therefore, as we said before, if we assume that no external net force
acts during the collision, we can say that the total momentum of the system before
collision equals the total momentum of the system after collision.
How accurate is it though to assume that no external net force acts on a system during a
collision? When a golf club strikes a golf ball surely there are external forces that act on
the system of club + ball? Indeed there are: gravity and friction are two obvious forces
that act on both club and ball. So how can we simply ignore these forces?
The answer is that it is safe to neglect these external forces during the collision
and to assume that momentum is conserved provided, as is almost always the
case, that the external forces are negligible compared to the impulsive forces of
collision. If the external forces are negligible compared to the impulsive forces, then the
change in momentum of a particle during a collision arising from an external force is
negligible compared to the change in momentum of that particle arising from the
impulsive force of collision.
In the case of the golf club striking the golf ball, the collision lasts only a tiny fraction of
a second. Since the observed change in momentum is large and the time of collision is
small, it follows from the impulse equation:
Ap = F At
that the average impulsive force F is relatively large. Compared to this force, the
external forces of gravity and friction are negligible. During the collision we can safely
ignore these external forces in determining the change in motion of the ball; the shorter
the collision time, the more accurate this assumption becomes.
In practice, we can apply the principle of momentum conservation during
collisions if the time of collision is small enough.
INERTIA
As we have seen, Newtons 1
st
Law states that an object in uniform motion will remain in
uniform motion and an object at rest will remain at rest, unless acted upon by an
external, net force. This ability of a body to resist changes in its state of motion is
called the inertia of the body. The inertia of a car, for instance, is its tendency to
remain in uniform motion or remain at rest. The fact that bodies possess inertia has
important consequences when dealing with moving vehicles.
A moving vehicle is a complex body. It consists of the vehicle body itself, the driver (and
passengers) and other objects carried in the car. If the driver or passengers or other
objects are not restrained, they will continue to move at whatever speed the car is
travelling, even after the application of the brakes.