GEOMETRIC OPTICS

Is the study of light and images using geometric principles .

Geometric optics uses linear rays to represents the paths traveled y light .
PI!"O#E IM$GI!G
Ma%e a pinhole near the center of a large sheet of aluminum foil& light a candle & and
e'tinguish all other illumination in the room . hold a sheet of plain (hite or & etter
&(a'ed paper aout ) ft from the candle & and place the pinhole mid(ay et(een the
paper and the candle . oserve an inverted image of the candle flame on the paper .
Moving the pinhole closer to the candle (hile %eeping the paper stationary yields a larger
image.
$n o*ect may e regarded as a collection of points .
Geometric optics treats every point of an o*ect as a point source of light .
$n o*ect has an infinite numer of point sources & and each source point is
infinitesimally small.
#ight radiates in all directions from each point on an o*ect .
Stars ehave as point sources . the point source is mainly a conceptual tool + it is usually
easier to understand an optical system y concentrating on the light radiating from a
single o*ect point or a fe( points .
,or every o*ect point & there is a specific image point . in optics the term - con*ugate .
refers to these corresponding o*ect and image points .
$ ray is a geometric construct indicating the path of light as it travels from an o*ect
point to the corresponding image point . rays represent only a path .they do not indicate
The amount - intensity . or (avelength of light traveling along the path .
/sually light travels from left to right .
Pencil of light is a small collection - undle . of light rays traveling in the same
direction .pinhole images are usually too faint to e useful .
$ solar eclipse can e safely oserved (ith a pinhole.
Several pinholes yield several images .
The pinhole restricts the rightness not the si0e of the image .
Clinical e'amples for con*ugate points are +
12 retinoscopy
)2 direct ophthalmoscopy .
IM$GI!G 3IT" #E!SES $!4 MIRRORS
Repeat the pinhole imaging demonstration & ut replace the pinhole (ith a 56 4
sphere trial lens & and note the improvement in the image . vary the distances among
the candle &lens and paper & and oserve the variety of different image characteristics
that can e otained .
4eferent lenses provide an even roader range of images .
777
Compared (ith the pinhole & the lens allo(s much more light from each o*ect point
to traverse the lens and ultimately contriute to the image .
Generally lenses produce etter images than do pinholes .
3hat are the disadvantages of lenses 888
2 image only in one location .
mirrors produce images in much the same (ay as lenses .
7777
Most optical systems are rotationally symmetric aout their long a'is . this a'is of
symmetry is the optical a'is . although the human eye is not truly rotationally
symmetric & it is nearly symmetric .
O9:ECT C"$R$CTERISTICS
9y location (ith respect to the imaging system
9y luminosity - if they produce their o(n light .
If not they only can e imaged if they are reflective and illuminated .
IM$GE C"$R$CTERISTICS

2 magnification
2 location
2 ;uality
2 rightness .
M$G!I,IC$TIO!
Three types are considered in geometrical optics +
2 transverse
2 angular
2 a'ial
the ratio of the height of an image to the height of the corresponding o*ect is %no(n as
transverse magnification .
transverse magnification < image height = o*ect height
o*ect and image heights are measured perpendicular to the optical a'is and & y
convention & are considered positive (hen the o*ect or image e'tends aove the
optical a'is and negative & elo( the a'is .
for e'ample + if the o*ect height is 5 6cm & and the image height is 2>cm & thus the
transverse magnification is ? @.A & meaning that the image is inverted and half as large
as the o*ect .
transverse magnification applies to linear dimensions . for e'ample & a Bcm' 6cm
o*ect imaged (ith a magnification of ) produces an Ccm' 1)cm image . oth (idth
and length doule & yielding a fourfold increase in image area .
generally & the multiplication sign &D& is used to indicate magnification .
most optical systems have a pair of nodal points.
Occasionally the nodal points overlap & appearing as a single point & ut technically
they remain a pair of overlapping nodal points .
The nodal points are al(ays on the optical a'is and have an important property .
,rom any o*ect point & a uni;ue ray passes through the anterior nodal point . this ray
emerges from the optical system along the line connecting the posterior nodal point to
the con*ugate image point .
These rays form ) angles (ith the optical a'is .
The essential property of the nodal points is that these ) angles are e;ual for any
selected o*ect point . ecause of this feature & nodal points are useful for estalishing
a relationship among transverse magnification & o*ect distance& and image distance .
Regardless of the location of an o*ect & the o*ect and the image sutend e;ual angles
(ith respect to their nodal points.
Transverse magnification< image height < image distance
O*ect height o*ect distance
$s practical matter & o*ect and image distances must oey a sign convention
consistent (ith the estalished convention for transverse magnification .
O*ect distance is measured from the o*ect to the anterior nodal point & and image
distance is measured from the posterior nodal point to the image .
,or a simple thin lens immersed in a uniform medium such as air & the nodal points
overlap in the center of the lens .
$!G/#$R M$G!I,IC$TIO!
Is the ratio of the angular height sutended y an o*ect seen y the eye through a
magnifying lens & to the angular height sutended y the same o*ect vie(ed (ithout
the magnifying lens .
9y convention & the standard vie(ing distance for this comparison is )Acm .
,or small angles & the angular magnification provided y a simple magnifier -P. is
independent of the actual o*ect si0e +
M< -1=B.P or M< P=B
$DI$# M$G!I,IC$TIO!
$lso %no(n as longitudinal magnification & is measured along the optical a'is .
,or small distances around the image plane& a'ial magnification is the s;uare of the
transverse magnification .
$'ial magnification < - transverse magnification .)
IM$GE #OC$TIO!
Refractive errors result (hen images formed y the eyeEs optical system are in front
of or ehind the retina .
Image location is specified as the distance - measured along the optical a'is . et(een
a reference point associated (ith the optical system and the image .
The reference point depends on the situation . it is often convenient to use the ac%
surface of a lens as reference point . the ac% lens surface is usually at the same
location as the posterior nodal point & ut it is easier to locate .
,re;uently & image distance is measured from the posterior principal point to the
image .
The principal points li%e the nodal points & area pair of useful reference points on the
optical a'is . the nodal points and principal points often overlap .
3hatever reference point is used to measure image distance & the sign convention is
al(ays the same .
3hen the image is to the right of the reference point & image distance is positive F
(hen the image is to the left of the reference point & the distance is negative .
4EPT" O, ,OC/S
Perform the asic imaging demonstration (ith a lens as descried efore - imaging
(ith lenses and mirrors . & and notice that if the paper is moved for(ard or ac%(ard
(ithin a range of a fe( millimeters & the image remains relatively focused . (ith the
paper positioned outside this region & the image appears lurred .
The si0e of this region represents the depth of focus & (hich may e small or large
depending on several factors .
In the past & depth of focus (as of concern only in the management of presyopia .
ho(ever & it is an important concept in refractive surgery as (ell .
4epth of focus applies to the image . depth of field is the same idea applied to
o*ects .
If a camera or other optical system is focused on an o*ect & neary o*ects are also in
focus .
O*ects (ithin the range of depth of field (ill e in focus & (hereas o*ects outside
the depth of field (ill e out of focus .
IM$GE G/$#ITH
Careful e'amination reveals that some details in an o*ect are not reproduced in the
image .
Images are imperfect facsimiles & not e'act scaled duplicates of the original o*ect .
Consider an o*ect A@ cm in front of a pinhole 1mm in diameter . paper is placed A@
cm ehind the pinhole & so the magnification is 21 .
$ small pencil of rays from each o*ect point traverses the pinhole aperture .
Each o*ect point produces a )2mm diameter spot in the image . these spots are called
lur circles . this term is some(hat misleading ecause off2a'is o*ect points
technically produce elliptical spots in the image .
In addition& this analysis ignores diffraction effects that ma%e the spot larger and more
irregular .
Regardless & each o*ect point is represented y a lur circle in the image & and the
farther the image is from a pinhole & the larger the lur circle in the image .
To the e'tent that these lur circles overlap & the image detail is reduced - lurred ..
To some e'tent & the loss of detail is mitigated (ith the use of a smaller pinhole .
$ smaller pinhole gives a dimmer & ut more detailed & image . ho(ever the smaller
the pinhole & the more that diffraction reduces image ;uality .
3hile a smaller lur circle preserves more detail& the only (ay to avoid any loss of
detail is to produce a perfect point image of each o*ect point .
Theoretically & if a perfect point image could e produced for every point of an
o*ect & the image (ould e an e'act duplicate of the o*ect .
$ perfect point image of an o*ect point is called a - stigmatic image . .
I stigmatic I is derived from the Gree% (ord stigma & (hich refers to a sharply
pointed stylus .
#oss of detail occurs in lens and mirror imaging as (ell & ecause light from an o*ect
point is distriuted over a region of the image rather than eing confined to a perfect
image point .
Generally & lenses focus light from a single o*ect point to a spot 1@21@@micrometer
across .
This is etter than a typical pinhole & ut the shape of the spot is very irregular .
The term - lur circle . is especially misleading (hen applied to lenses and mirrors .
$ etter term is - point spread function . & (hich descries the (ay light from a single
o*ect point is spread out in the image .
To summari0e & a stigmatic image is a perfect point image of an o*ect point .
"o(ever & in most cases & images are not stigmatic . instead & light from a single
o*ect point is distriuted over a small region of the image %no(n as a lur circle or &
more generally & a point spread function PS, .
The image formed y an optical system is the spatial summation of the PS, for every
o*ect point .
The amount of detail in an image is related to the si0e of the lur circle or PS, for
each o*ect point .
The smaller the PS, & the etter the resemlance et(een o*ect and image .

#IG"T PROP$G$TIO!
OPTIC$# ME4I$ $!4 RE,R$CTIJE I!4ED
#ight travels through a variety of materials & such as air & glass & plastics & li;uids &
crystals & some iological tissues & the vacuum of space & and even some metals .
$ medium is any material that transmits light .
#ight travels at different speeds at different media . light moves fastest in a vacuum
and slo(er through any material .
The refractive inde' of an optical medium is the ratio of the speed of light in a
vacuum to the speed of light in the medium and is usually denoted in mathematical
e;uation y the lo(ercase letter n .
The speed of light in a vacuum is )KK&LK)&BACm=s. this is appro'imately >@@&@@@
%m=s or 1C6.@@@ miles = s .
In 1KC> the Systeme International defined a meter as the distance light travels in a
vacuum during 1=)KK&LK)&BAC of a second .
Refractive inde' is al(ays greater than or e;ual to 1 .
In computations & it is often easier to (or% (ith the refractive inde' of a material than
directly (ith the speed of light .
n < speed of light in vacuum
speed of light in medium
refractive inde' is ;uite sensitive to a materialEs chemical composition .
a small amount of salt or sugar dissolved in (ater changes its refractive inde' .
ecause refractive inde' is easy to measure accurately & chemists use it to identify
compounds or determine their purity .
glass manufacturers alter the refractive inde' of glass y adding small amount of rare
earth elements .
until recently & clinical las screened for diaetes y measuring the refractive inde'
of urine .
M$TERI$# RE,R$CTIJE I!4ED
$ir 1.@@@
3ater 1.>>>
Cornea 1.>L6
$;ueous and vitreous humor 1.>>6
Spectacle cro(n glass 1.A)>
Polymethylmethacrylate -PMM$. 1.BK)
$crylic 1.B6@
Silicone 1.B>C

Refractive inde' varies (ith temperature and arometric pressure & ut these changes
are usually small enough to e ignored . one e'ception is silicone polymer . the
refractive inde' of polymeri0ed silicone at room temperature -)@M. differs enough
from its inde' at eye temperature ->AM . that manufacturers of silicone intraocular
lenses - IO#s. have to account for the variation .
Refractive inde' also varies (ith (avelength .
The visual system perceives different (avelengths of light as different colors . long
(avelengths appear red & intermediate (avelengths appear yello( or green & and short
(avelengths appear lue .
In a vacuum & all (avelengths travel at the same speed .
In any other medium & short (avelengths usually travel more slo(ly than long
(avelengths . this phenomenon is called dispersion .
In the human eye & chromatic dispersion leads to chromatic aerration .
If yello( (avelength are focused precisely on the retina & lue light (ill e focused in
front of the retina and red light (ill e focused ehind the retina .
Some media & such as ;uart0 & are optically inhomogeneous . that is & the speed of
light through the material depends on the direction of light propagation through the
material .
#$3 O, RECTI#I!E$R PROP$G$TIO!
The la( of rectilinear propagation states that light in a homogenous medium travels
along straight2line paths called rays .
The light ray is the most fundamental construct in geometric optics .
The asic distinction et(een physical optics and geometric optics is that the latter &
eing ased on the la( of rectilinear propagation & ignores diffraction .
,or clinical purposes & diffraction effects are rarely important .
"o(ever & in situations (here diffraction effects are significant & geometric optics
does not fully descrie the image .
OPTIC$# I!TER,$CES
The oundary et(een ) different optical media is called an optical interface .
typically (hen light reaches an optical interface & some light is transmitted through
the interface & some is reflected & and some is asored or converted to heat y the
interface .
The amount of light transmitted & reflected and asored depends on several factors .
3hen light reaches smooth optical interfaces & it undergoes specular reflection and
transmission
$t rough optical interfaces & light undergoes diffuse reflection and transmission .
If a pencil of light is reduced to a single ray & it is reflected and transmitted specularly
y a rough interface .
SPEC/#$R RE,#ECTIO! + #$3 O, RE,#ECTIO!

In specular reflection & the direction of the reflected ray ears a definite relationship to
the direction of the incident ray .
To e'press a precise relationship et(een incident rays and reflected rays & it is
necessary to construct an imaginary line perpendicular to the optical interface at the
point (here the incident ray meets the interface .this imaginary line is a surface
normal .
The surface normal and the incident ray together define an imaginary plane %no(n as
the plane of incidence and reflection .
The angle formed y the incident ray and surface normal is the angle of incidence Ni .
This is not the angle et(een the incident ray and the optical interface .
The reflected ray and the surface normal form the angle of reflection Nr .
The la( of reflection states that the reflected ray lies in the same plane as the incident
ray and the surface normal - i.e. the reflected ray lies in the plane of incidence .and
that Ni < Nr
The amount of light reflected from a surface depends on Ni and the plane of
polari0ation of light .
The reflectivity at normal incidence is simple and depends only on the optical media
ounding the interface .
The reflection coefficient for normal incidence is given y
R< - n)2ni= n)5ni .)
The reflection coefficient is used to calculate the amount of light transmitted at an
optical interface if asorption losses are minimal .
SPEC/#$R TR$!SMISSIO! + #$3 O, RE,R$CTIO!
In specular transmission & the transmitted rayEs direction ears a definite relation to
the incident rayEs direction .
$gain & a surface normal is constructed & and the angle of incidence and the plane of
incidence and transmission are defined *ust as they (ere for reflection .
The angle formed y the transmitted ray and the surface normal is the angle of
refraction & also %no(n as the angle of transmission .
The angle of transmission Nt is preferred in this te't ecause the angle of refraction Nr
might other(ise e confused (ith the angle of reflection Nr .
$t the optical interface & light undergoes an arupt change in speed that & in turn &
usually produces an arupt change in direction .
The la( of refraction & also %no(n as SnellEs la( & in honor of its discoverer & states
that the refracted or transmitted ray lies in the same plane as the incident ray lies in
the same plane as the incident ray and the surface normal and that +
nisinNi < ntsinNt
(here +
ni < refractive inde' of incident medium .
nt < refractive inde' of transmitted medium .
Ni < angle of incidence .
Nt < angle of transmission .
(hen light travels from a medium of lo(er refractive inde' to a medium of higher
refractive inde' & it ends to(ard the normal .
conversely & (hen light travels from higher refractive inde' to a lo(er refractive
inde' & it ends a(ay from the surface normal .
!ORM$# I!CI4E!CE
!ormal incidence occurs (hen alight ray is perpendicular to the optical interface .
In other (ords & the surface normal coincides (ith the ray .
If the interface is a refracting surface & the ray is undeviated . light changes speed as it
crosses the interface ut does not change direction .
If the surface reflects specularly & rays and pencils of light (ill e reflected ac%
along a K@M angle to the surface .
TOT$# I!TER!$# RE,#ECTIO!
Total internal reflection - TIR . occurs (hen light travels from a high inde' medium
to a lo( inde' medium and the angle of incidence e'ceeds a certain critical angle .
/nder these circumstances & the incident ray does not pass through the interface & all
light is reflected ac% into the high inde' medium .
The la( of reflection governs the direction of the reflected ray . the follo(ing figure
sho(s a light ray traveling from a high inde' medium - spectacle cro(n glass . into a
lo( inde' medium - air ..
In this situation & the transmitted ray ends a(ay from the surface normal & and thus
the angle of transmission e'ceeds the angle of incidence .
$s the angle of incidence increases & the angle of transmission increases to a greater
degree .
Eventually & the angle of transmission e;uals K@M . at this point & the ray gra0es along
the optical interface and is no longer transmitted .
The critical angle is the angle of incidence that produces a transmitted ray K@M to the
surface normal .
the critical angle Nc is calculated from SnellEs la( +
nisin Nc < ntsin K@M
the sine of K@M is 1 .
thus +
nisin Nc < nt
rearranging gives
sin Nc < nt = ni
so & the angle of transmission is K@M (hen the angle of incidence is +
Nc < arcsin nt = ni
in the current e'ample & ni < 1 and nt < 1.A)> & so the critical angle is B1.@ M
(hat happens (hen the angle of incidence e'ceeds the critical angle 8
$s figure sho(s & the angle of transmission increases as the angle of incidence
increases &ut the angle of transmission can not e'ceed K@M .
Conse;uently & refraction cannot occur .
Indeed & SnellEs la( has no valid mathematical solution - in real numers . (hen the
critical angle is e'ceeded & instead & the incident ray is 1@@O reflected .
TIR is a rather curious phenomenon . consider light traveling from spectacle cro(n
glass to air . if the angle of incidence is 1@M & the light transmits easily as it crosses the
interface . ho(ever & if the angle of incidence is BAM & the interface ecomes an
impenetrale arrier P the interface is transparent to some rays and opa;ue to others .
Physicists have devoted a great deal attention to this phenomenon .
TIR has a great practical value . in the early 16@@s & it (as difficult to ma%e a good
mirror . the est surfaces could specularly reflect only aout C@O of incident light &
and the rest (as diffusely reflected & (hich made these surfaces nearly useless as
imaging devices .
"o(ever & TIR is *ust that ? total .
3hen TIR occurs & 1@@O of light is reflected .
In the past & often the only (ay to ma%e a practical mirror (as to use internally
reflecting prisms .
Today & TIR is still used in prisms found in inoculars & slit lamps & and operating
microscopes & to give *ust a fe( e'amples .
Clinically & TIR is a nuisance (hen clinicians are trying to e'amine the anterior
chamer angle .
4ISPERSIO!
3ith the e'ception of a vacuum & (hich al(ays has a refractive inde' of 1 & refractive
indices are not fi'ed values .
They vary as a function of (avelength . in general & refractive indices are higher for
short (avelengths and lo(er for long (avelengths .
$s a result & lue light travels more slo(ly than red light in most media & and SnellEs
la( predicts a greater angle of refraction for lue light than for red light .
The $e numer & also %no(n as the J numer & is a measure of a materialEs
dispersion .
!amed for the German physicist Ernest $e - 1CB@2 1K@A . & the $e numer J is
defined as
J < nd ? 1 = nf 2 nc
3here nd & nf and nc are the refractive indices of the ,raunhofer 4&,& and C
spectral lines - ACK.) nm & BC6&1 nm and 6A6.> nm & respectively . .
#o(2 dispersion materials & (hich demonstrate lo( chromatic aerration & have high
values of J .
"igh dispersion materials have lo( values of J .
$e numers for common optical media typically range from )@2L@ .
RE,#ECTIO! $!4 RE,R$CTIO! $T C/RJE4 S/R,$CES
,or the sa%e of simplicity & the la(s of reflection and refraction (ere illustrated at flat
optical interfaces .
"o(ever & most optical elements have curved surfaces .
To apply the la( of reflection or refraction to curved surfaces & the position of the
surface normal must e determined & ecause the angles of incidence & reflection & and
refraction are defined (ith respect to the surface normal .
Once the position of the surface normal is %no(n & the la(s of refraction and
reflection define the relationship et(een the angle of incidence and the angles of
refraction and reflection & respectively .
3hile there is a mathematical procedure for determining the position of the surface
normal in any situation & the details of it are eyond the scope of this te't .
for selected geometric shapes & ho(ever & the position of surface normal is easy to
determine .
in particular & the normal to a spherical surface al(ays intersects the center of the
sphere .
for e'ample & the follo(ing figure sho(s a ray incident on a spherical surface .the
incident ray is ) cm aove and parallel to & the optical a'is .
the surface normal is found (ith the e'tension of a line connecting the center of the
sphere to the point (here the incident ray stri%es the surface . the angle of incidence
and the sine of the angle of incidence are determined y simple trigonometry .
T"E ,ERM$T PRI!CIP#E
The mathematician Pierre de ,ermat elieved that natural processes occur in the most
economical (ay .
The ,ermat principle & as applied to optics & implies that light travels from one point
to another along the path re;uiring the least time .
"istorically & the la(s of reflection and refraction (ere discovered y careful
e'perimental measurements efore ,ermatEs time .
"o(ever & oth the la( of refraction and the la( of reflection can e mathematically
derived from the ,ermat principle (ithout the need for any measurements .
Suppose that the la( of refraction (as un%no(n & and consider light traveling from a
point source in air & across an optical interface & to some point in glass .
/na(are of SnellEs la( & (e might consider various hypothetical paths that light
might follo( as it moves from point $ to point 9 .
Path > is a straight line from $ to 9 and is the shortest total distance et(een the
points .
"o(ever & a large part of path > is inside glass & (here light travels more slo(ly .
Path > is not the fastest route .
Path 1 is the longest route from $ to 9 ut has the shortest distance in glass .
!evertheless & the e'treme length of the overall route ma%es this a fairly slo( path .
Path ) is the est compromise et(een distance in glass and total path length & and
this is the path light (ill actually follo( .
/sing mathematics eyond the scope of this te't & it can e sho(n that the optimal
path is the one predicted y SnellEs la( . thus & SnellEs la( is a conse;uence of the
,ermat principle .
The ,ermat principle is an important conceptual and practical tool . the concept of
optical path length OP# enhances the practical utility of this principle .
OP# is the actual distance light travels in a given medium multiplied y the mediumEs
refractive inde' .
,or instance + if light travels Acm in air - n < 1 . and 1@ cm in spectacle cro(n glass
- n < 1.A)> . & the OP# is Acm D 1 5 1@cmD 1.A)> < )@.) cm .
$ccording to the ,ermat principle & light follo(s the path of minimum OP# .
The follo(ing figure sho(s light from an o*ect point traveling along t(o different
paths to the image point .
$ccording to the ,ermat principle & for oth paths to intersect at the image point & the
time re;uired to travel from o*ect to image point - or alternatively & the OP# . must
e asolutely identical for each path .
If the time re;uired for light to travel along each path is not e'actly identical & the
paths (ill not intersect at the image point .
#ight traveling path 1 from o*ect to image point traverses a relatively thic% part of
the lens .
#ight traveling the longer path ) goes through less glass .
If the lens is properly shaped & the greater distance in air is perfectly compensated for
y the shorter distance in glass .
So the time re;uired to travel from o*ect to image ? and & thus & the OP# ? is
identical for oth paths .
STIGM$TIC IM$GI!G /SI!G $ SI!G#E RE,R$CTI!G S/R,$CE
9y the early 16@@s & the telescope and microscope had een invented . although the
images produced y early devices (ere useful & their ;uality (as not very high
ecause the lenses did not focus stigmatically .
$t the time & lensma%ers (ere not very particular aout the shape of the surfaces that
(ere ground on the lens .
It seemed that any curved surface produced an image & so lens surfaces (ere carefully
polished ut hapha0ardly shaped.
"o(ever as ideas such as stigmatic imaging and SnellEs la( developed & it ecame
clear that the shape of the lens surfaces determined the ;uality of the image .
In the 1L
th
century & lensma%ers egan to carefully shape the lens surface in order to
improve image ;uality .
The follo(ing ;uestion arose + (hat surface produces the est image 8
4escartes applied the ,ermat principle to the simplest situation possile ? a single
refracting surface .
Consider a single o*ect point and a long glass rod .
4escartes reali0ed that if the end of the rod (as configured in a nearly elliptical shape
& a stigmatic image (ould form in the glass .
This shape ecame Qno(n as a Cartesian ellipsoid & or Cartesian conoid .
Some readers may e trouled y the fact that the image forms in glass instead of air &
ut this is not a prolem . after all & in a myopic eye the image forms in the vitreous
cavity and in an emmetropic eye it forms on the retina . once a stigmatic image is
produced & the rod is cut and a second Cartesian ellipsoid placed on the ac% surface .
The final image is also stigmatic .
The Cartesian ellipsoid produces a stigmatic image of only 1 o*ect point . all other
o*ect points image nonstigmatically .
/ntil the 1K6@ & it (as impossile to manufacture a Cartesian ellipsoid . the only
surfaces that could e accurately figured (ere spheres & cylinders & spherocylinders &
and flats . no( aspheric surfaces are relatively easy to manufacture .
4escartes estalished that a single refracting surface could & at est & produce a
stigmatic image of only 1 o*ect point .
9y means of mathematics & it has een demonstrated that an optical system can
produce a stigmatic image of only as many o*ect points as there are I degrees of
freedom I in the optical system .
$ single lens has > degrees of freedom - df . + the front surface & the ac% surface & and
the lens thic%ness .
$ comination of ) lenses has L df + the B surfaces & the lens thic%nesses & and the
distance et(een the lenses .
Optical systems utili0ing multiple lenses improve image ;uality .
,IRST OR4ER OPTICS
,or centuries & the sphere (as the only useful lens surface that could e manufactured.
& ut common e'perience sho(s that such lenses can produce useful images .
Conse;uently & the properties of spherical refracting surfaces have een carefully
studied .
Today & the accepted approach for studying the imaging properties of any lens is the
method called e'act ray tracing .
In this techni;ue & SnellEs la( is used to trace the paths of several rays & all originating
from a single o*ect point .
$ computer carries out the calculations to as high a degree as necessary & usually
et(een 6 and C significant figures .
The follo(ing figure sho(s an e'act ray trace for a single spherical refracting surface.
9ecause the image is not stigmatic & the rays do not converge to a single point .
"o(ever & there is one location (here the rays are confined to the smallest area & and
this is the location of the image .
The distriution of rays at the image location indicates the si0e of the lur circle or
PS, .
,rom the si0e of the lur circle & the image ;uality is determined .
,rom the location of the image & other properties & such as magnification & are
determined .
/ltimately & all image properties may e determined (ith e'act ray tracing .
9eginning in the 16@@s & methods of analy0ing optical systems (ere developed that
either greatly reduced or eliminated the need for calculation.
These methods are ased on appro'imations ? that is & these methods do not give
e'act ans(ers . nevertheless & carefully chosen appro'imations can yield results that
are very close to the e'act ans(er (hile greatly simplifying the mathematics .
The tric% is to choose appro'imations that provide as much simplification as possile
(hile retaining as much accuracy as possile .
In this regard & the mathematician Carl Gauss - 1LLL ? 1CAA . made many
contriutions to the analysis of optical systems .
GaussEs (or% & comined (ith that of others & developed into a system for analy0ing
optical systems that has ecome %no(n as first order optics .
IG!ORI!G IM$GE G/$#ITH
To determine image ;uality & it is necessary to %no( ho( light from a single o*ect
point is distriuted in the image - ie& the PS, ..
To determine the PS, & hundreds of rays must e accurately traced .
In GaussEs day & manufacturing techni;ues rather than optical system design limited
image ;uality .
$ccordingly & there (as little interest in theoretically analy0ing image ;uality .
Interest lay instead in analy0ing other image features & such as magnification and
location .
To determine all image characteristics e'cept image ;uality re;uires tracing only a
fe( rays . if image ;uality is ignored & analysis of optical systems is reduced from
tracing hundreds of rays to tracing *ust ) rays .
In GaussEs time & e'actly tracing even ) rays (as a daunting tas% & especially if the
optical system consisted of several lenses .
P$R$DI$# $PPRODIM$TIO!
To e'actly trace a ray through a refracting surface & (e need to estalish a coordinate
system .
9y convention & the origin of the coordinate system is located at the verte' & the point
(here the optical a'is intersects the surface .
$lso y convention & the y2a'is is vertical & the 02a'is coincides (ith the optical a'is &
and the '2a'is is perpendicular to the page .
$n o*ect point is selected & and a ray is dra(n from the o*ect point to the refracting
surface .
The first difficulty in ma%ing an e'act ray trace is determining the precise
coordinates - y&0 . (here the ray stri%es the refracting surface .
The formula for finding the intersection of a ray (ith a spherical surface re;uires
fairly complicated calculations involving s;uare roots .
Instead of tracing a ray through an optical system & it is easier to deal (ith rays
e'tremely close to the optical a'is & so2called para'ial rays .
The portion of the refracting surface near the optical a'is maye treated as flat .
:ust as the earthEs surface seems flat to human oserver & a refracting surface I seems
I flat to a para'ial ray .
,or a ray to e para'ial & it must hug the optical a'is over its entire course from o*ect
to image .
$ ray from an o*ect point far off a'is is not para'ial even if it stri%es the refracting
surface near the a'is .
Treating a lens as a flat plane instead of a sphere eliminates the calculation necessary
to find the intersection of the ray and the surface .
The intersection of the ray (ith the surface is specified simply as a distance from the
optical a'is .

SM$## $!G#E $PPRODIM$TIO!
To trace a para'ial ray & egin (ith an o*ect point at or near the optical a'is and
e'tend a ray from the o*ect point to the refracting surface & represented y a flat
vertical plane .
The ne't step is to determine the direction of the ray after refraction.
To determine the direction of the refracted ray & apply SnellEs la( . the angle of
incidence is Ni and the angle of transmission Nt & thus +
n sin Ni < nE sin Nt
no( the polynomial e'pansion for the sine function is
sin N < N ? N
>
= >P 5 N
A

= AP ? N
L
R..
(here the angle N is e'pressed in radians . if the angle N is small & the third order
term N
>
= >P and every term after it ecome insignificant & and the sine function is
appro'imated as +
sin N S N
this is the mathematical asis of the - essentially e;uivalent . terms small2angle
appro'imation & para'ial appro'imation & and first order appro'imation .
only the first2order term of the polynomial e'pansion needs to e used (hen the
analysis is limited to para'ial rays& (hich have a small angle of entry into the optical
system .
the angles appear large in the figure ecause of the e'panded vertical scale & ut the
upper part sho(s that in the para'ial region these angles are ;uite small .
/sing the small angle appro'imation & SnellEs la( ecomes
n Ni < n Nt
no( using geometry and the figure & the angle of incidence Ni is
Ni < T 5 U
and the angle of transmission Nt is
Nt < U ? V
thus &SnellEs la( ecomes
n -T 5 U . < nE -U ? V .
or
n T 5 nE V < U - n ? nE .
no( & the small ? angle appro'imation also (or%s for tangents +
tan T S T & tan V S V & tan U S U
and
tan T < 2 h=o
the negative sign is used ecause the o*ect distance - o . & (hich e'tends ac%(ard
from the lens to the o*ect point & is considered a negative distance .
tan V < 2 h= i tan U < h= r
thus &
2 nh=o 5 nEh=i < h- nE ? n . = r
Canceling the common factor h gives
2 n=o 5 nE=i < nE ? n =r
rearranging yields
n=o 5 nE ? n = r < nE = i
finally & (e define the refractive po(er of the surface & P < W - nE ? n . = rX . thus &
n=o 5 P < nE = i
or
/ 5 P < J
This is called the lens ma%erEs e;uation .
The ratio n=o is the reduced o*ect vergence and the ratio nE = i is the reduced image
vergence .
Jergence is discussed else(here .
T"E #E!SM$QERES EG/$TIO!
The lensma%erEs e;uation - #ME . is one of the most important e;uations in
ophthalmology . unfortunately & it is also one of the most misused e;uations in all of
ophthalmology .
,undamentally & the #ME says ) things . first & the location of the image depends on the
location of the o*ect .
Consider a specific e'ample (herein the refractive inde' of a glass rod is 1.A and the
radius of curvature is @.1 m .
Suppose an o*ect in air (ith n < 1 & the #ME ecomes +
n=o 5 - nE ? n . =r < nE=i
so +
1 =o 5 - 1.A ? 1 . = @.1m < 1.A = i
Or + 1=o 5 @.A = @.1m < 1.A = i
1=o 5 A m
21
< 1.A = i
!ote the units of reciprocal & or inverse meters . suppose the o*ect is 1 m in front of the
lens . o*ect distances are negative & so +
1 = 21 m 5 A m
21
< 1.A = i
21 m
21
5 A m
21
< B m
21
< 1.A= i
i < 1.A = B m
21
< @.>LA m
thus the image is >L.A cm ehind the refracting surface .
if the o*ect moves closer to the lens ? say to A@ cm ? similar calculations yield an image
distance of @.A m & or A@ cm .
thus & as the o*ect moves closer to the lens & the image moves farther a (ay . the o*ect
and image al(ays move in the same direction - in this case to the right . ut not
necessarily y the same distance .
Second & the #ME estalishes a relationship et(een the shape of the refracting surface
and its optical function .
The radius of the spherical refracting surface affects the image characteristics .
The refractive po(er - or simply po(er . of a spherical refracting surface is +
P < nE ? n = r
To demonstrate the significance of po(er & consider ) spherical refractive
surfaces & oth constructed from glass rods - n < 1.A . .
Suppose that 1 refracting surface has a radius of 1@cm & as in the previous e'ample & and
the other has a radius of )@cm .
If an o*ect is 1 m in front of each surface & (here is the image 88
$s sho(n in the previous e'ample & the first surface has a po(er of A.@ 4 and produces
an image >L.Acm ehind the surface .
The second surface has a po(er of ).A 4 and forms an image 1m ehind the refracting
surface .
!otice that the second surface has half the po(er & ut the image is more than t(ice as far
ehind the refracting surface .
Refractive po(er & strictly spea%ing & applies to spherical surfaces & ut the cornea is not
spherical .
In general & every point on aspheric surface is associated (ith infinitely many curvatures .
there is no such thing as a single radius of curvature .
The sphere is a very special case + a single radius of curvature characteri0es the entire
sphere .
$ single radius of curvature can characteri0e no other shape & and refractive po(er should
not e applied to a non spherical surface .
In addition & po(er is a para'ial concept F thus & it applies only to a small area near the
optical a'is .
Po(er is not applicale to nonpara'ial regions of the cornea .
In the para'ial region & imaging is stigmatic - ie& para'ial rays focus to a common point ..
Even for spherical surfaces & outside the para'ial region rays do not focus to a single
point .
That is & a(ay from the para'ial region & rays do not focus as predicted (hen the #ME is
used .
OP"T"$#MIC #E!SES
In this section & (e uild upon the asic principles of first2order optics to sho( ho( oth
simple lenses and comple' optical systems are modeled . (e also demonstrate ho(
imaging prolems are solved .
3e egin y considering the concept of vergence . light rays emanating from a
single o*ect point spread a part and are referred to as divergent . light rays traveling
to(ard an image point & after passing through an optical lens & come together and are
referred to as convergent .
If rays are diverging & the vergence is negative F if rays are converging & the
vergence is positive .
Consider a lens placed close to an o*ect point
The lens collects a large fraction of the light radiating from the o*ect point .
3hen the lens is moved a(ay from the o*ect point & it collects a smaller portion of light
radiated y the o*ect point .
The rays that reach the lens are less divergent than they (ere (hen the lens (as
closer to the o*ect .
Close to the o*ect point & the light is more divergent F farther from the o*ect
point & the light is less divergent .
Similarly & close to an image point & light is more convergent F farther from the image
point & light is less convergent .
Jergence is inversely proportional to the distance from the o*ect or image point
. vergence is the reciprocal of the distance .
The distances used most often in ophthalmology are Bm & )m &1m& @.Am &
@.>>m & @.)Am & and @.)m .
The reciprocals of these distances are respectively + @.)A m
21
& @.Am
21
&1m
21
&
)m
21
& >m
21
& Bm
21
& and Am
21
.
,or convenience & the reciprocal meters - m
21
. is given another name & the
diopter -4. .
$s light travels a(ay from an o*ect point or to(ard an image point & its
vergence constantly changes .
To calculate the vergence of light at any point & one must %no( the location of
the o*ect or image point .
Conversely & if one %no(s the vergence at a selected point & the position of the
o*ect or image point can e determined .
Reduced vergence is vergence multiplied y the refractive inde' of the medium.
This term is confusing ecause reduced vergence is numerically larger than vergence .
,or e'ample & 1m in front of an o*ect point & light traveling in glass - n< 1.A .
has a vergence of 51 4 ut a reduced vergence of 51.A 4 .
Confusing or not & ho(ever & the term reduced vergence is too (ell entrenched to e
changed .
The #ME can e interpreted in terms of reduced vergence . light from an o*ect
point diverges & ut the degree of divergence decreases as the light moves farther from the
o*ect point .
Eventually & the light encounters the refracting surface & and *ust as it reaches the
surface & it has a reduced vergence of n=o .
The refracting surface suddenly changes the lightEs vergence y an amount
e;ual to its po(er .
$s the light leaves the refracting surface & it has a reduced vergence of
& - n=o . 5 P & ut ecause the light is converging to an image point & this must e;ual nE=i .
Calculations using the #ME are inconvenient ecause they involve reciprocal
distances .
Jergence is a (ay to simplify the calculations .
9y means of reduced vergence & the #ME
n=o 5 P < nE =i
can e (ritten in a very simple form +
/ 5 P < J
3here / is reduced o*ect vergence and J is reduced image vergence .
Consider an o*ect in air A@ cm in front of 5A 4 refracting surface (ith n<1.A .
3here is the image 88 light diverging from the o*ect has a negative vergence . (hen the
light reaches the lens & it has a reduced vergence of 2) 4 . the lens adds 5A 4 & for a final
reduced vergence at the lens of 5> 4 .
The plus sign indicates that the light converges as it leaves the lens .
4ividing the reduced vergence y the inde' of the glass gives a vergence of 5) 4 & so the
image is A@ cm ehind the refracting surface .
The most common mista%e in (or%ing (ith vergence calculations is ignoring
the negative sign for divergent light .
One (ay to avoid this mista%e is to deal (ith the signs first & rather than (ith the
numers .
,or e'ample + to solve the previous prolem & many people (ould egin y
converting distance to diopters ? that is the o*ect is A@cm from the lens & so the vergence
is ) 4 .
$fter this conversion has een performed & it is easy to forget aout the minus
sign . it is etter to deal (ith sign first .
In this prolem & egin y noting that light diverges from the o*ect and has a
negative value F then (rite do(n the negative sign and convert distance to vergence - 2) ..
$l(ays (rite the sign in front of the vergence & even (hen the sign is positive &
as in the preceding e'ample - 5A4 & 5>4 . .
If you encounter difficulties (ith a vergence calculations & chec% the sign first .
the prolem is most li%ely a dropped minus sign .
TR$!SJERSE M$G!I,IC$TIO! ,OR $ SI!G#E SP"ERIC$# RE,R$CTI!G
S/R,$CE
In the #ME & o*ect and image distances are measured from the verte' ? that is &
the point (here the surface intersects the optical a'is .
To calculate transverse magnification using the e;uation given earlier & o*ect
and image distances should e measured from the nodal points .
Rays intersecting the center of curvature stri%e the surface at normal incidence
and travel undeviated through the nodal points .
If o and i are & respectively & the o*ect and image distances for the #ME & and r
is the radius of curvature & then
transverse magnification < i2r = o2r
It might appear that the denominator should e o5r instead of o2r .
"o(ever & o2r is correct ecause the sign convention ma%es o*ect distances negative .
9y algeraic manipulation & this is converted to a very simple e;uation involving reduced
vergence +
Transverse magnification < / = J
Reduced vergence not only simplifies calculations (ith the #ME ut also simplifies
calculation of magnification . use of reduced vergence oviates the need for o*ect or
image distances & nodal points & or radius of curvature .
T"I! #E!S $PPRODIM$TIO!
The #ME deals (ith a single refracting surface & ut &of course & lenses have )
surfaces .
$ccording to the #ME & (hen light from an o*ect stri%e the front surface of a lens & its
- reduced . vergence changes y an amount e;ual to the po(er of the front surface Pf .
The vergence continues to change as the light moves from the front to the ac% surface F
this is %no(n as the vergence change on transfer Pt .
The ac% lens surface changes the vergence y an amount e;ual to the ac%2surface
po(er P & thus &
n=o 5 Pf 5 Pt 5 P < nE= i
the po(er of the front and ac% lens surfaces are easily calculated & ut the
vergence change on transfer is difficult to calculate .
ho(ever & ecause the vergence change on transfer is small in a thin lens & it is
ignored to arrive at the thin2lens appro'imation . the total lens po(er is the sum of the
front2 and ac%2surface po(ers . thus &
n=o 5 P < nE = i
this is the thin lens e;uation .
the T#E and #ME appear to e the same . ho(ever & there is an important difference + in
the #ME & P is the po(er of a single surface F in the T#E & P is the comined po(er of
the front and ac% surfaces .
for e'ample & if a 5 A4 has (ater - n< 1.>> . in front and air in ac% and o*ect
is >>cm in front of the lens & (here is the image 88
light from the o*ect stri%es the lens (ith a reduced vergence of - 21.>>=@.>>m . < 2B 4 .
the changes the vergence y 5A 4 & forming an image 1m ehind the lens .
the transverse magnification is the ratio of reduced o*ect vergence to reduced image
vergence .
in the preceding e'ample & the magnification is 2B & indicating that the image is inverted
and B times as large as the o*ect .
#E!S COM9I!$TIO!S
Most optical systems consist of several lenses . for instance & consider an optical system
consisting of t(o thin lenses in air . the first lens is 5A4 & the second lens is 5C4 & and
they are separated y BAcm . if an o*ect is placed 1m in front of the first lens & (here is
the final image 88 and (hat is the transverse magnification 88
In para'ial optics & the (ay to analy0e a comination of lenses is to loo% at each
lens individually . The T#E sho(s that the first lens produces an image )Acm ehind
itself (ith a magnification of 2@.)A . #ight converges to the image and then diverges
again . the image formed y the first lens ecomes the o*ect for the second lens .
The image is )@cm in front of the second lens F thus & light stri%es the second lens (ith a
vergence of 2A4 and forms an image >>cm ehind the second lens .
The transverse magnification for the second lens alone is - 2A4=>4 . < 21.66 .
The total magnification is the product of the individual magnifications
21.66 ' 2@.)A < @.B) .
It is asolutely essential to calculate the position of the image formed y the first lens .
only after locating the first image it is possile to calculate the vergence of light as it
reaches the second lens .
$ny numer of lenses are analy0ed in this (ay . locate the image formed y the
first lens and use it as the o*ect for the second lens . repeat the process for each
suse;uent lens . the overall transverse magnification is the product of the transverse
magnifications produced y each individual lens .
JIRT/$# IM$GES $!4 O9:ECTS
Many people find the su*ect of virtual images and virtual o*ects to e the most difficult
aspect of geometric optics .
Jirtual images and o*ects can e understood (ith the use of a fe( simple rules .
The tric% is not to I over thin% I the su*ect .
Consider an o*ect 1@ cm in front of a 5A4 thin lens in air .
#ight stri%es the lens (ith a vergence of 21@4 and leaves (ith a vergence of 2A4.
In this case &unli%e in all the previous e'amples & light emerges (ith a negative vergence &
(hich means that light is still diverging after crossing the lens . no real image is
produced.
The reader can easily verify this y repeating the asic imaging demonstration (ith a
5A4 spherical conve' trial lens .
!otice that an image does not appear & no matter (here the paper is held .
!o( & suppose a 564 thin lens is placed Acm ehind the first lens . 3ill an image form88
If so & (hat are its characteristics 8 light has a vergence of 2A4& ut as the light crosses the
Acm to the second lens & its vergence changes - the vergence change on transfer ..
In order to determine the vergence at the second lens & it is necessary to find the location
of the image formed y the first lens . ho(ever & if the first lens does not form an image &
ho( can the vergence at the second lens e calculated 88
The solution is to use a mathematical tric% . #ight leaving the first lens has a vergence of
? A4. the same vergence (ould e produced y an o*ect )@cm a(ay if the first lens (ere
not present .
So & light leaving the first lens appears to e coming from an o*ect )@cm a(ay from the
first lens and )Acm a(ay from the second lens .
The virtual image formed y the first lens is a real o*ect for the second lens .
3hen this imaginary o*ect is used as a reference point & it is easy to see that the vergence
at the second lens is 2B4 .
3hen light leaves the second lens & it has a vergence of 5)4 & forming a real image A@cm
ehind the second lens .
In this e'ample & an imaginary reference point (as used to determine the vergence at the
second lens . in geometric optics& this reference point is commonly called the virtual
image formed y the first lens .
$ virtual image is a mathematical convenience that allo(s all of the formulas developed
so far - #ME & T#E & transverse magnification . to e used even (hen a lens does not
form a real image .
Mathematically & virtual images are used in e'actly the same (ay as real images .
In the previous figures & the first lens forms a virtual image )@cm to the left . the
transverse magnification for the first lens is - 21@=2A . < ) .
Thus & the virtual image is upright and t(ice as large as the original o*ect .
This virtual image no( ecomes the o*ect for the second lens . the vergence at the
second lens is 2B4 & and after traversing the second lens & the vergence is 5)4 .
The image no( formed is real and A@cm to the right of the second lens .
The transverse magnification for the second lens is 2).
The total magnification is therefore )D2) < 2B . the final image is inverted and B times
larger than the original . again this is verified (ith trial lenses .
O*ects may also e virtual . Consider an o*ect A@cm in front of a 5>4 thin lens in air .
$ 5) 4 thin lens in air is placed A@cm ehind the first lens . the first lens forms a real
image 1m to the right . ho(ever efore the light can reach this image & it stri%es a second
lens . the image formed y the first lens is the o*ect for the second lens & ut this o*ect
is on the (rong side of the lens . thus it is called a virtual o*ect .
"ere & unli%e in all the previous e'amples & light is convergent (hen it stri%es the second
lens - vergence < 5) 4 . . the second lens increases the vergence to 5B4 & forming a real
image )Acm ehind the second lens . the transverse magnification for the first lens is 2)
and for the second lens is 5@.A & for a total magnification of 21 .
$ common misconception is that inverted images are real and upright images are virtual .
this is not the case . the correct rule is very simple + for any individual lens & the o*ect is
virtual (hen light stri%ing the lens is convergent & and the o*ect is real (hen light
stri%ing the lens is divergent . (hen the light emerging from the lens is convergent & the
image is real & and (hen light emerging from a lens is divergent & the image is virtual .
,OC$# POI!TS $!4 P#$!ES
The 5A 4 lens in the follo(ing figure has an anterior - primary . focal point ,a that is
- 1=A . < @.)m < )@cm in front of the lens .
9y definition & light emanating from ,a e'its the the lens collimated and comes to a focus
at plus optical infinity .
The same is true of light emanating from any point in the anterior focal plane .
Collimated light entering a lens from minus optical infinity images to the posterior
- secondary . focal point ,p.
Collimated off2a'is rays from minus infinity focus to the posterior focal plane .
,or a thin lens immersed in a uniform optical medium such as air or (ater & ,a and ,p are
e;uidistant from the lens .
,or a conve' - plus po(er . spherical lens & ,a is located anterior to the lens and ,p is
located posterior to the lens .
,or a concave - minus po(er . spherical lens & the points are reversed + ,a is posterior to
the lens F ,p anterior to the lens .
To avoid confusion & some authors prefer the terms , and ,E instead of ,a and ,p .
P$R$DI$# R$H TR$CI!G T"RO/G" CO!JED SP"ERIC$# #E!SES
,rom any o*ect point & > simple rays are dra(n through a thin lens to locate a
corresponding point in the image .
Only ) rays are actually needed . the same rays are used to find corresponding points if a
thic% lens or a multi2element lens system is modeled y first2order optical principles .
The first ) rays traverse ,a and ,p. The final ray & %no(n as the central ray or - chief ray .
& traverses the nodal points .
,or a thin lens immersed in a medium (ith a uniform refractive inde' & the nodal points
overlap at the optical center of the lens .the central ray traverses the nodal point
undeviated F that is & it does not change direction (ith respect to the optical a'is as it
passes through the lens .
It is customary to represent to represent o*ects as arro(s to sho( si0e and orientation .
the tip of an arro( represents a single o*ect point . suppose an o*ect is placed )@cm in
front of a 51@4 lens immersed in air .
$ ray is dra(n from the tip of the o*ect through ,a . this ray emerges from the lens
parallel to the optical a'is and heads off to plus optical infinity .
$ second ray is dra(n that parallels the optical a'is until it enters the lens . it emerges
from the lens and passes through ,p on its (ay to plus infinity . the intersection of these
t(o rays defines the corresponding image point .
!ote that the image in this e'ample is inverted . the location of the image is determined
y vergence calculations .
The vergence of light entering the lens is - 21=@.)m . < 2A4 .
9y the #ME & the vergence of light e'iting the lens is 2A4 5 1@4 < 5A4 .
The image is located - 1=A4. < @.)m < )@cm to the right of the lens .
9ecause the o*ect and the image are e;uidistant from the lens & the transverse
magnification is 21 .
The central ray can also e dra(n through the optical center of the lens to confithe
location of the image .
!o( (hat if the o*ect in the previous e'ample is moved closer so that it is Acm in front
of the lens instead of )@cm in front - inside ,a .& as sho(n in the follo(ing figure 88
The ray that leaves ,a and passes through the o*ect point emerges from the lens parallel
to the optical a'is .
The ray that enters the lens parallel to the optical a'is e'its through ,p .
,inally & the central ray traverses the optical center of the lens undeviated .
On the ac% side of the lens & these three rays are divergent . so (here is the image .88
If you are loo%ing at the ac% side of the lens & you see the image point & you see the
image point as the ac%(ard e'tension of all three rays . - see the follo(ing figure . .
9y the #ME & the vergence of light e'iting the lens is 21@4 . the image is located - 1=21@4
.< 1@cm to the left of the lens .
The image is upright and virtual and y similar triangles & its transverse magnification is
5) .
This is the asis optical asis of a simple & handheld & plus2lens magnifier .
$n o*ect positioned inside the focal point of a plus spherical lens (ill produce a
magnified & upright virtual image .
Try this simple e'periment (ith the lens you use for indirect ophthalmoscopy .
CO!C$JE #E!SES
In the e'amples (e have used thus far & the lenses have een conve' & or positive .
#ight emerges from a conve' lens more convergent ? or at least less divergent ? than it
entered .
9y contrast & a concave or negative lens ma%es light more divergent .
$ negative lens can not produce a real image of a real o*ect . instead & a negative lens is
usually used in comination (ith a positive lens to alter image characteristics .
,or instance & suppose that an o*ect is 1 m in front of a 564 thin lens in air . the image is
)@cm ehind the lens and the magnification is 2@.) .
Suppose it is not convenient to have the image so close to the lens and that it (ould e
etter to have the image A@cm ehind the lens .
,or a 564 lens to produce a real image A@cm ehind itself & the o*ect must e )Acm in
front of the lens .
$s a practical matter & ho(ever & the position of the o*ect usually cannot e changed .
instead & the prolem is solved (ith placement of a negative thin lens et(een the 564
lens and the o*ect so the negative lens produces a virtual image )Acm in front of the 564
lens .
$n another e'ample & a 2A.AA 4 thin lens placed 1@cm in front of the 564 thin lens
- K@cm from the o*ect . produces a virtual image 1Acm in front of the negative lens and
)Acm in front of the 564 lens .
The virtual image ecomes a real o*ect for the 564 lens & (hich forms an image A@cm
ehind itself . the overall magnification is 2@.>> .
Many different negative thin lenses could e used .
Each different negative thin lenses could e used . each different po(er of negative lens
must e placed at a different distance from the 564 lens .
In particular & a 2C.1L 4 lens placed CA.Lcm a(ay from the o*ect also produces a virtual
image )Acm in front of the 564 lens & yielding a final real image in the desired location .
Moreover & the final image has the same 2@.)A magnification as the original image .
So & in this case & it is possile to select a negative lens that changes the final image
location (ithout changing its si0e .
P$R$DI$# R$H TR$CI!G T"RO/G" CO!C$JE SP"ERIC$# #E!SES
The principles of para'ial ray tracing are the same for concave spherical lenses as for
conve' spherical lenses .
Consider a 2) 4 lens . its ,a is - 1=2) 4. < A@cm ehind the lens .
9y definition & a ray of light directed through ,a (ill e'it the lens parallel to the optical
a'is .
Similarly & a virtual o*ect in the anterior focal plane of a concave lens (ill image to plus
infinity .
$ ray of light entering the lens parallel to the optical a'is (ill pass through ,p after
e'iting the lens .
Similarly & a real o*ect at minus optical infinity (ill produce a virtual image in the
posterior focal plane of a concave lens .
!o( letEs consider an o*ect placed 1@@cm in front of the lens . the > usual rays are
dra(n .
$ virtual image is formed >>cm in front of the lens .
9y similar triangles & the transverse magnification is 5@.>> .
!o matter (here a real o*ect is placed in front of a minus lens & the resulting image is
upright & minified and virtual .
O9:ECTS $!4 IM$GES $T I!,I!ITH
If an o*ect is placed A@cm in front of a 5) 4 thin lens in air & (here is the image 88light
emerges from the lens (ith a vergence of @ .
$ vergence of @ means the light rays are neither convergent nor divergent ut parallel& so
the light is collimated .
In this e'ample & light rays emerge parallel to one another & neither converging to a real
image nor diverging from a virtual image .
In this case & the image is said to e at infinity .
O*ects can e located at infinity as (ell . if a second lens is placed any(here ehind the
first one & light stri%ing the second lens has a vergence of @ F the o*ect is at infinity .
$s a practical matter & a sufficiently distant o*ects may e regarded as at infinity .
Clearly & & an o*ect li%e the moon & (hich is B@@ million meters a(ay & has a vergence of
essentially @ .
,or clinical (or% & o*ects more than )@ft - 6m . distant may e regarded as eing at
optical infinity .
$n o*ect )@ft a(ay has a vergence of aout 2@.1L4 F clinically & this is small enough to
e ignored .
3hen a refractive correction is eing determined & fe( patients can notice a change of
less than @.)A 4 .
Some people thin% that o*ects in the anterior focal plane are imaged in the posterior
focal plane . this is not true .
O*ects in the anterior focal plane image at plus infinity F o*ects at minus infinity image
in the posterior focal plane .
PRI!CIP$# P#$!ES $!4 POI!TS
If an o*ectEs position changes in front of a lens & oth the location and magnification of
the image change .
Most optical systems have one particular o*ect location that yields a magnification of 1 .
In other (ords & (hen an o*ect is located in the correct position & the image (ill e
upright and the same si0e as the o*ect .
The principal planes are perpendicular to the optical a'is and identify the o*ect and
image locations that yield a magnification of 1 .
The principal planes are also called the planes of unit magnification and are geometric
representations of (here the ending of light rays occurs .
Consider an optical system consisting of ) thin lenses in air .
The first lens is 564 & the second lens is 51A4 & and the t(o lenses are separated y
>Acm.
$n o*ect located A@cm in front of the first lens is imaged )Acm ehind the first lens (ith
a magnification of 2@.A .
The real image ecomes a real o*ect for the second lens & (hich produces a real image
)@cm ehind the second lens (ith a magnification of 2) .
The anterior principal plane of this system is A@cm in front of the first lens F the posterior
principal plane is )ocm ehind the second lens .
Often & oth the anterior and posterior principal planes are virtual F in some cases & the
posterior principal plane is in front of the anterior principal plane .
The intersection of the anterior and posterior principal planes (ith the optical a'is defines
the corresponding anterior and posterior principal points .
#i%e the nodal points & the principal points are an important pair of reference points .
Collectively & the nodal points& focal points and principal points are called the cardinal
points & ecause these three pairs of points completely descrie the first2order properties
of an optical system .
!otice that ) pairs of cardinal points are con*ugate . the posterior principal point is the
image of the anterior principal point & and the same relationship holds for the nodal
points.
"o(ever & the focal points are not con*ugate .
T(o pairs of cardinal points are associated (ith planes + the focal points and the principal
points .
"o(ever & there is no such thing as a nodal plane associated (ith a nodal point .
MO4E#I!G $! /!Q!O3! OPTIC$# SHSTEM
In the previous e'amples & (e sho(ed ho( vergence calculations could e used to
determine image location and magnification for a single lens or a comination of )
lenses.
"o(ever & most optical systems consist of many lenses . a typical >A2mm camera lens
contains et(een 6 and 1) individual lenses .
Jergence calculations ecome tedious for such systems F it is easier to analy0e image
characteristics graphically .
Thic% lenses and comple' optical systems are modeled using principal planes & nodal
points & and focal points if the optical surfaces are spherical and (e restrict the analysis to
para'ial rays . the location of each point or plane is determined e'perimentally .
Consider an un%no(n optical system that contains any numer of optical elements .
3e (ill treat it as a I lac% o' I . a real o*ect placed in front of the lac% o' (ill
image some (here in space . if the image forms in front of the o' & it is virtual .
If it forms ehind the o' & it is real .
!o( consider a single ray of light that leaves a point on the o*ect & such as the tip of the
arro( in the dra(ing . a laser pointer is used to model the ray e'perimentally .
$t some angle of entry into the o' (ith respect to the optical a'is & the ray (ill e'it the
o' parallel to the optical a'is . the e'tension inside the o' of the entering and e'iting
rays defines the location of the anterior principal plane P .
Similarly & a ray of light entering the lac% o' parallel to the optical a'is (ill e'it the
o' at some angle to the optical a'is.
The intersection of these t(o rays inside the o' defines the location of the posterior
principal plane PE .
The intersection of the principal planes and the optical a'is defines the principal points .
if the indices of refraction of the media on either side of the lac% o' are the same & the
nodal point ! and !E & correspond to the locations of the principal points .
The focal points & ,a and ,p & are determined the same (ay as for a thin lens .
The result is an optical model that simplifies the complicated optical system .
If the media ounding the system are different - eg& the human eye has air on one side and
vitreous gel on the other side .& the nodal points I pull I in the direction of the medium
(ith the higher refractive inde' .
The anterior focal length of the system is the distance from ,a to the anterior principal
point & not the distance to the first lens in the lac% o' . the posterior focal length is the
distance from ,p to the posterior principal point .
T"ICQ #E!SES
The thin2lens appro'imation is invalid in some clinical settings . for e'ample & IO#Es are
treated as thic% lenses .
Consider a lens of aritrary thic%ness .
The comined po(er of a thic% lens P is not simply the sum of the individual surface
po(ers F instead & it includes the vergence change on transfer Pt +
P < Pf 5 P 5 Pt
3here +
Pf < po(er of the first lens surface .

P < po(er of the second lens surface .
The vergence change on transfer is
Pt < 2 t =n1 PfP
3here
t < lens thic%ness
n1 < inde' of refraction of the lens .
thus & the po(er of a thic% lens e;uals
P < Pf 5 P ? t=n1PfP
3hen po(er P& Pf & and P are in diopters & t is in meters .
$ lens (ith a front surface po(er of 5A4 & a ac% ? surface po(er of 51@4& and a
thic%ness of 1cm& constructed from the glass (ith an n 1 < 1.A & has a total po(er of 5
1B.L 4.
in this case & the po(er of the thic% lens is one2third of a diopter less than it (ould e if it
(here a thin lens .
the difference is attriutale to the vergence change that occurs as light travels from the
front surface to the ac% surface .
,OC$# #E!GT"S
,or any optical system & the distance from the anterior principal point to the anterior focal
point is the anterior focal length - $,# ..
Similarly & the posterior focal length - P,# . is the distance from the posterior principal
point to the posterior focal point .
,ollo(ing the sign convention & focal lengths are negative (hen the focal point is to the
left of the principal point and positive (hen the focal point is to the right of the principal
point .
,or instance & a 5A4 thin lens in air has an $,# of 2)@cm and a P,# of 5)@cm.
,or any optical system & focal lengths and refractive po(er P are related y
$,# < no = P P,# < ni = P
,or any optical system & the distance from the anterior principal point to the anterior
nodal point is al(ays e;ual to the distance from the posterior principal point to the
posterior nodal point .
The distance et(een principal point and nodal point follo(s the sign convention and is
given y
4istance < $,# 5 P,#
,or instance & for a 5A4 thin lens in air & $,# 5P,# < 2)@cm 5 )@cm < @ .
Thus & the nodal points and principal points overlap .
,or a 5 A4 thin lens in (ater - n<12>> . in font and air in ac% & the $,#< 2)6.6cm and
the P,#< )@cm . thus & the nodal points are 6.6cm to the left of the principal points.
G$/SSI$! RE4/CTIO!
Thus far & (e have discussed the properties of a single optical system . the treatment of
refractive errors usually involves adding a lens to an e'isting optical system & the patientEs
eye .
Gaussian reduction descries (hat happens (hen ) optical systems - such as a correcting
lens and the eye . are comined .
3hen ) optical systems ? each (ith its o(n cardinal points ? are comined & a totally
ne( optical system is created that is descried y ane( set of cardinal points .
The thic% 2 lens e;uation is used to reduce the ) individual systems to a single system
(ith its o(n set of cardinal points .
Typically & the comined systemEs cardinal points and po(er differ from those of either of
the individual systems.
Clinically & Gaussian reduction is most important in con*unction (ith the correction of
ametropias and in the calculation of IO# po(er .
Q!$PPES #$3 & T"E 9$4$# PRI!CIP#E & $!4 T"E #E!SMETER
One prolem in treating refractive errors is that the correcting lens often changes the si0e
of the retinal image . if the retinal image in one eye differs in si0e from that in the other
eye & the difference is usually tolerated y the patient unless this difference is large .
The adult rain can fuse retinal images that differ in si0e y as much as CO F the childEs
rain can handle an even greater disparity .
$ccording to QnappEs la( & the si0e of the retinal image does not change (hen the center
of the correcting lens - to e precise & the posterior nodal point of the correcting lens .
coincides (ith the anterior focal point of the eye .
,or e'ample & if eyes have identical refractive po(er and differ only in a'ial length & then
placing a lens at the anterior focal point of each eye (ill produce retinal images identical
in si0e .
"o(ever & it is rare that the difference et(een eyes is purely a'ial. In addition & the
anterior focal point of the eye is appro'imately 1Lmm in front of the cornea.
$lthough it is possile to (ear glasses so the spectacle lens is 1Lmm in front of the eye &
most people prefer to (ear them at a corneal verte' distance of 1@21A mm .
9ecause the clinician is rarely certain that any ametropia is purely a'ial & QnappEs la( has
limited clinical application .
Manual lensmeters ma%e use of the same principle & although for an entirely different
reason .
3hen applied to lensmeters &QnappEs la( is called the 9adal principle . one type of
optometer used for performing o*ective refraction is ased on a variation of QnappEs la(
(herein the posterior focal plane of the correcting lens coincides (ith the anterior nodal
point of the eye . the effect is the same . retinal image si0e remains constant . in this
application & the la( is called the optometer principle .
Optical engineers use a variation of QnappEs la( called telecentricity to improve the
performance of telescopes and microscopes .
Regardless of the name & the principle remains the same .
$,OC$# SHSTEMS
Consider an optical system consisting of ) thin lenses in air .
The lens po(ers are 5)4 and 2A4 & respectively . (here is ,p for this system 888
The posterior focal point is (here incoming parallel rays focus .
"o(ever& as a ray tracing demonstrates & rays entering the system parallel to the optical
a'is emerge parallel to the a'is . this system has no focal points F in other (ords & it is an
afocal system .
If o*ect is )m in front of the first lens & (here is the image and (hat is the transverse
magnification 88
Jergence calculations sho( that the image is virtual & BBcm to the left of the second lens .
- 1Bcm to the left of the first lens . & and that the transverse magnification is @.B.
If an o*ect is Bm in front of the first lens & vergence calculations sho( that the image is
virtual &L6cm to the left of the second lens &and that the transverse magnification is
e'actly @.B .
In a focal systems& the transverse magnification is the same for every o*ect regardless of
location .
3here are the principal planes for this system 8 actually & it has no principal planes .
Rememer & principal planes are the uni;ue con*ugates (ith a transverse magnification of
1.
In this system& the transverse magnification is al(ays @.B and never 1 .
If the transverse magnification (as e;ual to 1 & it (ould e 1 for every pair of con*ugates.
Conse;uently& there (ould e no uni;ue set of planes that could e designated principal
planes .
In general & afocal systems do not have cardinal points .
$focal systems are used clinically as telescopes or lo( vision aids . the ) asic types of
refracting telescopes are the Galilean telescope - named for& ut not invented y& Galileo .
and the Qeplerian & or astronomical telescope - invented y :ohannes %epler ..
The Galilean telescope consists of ) lenses . the first lens & the o*ective lens & is al(ays
positive and usually has a lo( po(er & (hereas the second lens & the eyepiece & or ocular &
is al(ays negative and usually has a high po(er .
The lenses are separated y the difference in their focal lengths .
The afocal system depicted in the previous figure is a Galilean telescope .
The Galilean telescope is also used in some slit2lamp iomicroscope .
The Qeplerian telescope also consists of ) lenses & a lo( po(er o*ective and a high
po(er ocular & ut oth are positive and separated y the sum of their focal lengths .
The image is inverted .
,or comparison & construct a Qeplerian telescope using a 5)4 and a 5A4 trial lenses .
,or each telescope +
Transverse magnification < Peye=Po* < Fo*=Feye
$'ial magnification < m
)
3here
Peye < po(er of the eyepiece or ocular
Po* < po(er of the o*ective lens
Fo* < focal length of the o*ective lens
Feye < focal length of the eyepiece - negative for concave lenses .
m < transverse magnification .
,or afocal telescopes such as the Galilean and the Qeplerian telescope & the focal point of the
o*ective lens and the focal point of ocular lens are in the same position .
Each form of telescope has advantages and disadvantages .
The advantage of a Galilean telescope is that it produces an upright image and is shorter than a
Qeplerian telescope .
These features ma%e the Galilean telescope popular popular as a spectacle2 mounted visual aid or
in surgical loupes.
Conversely & the Qeplerian telescope uses light more efficiently & ma%ing faint o*ects easier to
see .
In the Qeplerian design & all the light from an o*ect point collected y the o*ective lens
ultimately enters the eye . In the Galilean design & some of the light collected y the o*ective is
lost .
9ecause astronomical oservation is largely a matter of ma%ing faint stars visile & all
astronomical telescopes are of the Qeplerian design .
The inverted image is not a prolem for astronomers & ut inverting prisms are placed inside the
telescope .
Common inoculars and handheld visual aids are usually of the Qeplerian design .
OP"T"$#MIC PRISMS
$n ophthalmic prism is a (edge of transparent plastic or glass (ith a triangular cross section
having an ape' and a ase .
#o( 2 po(er prisms (ith small ape' angles may e incorporated into spectacle lenses and contact
lenses .
The douled image vie(ed in %eratometers is achieved (ith lo(2po(er prisms .
"igh2po(er prisms (ith large ape' angles are used to measure angle of straismus & to produce
the douling in measuring head of the Glodmann tonometer & and to apply laser treatment to the
periphery of the of the fundus .
P#$!E P$R$##E# P#$TE
The simplest prism has an ape' angle of @M F that is & the t(o faces are parallel . (hen a light ray
traverses a plane parallel plate - such as a piece of (indo( glass .& it is refracted at oth surfacesF
ut ecause the ending is e;ual and opposite at the t(o surfaces & there is no net deviation .
"o(ever & lateral displacement occurs for all incident rays that are nor perpendicular to the
surfaces .
3hen the surfaces of a (edge of glass are not parallel & light rays undergo a net deviation .
$!G#E O, 4EJI$TIO!
In any prism (ith an ape' angle greater than @M & the total angle of deviation of light that passes
through it is the sum of the deviations produced at each of the surfaces .
These t(o deviations may e in the same direction or in opposite directions & depending on the
angle of incidence & ut the total deviation is al(ays to(ard the ase of the prism .
The minimum angle of deviation produced y a prism occurs (hen the light ray undergoes e;ual
ending at the t(o surfaces . the angle of deviation is greater in any other situation .
PRISM 4IOPTER
Prism po(er defines the amount of light2ray deviation produced as the light ray traverses a prism.
Prism po(er is the deviation & in centimeters & from the optical a'is & measured 1@@cm - 1m .
from the prism .
The amount is e'pressed in prism diopters - Y. .
The term prism diopter should never e shortened to IprismsZ or Idiopters Z ecause the
meanings of these terms are entirely different .
,or angles less than 1@@Y - BAM .& each )Y is appro'imately e;ual to 1M .from the follo(ing
figure & it is apparent that the relationship et(een N and Y is
Tan N < Y = 1@@cm
Therefore&
Y < 1@@ tan N
N < arctan Y = 1@@cm
generally & the prisms that are used clinically to measure straismus are plastic prisms . Prisms are
calirated for use in certain positions F if a prism is not used in the correct position & measurement
errors may result .
Plastic prisms and prism ars are calirated according to the angle of minimum deviation .
To appro'imate the angle of minimum deviation & the clinician should hold the plastic prism in
the frontal plane position F in other (ords &the prism should e positioned so that its ac% surface
is parallel to the facial plane of the patient - frontal plane ..
Prisms made of glass - not (idely used . are calirated according to the Prentice position ? that
is & (ith one face of the prism perpendicular to the direction in (hich the eye is directed .
$ll of the ending occurs at the prism interfaces
If the rear surface of a B@Y glass prism is erroneously held in the frontal plane & only >)Y of effect
(ill e achieved . this is the manner in (hich prism in spectacle lenses is measured on a
lensmeter & (ith the ac% surface of the spectacle lens flat against the nose cone of the lensmeter .
4ISP#$CEME!T O, IM$GES 9H PRISMS
If a prism is introduced into the path of convergent light & all the light rays are ent to(ard the
ase of the prism . and the image is also displaced to(ard the ase of the prism .
In this case & the image is real & and real images are displaced to(ard the ase of a prism .
If (e turn the light around & ma%ing the image the o*ect & and vie( the o*ect through the prism &
(e (ill see a virtual image of the o*ect . the o*ect eing vie(ed through the prism appears
displaced to(ard the ape' of the prism .
In general & virtual images are displaced to(ard the ape' of a prism & although the light rays
themselves are ent to(ard the ase .
The images (e see (hen loo%ing through prisms are al(ays virtual images .
This phenomenon is the source of the common teaching that a prism displaces images to(ard its
ape' .
PRISM$TIC E,,ECT O, #E!SES - T"E PRE!TICE R/#E .
$ spherical lens ehaves li%e a prism at every point on its surface e'cept at its optical center .
In plus lenses & the prism po(er ends light rays to(ard the optical a'is .
In minus lenses & the light ends a(ay from the optical a'is .
Prism po(er increases as the distance from the optical center increases & in proportion to the
dioptric po(er of the lens .
This relationship is e'pressed mathematically y the Prentice rule .
9y similar triangle &
h= 1@@cm=4 < Y=1@@cm
Y < h4 - the Prentice rule .
3here h is in centimeters.
The prismatic effect of lenses ecomes clinically important in a patient (ith anisometropia . (hen
the distance correction is different for the t(o eyes & prismatic effects occur . the patient usually
notes these (hen in the reading position . (ith the eyes in do(nga0e & the prismatic effect of each
lens differs and causes a different amount of image displacement in each eye . this leads to
vertical diplopia if the image displacements are eyond the patientEs fusion aility .
Prismatic effects must e anticipated in the design of ifocal lenses to minimi0e image
displacement and image *ump .
The clinician can induce prismatic effect in an ordinary spectacle lens simply y decentering the
lens in the frame so that the visual a'is in primary position does not pass through the optical
center of the spectacle lens .
The alternate method is grinding in prism . the po(er and si0e of the lens determine (hich
method is used .
Rememer that prism in a spectacle lens is read at the position of the visual a'is in primary
position .
$ (ashale felt2tip mar%er is helpful in mar%ing this position efore the glasses are transferred
from the patientEs face to the lensmeter .
JECTOR $44ITIO! O, PRISMS
Prismatic deviations in different directions are additive y straightfor(ard vector addition.
Jectors comine information aout magnitude and direction . ,or instance & if 6 Y ase up - 9/ .
and C Y ase out - 9O . efore the left eye are needed to correct a straismic deviation & asingle
prism of 1@ Y (ith ase up and out in the >LM meridian accomplishes the same purpose .
3hen prescriing an oli;ue prism & rememer to specify the direction of the ase properly .
$ prism efore the left eye can not simply e specified as I ase in the >LM meridian Z .
It must e specified as either I ase up and out in the >LM meridian Z or I ase do(n and in & in the
>LM meridian Z .
$ rotary prism - Risely prism . & mounted on the front of most phoropters & consists of ) prisms of
e;ual po(er that are counter2rotated (ith respect to one another to produce prism po(er varying
from @ - prisms neutrali0e each other . to the sum of the t(o po(ers - prisms aligned in the same
direction . . intermediate values may e determined y vector addition and are mar%ed on the dial
of the prism housing .
The Risely prism is particularly useful in measuring phorias - often in con*unction (ith the
Maddo' rod . and fusional vergence amplitudes .
PRISM $9ERR$TIO!S
Chromatic aerration produces colored fringes at the edges of o*ects vie(ed through prisms and
can e othersome to patients .
Prisms have other aerrations & such as asymmetrical magnification and curvature of field .
$lthough these aerrations are usually insignificant & they occasionally produce symptoms & even
(ith lo(2po(er ophthalmic prisms .
,RES!E# PRISMS
$ ,resnel prism - pronounced fre2nellE . prism is a series of small side2y2side prisms that act as a
single large prism .
It is typically used to avoid the (eight and some of the aerrations of conventional prisms .
The most popular form of ,resnel prism is a memrane molded from clear polyvinyl chloride .
Qno(n as Press2on prism & it is applied (ith (ater to the ac% surface of an ordinary
spectacle lens .
Press2on prisms are availale in a variety of po(ers . Jisual acuity is reduced ecause of
light scattering at the groove edges & ut the chromatic aerration of the prisms
themselves produces most of the visual decrement.
The advantages of these prisms far out(eigh the disadvantages & and they are (idely used
in the fields of straismus and orthoptics .
9ecause of their ease of application and lo(er e'pense &Press2on prisms are especially
useful for patients (hose straismus is changing -eg& patients (ith thyroid eye disease ..
,resnel lenses are also availale (ith concentric groove construction to appro'imate
spherical lenses .
MIRRORS
$s discussed earlier - under the section Imaging (ith lenses and Mirrors .& many of the
vergence and ray2tracing concepts (e developed for lenses also apply to mirrors .
In the follo(ing pages & (e consider some points specific to mirrors .
RE,#ECTI!G PO3ER
3e can define the reflecting po(er of mirrors in the same (ay (e define the refracting
po(er of lenses + y the amount of vergence produced y the mirror .
2 conve' mirrors add negative vergence - li%e minus lenses ..
2 Concave mirrors add positive vergence - li%e plus lenses ..
2 Plane mirrors add no vergence .
The focal lens of a mirror in meters is e;ual to the reciprocal of the po(er of the mirror in
diopters & and vice versa +
Pm< 1=f
3here
P< reflecting po(er of a mirror in diopters.
f < focal length of a mirror in meters
Mirrors are often specified & ho(ever & not y focal length & ut y radius of curvature .
9ecause refractive inde' does not apply to reflective surfaces & the relation ship et(een
radius of curvature r and focal length is simple +
f < r=)
the focal length is have the radius of curvature . therefore&
Pm < )=r
REJERS$# O, IM$GE SP$CE
The asic vergence relationship & / 5 P < J & can e applied directly to mirrors if one
rememers that the mirror reverses the image space . The incoming side of the mirror is
the same as the outgoing side .
If the incoming light rays are traveling from left to right & they (ill travel from right to
left upon reflection .
In this case & converging image rays - plus vergence . form a real image to the left of the
mirror & and diverging image rays - minus vergence . appear to come from a virtual image
to the right of the mirror .
CE!TR$# R$H ,OR MIRRORS
The central ray for mirrors is *ust as useful as the central ray for lenses & ecause if image
location is determined y vergence calculation & the central ray immediately indicates the
orientation and si0e of the image .
!ote that & in using the ratio of image distance to o*ect distance to calculate the si0e of
the image & the image and o*ect distances are measured either from the center of
curvature of the mirror or from the surface of the mirror .
JERGE!CE C$#C/#$TIO!S
9ecause a plane mirror adds no vergence to light ut simply reverses its direction &
vergence does not change (hen light is reflected .
,or e'ample & light from an o*ect 1m to the left of a plane mirror has a vergence of 214
at the mirror .
On reflection & the reflection (ill still e 214 F ho(ever & in tracing imaginary e'tensions
of the reflected image rays to the far side of the mirror - into virtual image space . & the
virtual image is located 1m to the right of the mirror .
In general & plane mirrors create upright virtual images from real o*ects & (ith the virtual
images located as far ehind the mirror as the real image is in front .
$s illustrated in the follo(ing figure & only half a full2length plane mirror is needed to see
oneEs entire ody .
$ concave mirror - eg& ma%eup mirror & shaving mirror & or the internal limiting
memrane of the fovea . adds positive vergence to incident light . It therefore has positive
& or converging & po(er .
If parallel rays stri%e the mirror & they reflect and converge to(ard a point half(ay to the
center of curvature .
The focal point , of a concave mirror is not uni;ue & for any central ray can serve as an
optical a'is .
The anterior and posterior focal points of a concave mirror are in e'actly the same place .
$s an e'ample & consider an o*ect 1m to the left of a concave mirror (ith a radius of
curvature of A@cm . (here is the image 88
The po(er of the mirror is e;ual to 1=f & (here f< - r=)..
f< r=) < @.A=) < @.)A m
Pm< 1=f < 1=@.)A m < 5B 4
/ 5 Pm < J
214 5 - 5B4 . < 5>4
Transverse magnification < /= J < 214 = >4 < 2@.>>
Therefore & the image is located 1=>m - >>cm . to the left of the mirror & in real image
space . It is also minified and inverted .
$ conve' mirror adds negative vergence to incident light . It therefore has negative & or
diverging & po(er .
The anterior and posterior focal points & (hich coincide & are virtual focal points located
half(ay et(een the surface of the mirror and the center of curvature .
If the preceding e'ample used a conve' & rather than a concave & mirror (ith the same
radius of curvature & the po(er of the mirror (ould e 2B4.
/ 5 Pm < J
214 5 - 2B4 . < 2A4
Transverse magnification < /=J < 214 = 2A4 < 5 @.)
In this case & the image rays are diverging & and a virtual image (ill appear to e located
)@ cm to the right of the mirror . the image is minified and erect.

OTIC$# $9ERR$TIO!S
In para'ial optics & the focus is essentially stigmatic . Peripheral or nonpara'ial rays do
not necessarily focus stigmatically .
4eviations from stigmatic imaging are called aerrations .
$errations are divided into monochromatic and chromatic forms .
The t(o most common monochromatic aerrations are defocus - myopic and hyperopic
spherical error . and regular astigmatism .
The clinical application of (avefront aerrometry ma%es it possile to measure higher
order aerrations & (hich (ere previously lumped into a catchall term ? irregular
astigmatism .
E'amples of higher 2order aerrations include coma& spherical aerration & and trefoil.
Spherical aerration is a particularly relevant higher ? order aerration in %eratorefractive
surgery .
REG/#$R $STIGM$TISM
/nli%e the spherical lens surface& the astigmatic lens surface does not have the same
curvature and refracting po(er in all meridians . The curvature of an astigmatic lens
varies from a minimum value to a ma'imum value & (ith the e'treme values located in
meridians K@M apart & thus the refracting po(er varies from one meridian to the ne't & and
an astigmatic surface does not have a single point of focus . instead & ) focal lines are
formed . The complicated geometric envelop of a pencil of light rays emanating from a
single point source and refracted y a spherocylindrical lens is called the conoid of Sturm
.
The conoid of Sturm has ) focal lines & & each parallel to one of the principal meridians of
the spherocylindrical lens .
$ll the rays in the pencil pass through each of the focal lines.
The cross sections of the conoid of Sturm vary in shape and area along its length ut are
generally elliptical .
$t the dioptric mean of the focal lines & there is a cross section of the conoid of Sturm that
is circular .
This circular patch of light rays is called the circle of least confusionF it represents the
est overall focus of the spherocylindrical lens .
The circle of least confusion occupies the position (here all the rays (ould e rought to
focus if the lens had a spherical po(er e;ual to the average spherical po(er of all the
meridians of the spherocylindrical lens .
This average spherical po(er of a spherocylindrical lens is called the spherical e;uivalent
of the lens .
It is calculated y the follo(ing relationship +
Spherical e;uivalent - 4. < sphere - 4. 5 cylinder - 4.=)
$lthough the cross section of each pencil of rays forming the conoid of Sturm is
relatively easy to appreciate & the images produced y spherocylindrical lenses of
e'tended o*ects & (hich are composed of an infinite numer of pencils of light & are of
some(hat different configuration .
3hen calculating o*ect and image relationships for spherocylindrical lenses & (e must
treat each principal meridian separately & applying the asic vergence relation ship or
graphical analysis .
Once image positions are determined y these methods & (e return to the >2dimensional
conoid of Sturm to understand the cross2sectional configurations of the pencils or eams
of light that are intercepted - ie& y the retina of the eye . at various positions .
The simplest form of astigmatic lens is a planocylindrical lens & either plus or minus & as
sho(n in the follo(ing figure .
The Maddo' rod is an e'ample of a high2po(er & clinically useful cylindrical lens .
The general form of an astigmatic surface is a spherocylinder & or torus & (hich might e
li%ened to the surface of a curved arrel or $merican footall.
The meridians of greatest and least curvature ? and therefore the meridians of greatest
and least po(er of an astigmatic lens ? are %no(n as the principal meridians of that
surface or lens .
$lthough a spherocylindrical lens may e thought of as the comination of )
planocylinders& it is more convenient to thin% of it as the comination of a spherical lens
and a cylindrical lens .
The orientation of the cylindrical lens is specified y the a'is position according to
conventional notation .
The @M meridian is the same as the 1C@M & and the 1C@M notation is al(ays used for this
meridian .
The po(ers in the principal meridians and the cylinder a'is of spherocylindrical lenses
may e specified in several (ays . the common graphical method is called the po(er
cross .
$ cross is dro(n oriented in the principal meridians & and each arm of the cross is laeled
(ith the po(er acting in that meridian .
The most common (ritten notation specifies a sphere po(er & a cylindrical po(er & and
the a'is of the cylinder .
The follo(ing e'amples of spherocylindrical e'pression are entirely e;uivalent .
Rememer that the ma'imum po(er of a cylinder is in the meridian K@M a(ay from the
a'is of the cylinder .
To avoid errors in transcription and lens manufacture & it is helpful to notate the a'is
using all > digits and dropping the M notation .
Comined cylinder form + 51.@@ D 1C@ 5B.@@ D K@
Plus cylinder form + 51.@@ 5>.@@ DK@
Minus cylinder form + 5B.@@ 2>.@@ D 1C@
The spherical e;uivalent po(er of this lens is - 514 5 B4. = ) < 5).A 4
TR$!SPOSITIO!
Sometimes (e need to e ale to transpose the notation for a spherocylindrical lens from
plus cylinder form to minus cylinder form and vice versa .
The t(o forms are different (ays of specifying the same lens .
One method of transposing is to convert the first cylinder form to the po(er cross
notation and then convert the po(er cross notation to the second cylinder form .
"o(ever & a simpler method is more fre;uently used . To convert a prescription from
plus to minus cylinder form and vice versa +
add the sphere and cylinder po(ers together to otain the ne( sphere .
change the sign of the cylinder to otain the ne( cylinder .
rotate the a'is K@M to otain the ne( a'is .
COM9I!I!G SP"EROCH#I!4RIC$# #E!SES
Spherocylindrical lenses can e added to one another to produce a single e;uivalent
spherocylindrical lens .
In fact & if any numer of spherocylindrical lenses are comined & the result is al(ays an
e;uivalent spherocylindrical lens having principal meridians K@M apart .
Similarly & a single spherocylindrical lens may e resolved into any numer of component
spherocylindrical lenses & provided that certain trigonometric rules are follo(ed .
It is easy to add spherocylindrical lenses together if the principal meridians are aligned
(ith one another .
In this simple scenario & the principal meridians of the resultant lens are the same as those
of the components.
Comining ) spherical lenses - placed close together . yields the algeraic sum of the
lens po(ers .
Comining cylinders at the same a'is is *ust as simple and yields a resultant cylinder
po(er that is *ust the algeraic sum of the cylinder po(ers F the a'is remains unchanged .
,or cylinders separated y K@M & the situation is also straight for(ard .
One of the cylinders is transformed into a cylinder (ith the opposite sign and located at
the same a'is as the other cylinder . Then the cylinders are added algeraically .
COM9I!I!G CH#I!4ERS $T O9#IG/E $DES
It is more difficult to add spherocylindrical lenses (hen the principal meridians are not
aligned (ith one another .
$ simple (ay of doing it is to read the po(er of the lens comination (ith a lensmeter .
9ecause cylinders have a po(er and a'is & it might seem that cylinders could e treated as
vectors and that the procedure for comining cylinders (ould e the procedure for
comining vectors .
/nfortunately & this is not entirely correct .
Consider that a 51.@@ cylinder at a'is 1C@M is the same as a 51.@@ cylinder at a'is @M .
If (e add the vectors that correspond to these ) angles & (e get @& and it is clear that if (e
add the ) cylinders & (e get 5).@@ at either a'is @ or & e;uivalently & a'is 1C@ .
Thus cylinders cannot e treated as vectors for the purpose of comination .
Calculating a comination of cylinders at oli;ue a'es is complicated .
,ortunately & computer programs are no( availale to facilitate these calculations .
SP"ERIC$# $9ERR$TIO!
Spherical aerration causes night myopia and & in some cases & fluctuating vision
follo(ing %eratorefractive surgery .
$lthough a spherical surface focuses rays stigmatically in para'ial region - according to
the #ME .& rays outside that region do not focus to a point .
,or a positive spherical surface & the further a ray is from the a'is & the more anterior its
focus .
Spherical aerration has ) effects . ,irst & image ;uality - or visual acuity . decreases
ecause the focus is not stigmatic .
Second & the image location is changed from the position predicted y the #ME and
vergence e;uations .
Roughly spea%ing & the est focus is achieved (here the rays are confined to the smallest
area .
In the human eye & spherical aerration shifts the focus anteriorly & ma%ing the patient
slightly more myopic than (ould e e'pected from vergence calculations .
Spherical aerration e'acerates myopia in lo( light - night myopia . .
In righter conditions & the pupil constricts & loc%ing the more peripheral rays and
minimi0ing the effect of spherical aerration .
$s the pupil enlarges & more peripheral rays enter the eye and the focus shifts anteriorly &
ma%ing the patient slightly more myopic in lo(2light conditions.
Typically & the amount of myopic shift is aout @.A4. In addition & ecause of dar%
adaptation & the retinal rods ecome more sensitive to the shorter - lue . (avelengths of
light & (hich are focused more anteriorly & contriuting further to night myopia .
Spherical aerration accounts for some cases of fluctuating vision follo(ing
%eratorefractive surgery .
!ormally & the cornea is flatter peripherally than centrally & (hich decreases spherical
aerration .
Radial %eratotomy ma%es the cornea more spherical & increasing spherical aerration .
#aser in situ %eratomileusis - #$SIQ . and photorefractive %eratotomy - PRQ . can ma%e
the central cornea flatter than the peripheral cornea .
In general & the effect of spherical aerration increases as the fourth po(er of the pupil
diameter .
4ouling pupil diameter increases spherical aerration 16 times . Thus & a small change
in pupil si0e can cause a significant change in refraction .
This possiility should e considered in patients (ho have fluctuating vision despite
stale Q readings and (ell2healed corneas follo(ing %eratorefractive surgery .
C"ROM$TIC $9ERR$TIO!
Thus far in our analysis of aerrations (e have ignored the effect of (avelength .
Ophthalmic lenses and the human eye are often treated as though they focus all
(avelengths identically & ut this is not true .
Most lenses introduce dispersion . 4ispersion in the human eye causes chromatic
aerration & in (hich lue light focuses in front of red light .
The difference et(een the lue and red foci is aout @.A4 in the average eye & ut may
e much greater .
Even if all monochromatic aerrations could e compensated for or eliminated y contact
lenses or refractive surgery & chromatic aerration and diffraction (ould still limit the
optical resolving po(er of the eye .
Chromatic compensation is common in microscope & telescope & and camera lenses ut is
not yet availale in spectacle & contact & or intraocular lenses .
9lue2loc%ing & red ? loc%ing & and other colored sunglasses improve visual acuity y
decreasing chromatic aerration.
They do so & ho(ever & at the cost of reducing the color content of the perceived image .