HISTORY OF THE RENAISSANCE

The word Renaissance

The Renaissance may be vivid in the mind's eye - in images of human fgures
sculpted in the round, or in scenes painted with a profound and moving
realism. But as a concept it is a slippery customer.
The word is French for 'rebirth'. istorians frst use it !from about "#$%& for
the period from the "$th to the "'th century, implying a rediscovery of
rational civili(ation !e)emplifed by *reece and Rome& after the medieval
centuries - seen as superstitious and artistically primitive. The term '+iddle
,ges', also coined by historians, ma-es the same point in a di.erent way -
defning the medieval period merely as the gap between classical and
modern civili(ation.
The frst problem with this scenario is that the +iddle ,ges have a vivid
cultural identity of their own, di.erent from the classical pattern but not
necessarily inferior. ,nd the later medieval centuries, in particular the "/th
and "0th, are unmista-ably civili(ed.
The second di1culty is that it is impossible to establish clear dividing lines
between medieval and Renaissance. 2n art !particularly sculpture& stylistic
hints of the coming Renaissance can be seen well before "0%%. But there is
one feld in which a new start is consciously made in the "$th century. This is
the revival of the study of classical literature.
Petrarch the Laureate: AD 1!1
3n the 4apitol in Rome, in "0$", a ceremony deliberately echoes the ancient
Roman empire. The -ing of 5aples, ruling in Rome on behalf of the "o"e in
A#i$non, places a laurel wreath on the brow of Petrarch - honouring him
6ust as ,ugustus might have honoured %ir$i&.
The event deliberately symboli(es a renewed interest in classical culture, a
movement in which Petrarch is a leading fgure. But the new poet laureate
adds a contemporary touch. e immediately goes to the tomb of 7t 8eter
and places on it his wreath.
This blending of the old and the new Rome, using the classical tradition in
the service of 4hristianity, becomes a characteristic of Renaissance
"aintin$ and scu&"ture. 4hristian saints are sculpted with the freshness of
classical boys !9onatello'sSaint George, for e)ample&, and painters place the
gospel scenes in ancient Roman settings.
The roots of these artistic developments are too comple) to be e)plained by
a simple interest in classical culture. 3nly in the world of learning is the lin-
between the Renaissance and the ancient world unmista-ably clear. 3nly
among 8etrarch and his followers in the "$th and ":th century is the rebirth
of the past !rinascimentoin 2talian& a conscious aim.
Petrarch' (occaccio and hu)anis): 1!th * 1+th c, AD
2n Florence, in ,pril "0:%, Petrarchma-es his frst in;uential convert to the
cause of classical studies. e is visited by an admirer, (occaccio, nine years
younger than himself, who has written a biography of Petrarch but has not
previously met him.
The encounter changes (occaccio's life. e is in the middle of writing the
wor- for which he is now famous, theDecameron. ,fter completing it,
probably in the following year, he abandons 2talian literature - writing
henceforth only in <atin and devoting himself to trac-ing down original
manuscripts of classical te)ts.
Boccaccio is 6ust one of the many followers of 8etrarch who visit ancient
monastery libraries in search of forgotten <atin manuscripts. They travel to
4onstantinople to bring bac- trun-loads of *ree- parchments. They clamber
among ancient ruins to note the inscriptions.
They copy out their fndings and present their manuscripts to friends !soon
the invention of "rintin$ will greatly speed up the spread of these te)ts&.
They form academies !echoing 8lato's academy& in which they read learned
papers on classical themes. They attempt performances of music and drama
in what they believe to be the classical style. The members of one academy
in Rome are even arrested for indulging in pagan classical rites.
7cholars of this -ind become -nown as humanists, implying an admiration for
the fnest achievements of the human race. uman e)cellence and virtue is
now seen as valuable in itself, in this present world of ours, rather than as a
necessary =ualifcation for entry to a world beyond.
,n emphasis on the ne)t world has characteri(ed medieval teaching, broadly
described as scho&asticis). umanism, in contrast to scho&asticis),
represents the cast of mind of the Renaissance. Beginning as a movement in
2taly in the "$th century, it fnds some of its greatest adherents in northern
>urope as late as the "'th century - in in;uential fgures such as
Eras)us and Tho)as -ore.
Ro)an and ita&ic: 1+th centur. AD
2talian scholars of the "$th and ":th century, followers of Petrarch in their
reverence for classical culture, search through libraries for ancient te)ts.
4opying out their discoveries, they aspire also to an authentic script. They
fnd their models in beautifully written manuscripts which they ta-e to be
Roman but which are in fact 4arolingian.
The error is a fortunate one. The script devised for 4harlemagne's monastic
wor-shops in the #th century is a model of clarity and elegance. 2t is adapted
for practical use, in slightly di.erent ways, by two Florentine friends - 8oggio
Bracciolini and 5iccol? 5iccoli.
Bracciolini, employed as secretary at the papal court in Rome from "$%0,
uses the ancient script for important documents. To the rounded lower-case
letters of the the Caro&in$ian scri"t he adds straight-edged capital letters
which he copies from Roman monuments.
By contrast his friend 5iccoli adapts the Caro&in$ian scri"t to the faster
re=uirements of everyday writing. To this end he fnds it more convenient to
slope the letters a little !the result of holding the pen at a more comfortable
angle&, and to allow some of them to 6oin up. @oining up is not in itself new. 2n
several forms of medieval hand-writing the letters ;ow together to become
what is -nown as a 'cursive' hand.
8rinters in Aenice later in the century, attempting to re;ect the classical spirit
of hu)anis), turn to the scripts of Bracciolini and 5iccoli. The rounded but
upright style of Bracciolini is frst used by the French printer 5icolas @enson
shortly after his arrival in the city in "$B%. This type face is given the name
roman, re;ecting its ancient origins.
2n ":%" another great Aenetian printer, ,ldus +anutius, needs a contrasting
and smaller type for a 'poc-et edition' of Airgil. e turns to the script of
5iccoli, in everyday use by fashionable 2talians, and calls it accordingly italic.
Roman and italic eventually become a standard part of every printer's
repertoire.
Art and architecture in F&orence: AD 1!11*1!/
Three Florentine friends, an architect, a sculptor and a painter, are
recogni(ed in their own time as being the founders of a new direction in art -
subse=uently -nown as the Renaissance. 2n the preface to an in;uential boo-
on painting, published in "$0', ,lberti says that the wor- of these three has
convinced him that the ancient arts can be revived.
They di.er considerably in age. The architect, Brunelleschi, is the oldest. The
sculptor, 9onatello, is about ten years younger. The painter, +asaccio, is
about ffteen years younger again, though he is by a wide margin the frst to
die.
Brunelleschi is the pioneer who frst consciously applies a Renaissance
curiosity to the arts. Chere the hu)anists visit Rome and other ancient
cities to copy inscriptions, he notes the dimensions and s-etches the details
of the ruins and surviving buildings of classical anti=uity. These include the
columns and arches of Rome, but also the domes of By(antine Ravenna and
even of the baptistery in Florence D a Ro)anes0uebuilding of the ""th or
"/th century which Brunelleschi and his contemporaries believe to be a
temple of +ars adapted for 4hristian worship.
is aim is to abandon entirely the medieval heritage, even if lac- of historical
-nowledge ma-es the brea- less absolute than he intends.
Brunelleschi is a painter and sculptor, as well as architect, and his interest in
classical buildings leads him into pioneering wor- of another -ind. e is the
frst to evolve a scientifc theory of perspective, which he is said to have
used to startling e.ect in murals in the Baptistery and the 8ala((o Aecchio in
Florence !none have survived&.
This newly discovered s-ill is adopted by -asaccio and becomes of
absorbing interests to Renaissance artists after A&1erti has described the
techi=ue in detail in his boo- of "$0', crediting Brunelleschi as its originator.
Brunelleschi's frst biographer !,ntonio +anetti, writing in the "$#%s& states
that 9onatello accompanies the older man on trips to Rome to study the
style of the ancients. Chether true or not - and scholars tend to doubt the
story - it is undeniable that between "$"" and "$"B 9onatello carves two
free-standing fgures in a more purely classical style !and with much greater
artistry& than anything attempted by predecessors such as Nico&a Pisano.
These fgures, profoundly signifcant in the story of sculpture, are
commissioned by two of Florence's guilds. The linen drapers and the
armourers need statues of their patron saints.
Donate&&o: AD 1!11*1!+/
2n "$%' the authorities in Florence order the guilds to commission statues for
the niches already allotted to each of them in the outer wall of 3rsanmichele,
a building erected in the mid-"$th century as a combination of trading place
and shrine !in honour of a miracle-wor-ing image of the Airgin +ary which is
housed here&. ,ny guild which has not provided a statue within ten years will
lose all claim to its desirable and prestigious niche.
2n "$"" the linen drapers commission the young 9onatello, in his mid-
twenties, to provide a marble statue of 7t +ar-. 2n about "$": he delivers to
them the frst free-standing Renaissance sculpture.
The larger-than-lifesi(e St Mark stands in a completely rela)ed pose, with his
weight on one foot. Folds of loose drapery vividly suggest a pro6ecting -nee
and 6utting hip. The fgure has the solid and uncompromising =uality of
Roman portrait sculpture, even though the beard and long robes seem to
echo the saints on the faEades of *othic cathedrals.
9onatello's ne)t wor- for 3rsanmichele, probably completed in "$"B, has
much more openly a classical =uality.St George, a clean-shaven young man
scantily clad in Roman armour, confronts the viewer with a direct loo- closer
to the heroic =uality of 2ree3 scu&"ture than to the 1ruta& rea&is) of
Rome.
The same openness, amounting now to a positively provocative sense of
physical confdence, is characteristic of 9onatello's most famous statue - the
astonishing bron(e 9avid, a boy in a saucy hat with the head of *oliath at his
feet.
9one in about "$0%, to stand in a courtyard of the -edici palace, this is the
frst life-si(e nude scu&"ture since classical times. 2t reintroduces one of the
great themes of *ree- sculpture in a burst of glorious confdence, and with a
new mood of wit and playfulness.
9onatello revives yet another ancient tradition, in a wor- of lasting in;uence,
when he is commissioned in "$$0 to provide an e=uestrian portrait for 8adua
of the Aenetian condottiere >rasmo da 5arni, -nown as *attamelata. The
wor- is completed in about "$:% and is set up in 8adua in "$:0.
The massive composition !horse and rider together stand more than "" feet
high& har-s bac- to the mounted statue of -arcus Aure&ius in Rome. This is
the predecessor of every dignitary riding in bron(e through the streets of
modern cities, but few have the stern severity of this uncompromising soldier
of fortune.
(rune&&eschi and the Renaissance st.&e: AD 1!14*1!/
The creative blend of Brunelleschi's c&assica& studies and his own
imagination is frst seen in a hospital for foundling children, of which
construction begins in "$"F. ,lthough the ingredients of the faEade of the
3spedale degli 2nnocenti are the familiar ones of Roman architecture !an
arcade of columns, supporting rounded arches, beneath a row of rectangular
windows surmounted by pediments&, there is an entirely new feeling in the
balance between them, the proportions, the sense of slender elegance.
This new Renaissance style, Brunelleschi's contribution to the story of
architecture, can be seen in its purest form in another building in Florence -
commissioned by a member of the 8a((i family of ban-ers.
Cor- begins on the 8a((i chapel in "$0%. The columns and central arch on
the faEade of this tiny building are reminiscent of Brunelleschi's
earlier 5ound&in$ hos"ita&. But here the mood of calm and perfect balance
e)tends also to the interior.
>very surface, from ;oor to dome, is planned in an interacting display of
curves, circles, arches, rectangles and small roundels. Te)ture and colour, as
well as shape, create the pattern - contrasting the pale plaster of the walls,
the dar-er grey of stone pillars and arches, and the bright ceramic reliefs
!the blue and white ones by <uca della Robbia& in the roundels. This is not
only a gem of the Renaissance. 2t is the beginning of interior design.
-asaccio and the (rancacci Cha"e&: AD 1!6*1!67
2n about "$/0 a Florentine sil- merchant, Felice Brancacci, commissions
frescoes for a chapel in 7anta +aria del 4armine. is choice of artist is
+asolino, who brings into the pro6ect a younger colleague, +asaccio. +ost of
+asolino's frescoes in the chapel have been destroyed or painted over. But
those done by +asaccio, before his very early death in "$/#, are among the
great turning points of the Renaissance.
+asaccio clearly admires the wor- of 2iotto. e adopts the solid manner in
which the earlier master depicts character !this can be seen superbly in the
fgure of 7t 8eter paying the tribute money&, and he adds to it two further
=ualities.
3ne of these =ualities is a new freedom in the e)pression of emotion. The
bodies of the na-ed ,dam and >ve, driven from 8aradise, are almost
distorted in the intensity of their shame, as seen in the agoni(ed upturned
face of >ve.
The other signifcant new element is an increased ability to create fgures
with a real sense of air around them. The apostles, hearing @esus tell them
that tribute money should be paid to 4aesar, ma-e a freely arranged group
in an entirely believable open space ;an-ed by receding buildings on one
side and a landscape on the other.
C&assica& "ers"ecti#e: 1+th centur. AD
The sense of depth achieved by +asaccio is partly than-s to the new
Renaissance interest in the science of perspective, which goes hand in hand
with the rediscovery of the appeal of classical architecture. +asaccio ma-es
use of both themes in his illustionisticTrinity in the church of 7anta +aria
5ovella in Florence, where the crufcied 4hrist and other fgures appear
within a dramatically receding Roman arcade.
The perspective in this painting derives from personal -nowledge of
(rune&&eschi and his wor-. But after A&1erti's treatise of "$0' !De Pictura&,
the new science becomes widely practised. 2ndeed perspective becomes
something of an obsession with 2talian painters of the ":th century.
, genius such as Piero de&&a Francesca uses perspective with e)=uisite
s-ill and restraint. But 8aolo Gccello, famous for his use of the techni=ue,
verges on the obsessive in his painsta-ing arrangement of crossed lances
and foreshortened corpses in The Battle of San Romano.
The twin Renaissance interest in perspective and classical architecture can
be seen above all in the wor- of ,ndrea +antegna. is 4hristian scenes ta-e
place in totally convincing vistas of Roman buildings, often ruined. ,nd
theDead Christ of about "$#:, with the pierced soles of his feet thrust into
the face of the onloo-er, is the most famous e)ample of foreshortening in the
history of art.
8an #an E.c3 and the 2hent a&tar"iece: AD 1!6
3n ' +ay "$0/ a vast new painted altarpiece is set in place in the cathedral
of *hent. ,n inscription on it states that it was begun by ubert van >yc-
and completed in "$0/ by his brother @an.
5othing is -nown of ubert apart from this one mention of his name. But the
*hent altarpiece is only the frst of a succession of masterpieces signed by
@an van >yc- during the "$0%s. This is the decade in which the Renaissance
ma-es a spectacular appearance in the painting of northern >urope.
The *hent altarpiece is part of a late medieval tradition of wor-s of this -ind
made up of many panels, in this case folding in on each other.
Duccio9s Maest in 7iena is a noble predecessor. But 9uccio's panels are
for the most part small and crowded. >ach, on its own, would be interesting,
delightful and touching - but not spectacular.
Aan >yc-, painting with a new certainty of detailed design and e)ecution,
ma-es each panel a powerful wor- in its own right. ,nd yet each collaborates
with its immediate neighbour and its opposite number to ma-e a balanced
whole which is even more impressive than the separate parts.
The central panel, theAdoration of the Mystic Lamb, is the most ambitious
composition up to this point in the story of art. 7cores of 4hristian saints,
dignitaries and pilgrims are set with complete realism in a comple)
landscape.
The surrounding panels, tall and thin, are e=ually impressive. Chether they
be the na-ed ,dam and >ve, or organist and singers, or the archangel and
the Airgin in the two halves of an ,nnunciation, these fgures occupy their
allotted spaces with complete naturalness and realism. >ach is a powerful
composition in its own right, stri-ing when seen at a distance and fascinating
in its detail if viewed more closely.
8an #an E.c3 and "ortraiture: AD 1!*1!!!
The faces in the panels of the *hent altarpiece are so real that they could be
portraits, and indeed two of the panels depict the -neeling donors. This
degree of realism, introduced here in Flanders, is also found in the paintings
by van >yc- which are commissioned as portraits - again among the frst of
their -ind.
Aan >yc-'s most famous portrait is of a married couple - an 2talian merchant
in Bruges, *iovanni ,rnolfni, and his wife *iovanna. 8ainted in "$0$ and
-nown now as The Arnolni Marriage, this view of the pair holding hands in a
bedroom is thought to symboli(e their union rather than to depict an actual
ceremony.
The representation of the room as a three-dimensional space, together with
the almost tangible te)tures of the couple's rich clothes, gives notice that an
e)act depiction of reality can now be achieved. enceforth, in the wor- of
the best artists, this can be ta-en for granted.
7imilarly the character in the faces of the stern 2talian merchant and his
yielding wife signify that portraiture has come of age. The same is true of a
deeply personal image of a man in a turban, painted by van >yc- in "$00
and possibly a self-portrait. But in these pioneering wor-s of portraiture, in
the "$0%s, van >yc- is not alone - and perhaps cannot even claim priority.
Ro1ert Ca)"in: AD c,1!/
2n about "$0%, probably in Flanders, a husband and wife have their portraits
painted by an artist whose identity has been something of a mystery.
Believed now to be Robert 4ampin, he has been -nown in the past as the
more anonymous +aster of FlHmalle.
These two sitters are simpler than the ,rnolfnis !painted four years later&. 2n
a head-and-shoulders format, each panel is almost flled by a friendly face in
an elaborate headdress of everyday cloth. These people are well-o., but
they have few pretensions. They are the frst real glimpse of >urope's new
middle class. 2 -now of no couple, so far away in time, to whom art brings
one so close.
, sense of close involvement is a hallmar- of Robert 4ampin and his
wor-shop. 2t is seen in one of their favourite sub6ects - the Airgin and 4hild in
an ordinary domestic interior. 2n these views +ary is not enthroned as she
would be in an 2talian painting of this period. ere she is more li-ely to sit on
everyday furniture, nursing her child in a cosy room with wooden panelling,
tongs in the freplace, a useful towel hanging up ready to hand and a view
through a leaded window over a northern townscape. 2t is all reassuringly
real.
2n his mastery of illusionistic techni=ue 4ampin, li-e #an E.c3, has one
technical advantage peculiar at this time to northern >urope - oil paint.
Ro$ier #an der :e.den: AD 1!+
The e)traordinary decade of the "$0%s, in Flanders, introduces yet another
outstanding master. Rogier van der Ceyden, who probably learns his craft in
the studio of Robert 4ampin, becomes the o1cial painter to the city of
Brussels in "$0:. 2n the ne)t few years he produces a succession of
masterpieces, of which theDescent from the Cross in the 8rado is merely the
best -nown.
Aan der Ceyden retains the clarity and realism of 4ampin and van >yc-, but
replaces the calm and stillness of their wor- with a new intensity of emotion -
seen in the 8rado painting in the gruesome dead weight of 4hrist's body and
the collapse into grief of his mother.
The three great 5etherlands artists of the "$0%s are central fgures in the
story of Renaissance painting. By contrast their successors, in the rich
se=uence of great painters from this small northwest region of >urope, are
decidedly =uir-y. The gloriously eccentric canvases of (osch and
(rue$he& are much appreciated by collectors of the time, particularly within
the absburg family. But they are a byway of their own, far from the
mainstream.
For a century after the heyday of van >yc-, 4ampin and van der Ceyden,
2taly is the centre of >uropean painting. But the 5etherlands and 2taly have
strong economic lin-s.
(ru$es and Ita&.: 1+th centur. AD
The lin-s of trade and ;nance between cities in 2taly and the 5etherlands
have been immortali(ed in two wor-s of art. *iovanni ,rnolfni is a merchant
from <ucca living and trading in Bruges. 2n "$0$, when newly married, he
commissions a double portrait from 8an #an E.c3.
oping for a memorial to himself and his wife, *iovanni could not possibly
have made a wiser investment. The Arnolni Marriageis now one of the most
famous paintings in the world. 2t is also an early glimpse of the 2talian
interest in Flemish art which will result, later in the century, in the spread
southwards of the northern techni=ue of oil painting.
,n altarpiece of about "$B: proves very in;uential in this same respect when
it reaches F&orence. Tommaso 8ortinari, the agent in Bruges for the -edici
ban-, commissions from ugo van der *oes an altarpiece for the church of
7t >gidio in which his family has a chapel.
The central panel of the triptych shows the Airgin with her newly born 4hild
visited by angels and shepherds, while the -neeling 8ortinari family are
presented from the side panels by saints. This large altarpiece ma-es the
6ourney south by sea and river. 2t is the most imposing e)ample of the
northern style of painting to have reached F&orence, the heart of the
southern Renaissance.
Cit. o5 &earnin$: 1+th centur. AD
Florentine leadership in the arts is well established by the time of 4osimo's
rise to power in "$0$. is patronage brings much wor- to the city's painters,
sculptors and architects. But he also greatly encourages another strand of
the Renaissance in which Florence plays a ma6or role - the scholarship of
hu)anis).
This city, in which 8etrarch frst inspires (occaccio with a love of the classics
in "0:%, already has a clear distinction in this feld. 4osimo, who develops a
passion for scholarly studies, has a frm foundation to build upon.
4osimo founds three libraries in Florence, the greatest of them being the
collection of boo-s and manuscripts now -nown as the <aurentian library
!because it is housed ne)t to the church of 7an <oren(o&. 2t is during these
same years that 4osimo's friend, the humanist pope Nicho&as %, establishes
the Aatican library.
The interest of both men e)tends beyond the Roman theme of the early
Renaissance. They are fascinated also by the ideals of ancient *reece, and in
particular by the philosophy of P&ato.
Reliable manuscripts of 8lato frst become available in the west during
4osimo's lifetime. They are brought from 4onstantinople by *ree- 3rthodo)
churchmen and by By(antine scholars, whose city is now under
increasing threat 5ro) the Tur3s. 2n "$0F Florence has frst-hand
e)perience of these eastern scholars. ,t 4osimo's invitation, a council of the
church moves from Ferrara to Florence to continue a debate between Roman
4atholic and *ree- 3rthodo) clerics on their long-standing doctrina&
di<erences.
The rival churches eventually fail to agree. But the interest of 4osimo and of
Florence in *ree- culture is increased by the encounter.
Towards the end of his life 4osimo conceives a personal ambition to read all
the wor-s of 8lato. e commissions their translation into <atin by a Florentine
scholar, +arsilio Ficino. 2n "$'/ he establishes an informal 8latonic ,cademy
in Florence, with Ficino at its head.
Ficino's <atin translation of the complete wor-s of 8lato is published in
Florence in "$#$, too late for 4osimo himself. But with the te)ts now widely
available, 8lato gradually recovers the leading role in philosophy which has
been held since the time of A0uinas by ,ristotle.
Fra An$e&ico and San -arco: AD 1!!*1!!=
The 9ominican order has among its ran-s a superbly talented painter. ,s a
friar he is referred to as 'brother' !frater in <atin,fratello in 2talian&, and the
name by which he becomes -nown is Fra ,ngelico - the angelic brother.
From "$$0 Do)inicans in Florence employ him to provide contemplative
images for the walls of their convent of 7an +arco. 3ver the ne)t four years
he and his assistants create an e)tended masterpiece of 2talian Renaissance
art - though they would not have thought of it in those terms.
There are large frescoes in the cloisters and in the public areas of the
convent !mainly by Fra ,ngelico&, and forty-four smaller scenes from the
*ospel story in the cells of the friars !many of them painted by his
assistants&. But the master's style - clear colours, strong design, a sense of
depth and light learnt from the e)ample of -asaccio - is one which the
pupils can adopt with a fair measure of success.
The result is a building whose interior, as intended, is marvellously conducive
to a sense of wonder and contemplation - certainly for the friars for whom
the images were painted, and almost as much among today's tourists.
8ean Fou0uet: AD 1!!+*1!>/
@ean Fou=uet, born in Tours in about "$/%, spends four years in 2taly in the
"$$%s. Chen he returns to Tours, he begins a decade of very fruitful activity
blending 2talian and northern in;uences.
3ne of Fou=uet's most stri-ing wor-s, from about "$:%, is the portrait of his
patron, Itienne 4hevalier, seen praying with 7t 7tephen and painted as one
half of a diptych for a church in +elun. The realism with which the two men
are depicted derives from the e)ample of the 5etherlands masters of the
time, such as #an E.c3 and van der Ceyden, but Fou=uet adds a classical
calm of his own.
2n about "$:/ Itienne 4hevalier commissions from Fou=uet the wor- on
which his reputation is mainly based. 2t is a Boo- of ours, for which Fou=uet
provides detailed miniature illustrations of scenes from the Bible and the
lives of the saints. Fou=uet probably completes the wor- by "$:'. The
original number of the scenes is not -nown but forty-seven e)=uisite images
survive, nearly all of them in the museum at 4hantilly.
2n these small but beautifully controlled compositions Fou=uet again brings
together two traditions from outside France.
The colourful elegance of Fou=uet's scenes develops the tradition of the
miniatures of northern Burgundy and of the Li)1ur$ 1rothers, masters of
the Internationa& 2othic style. But in other elements - his use of the motifs
of classical architecture, his interest in persective, the rounded solidity of his
fgures and of their spatial relationships - Fou=uet reveals the in;uence of
what he has his seen in Renaissance 2taly, such as the wor- recently
completed by Fra An$e&ico in Florence.
, lin- with 2taly remains a central characteristic in the ne)t great period of
French painting, the "Bth century.
Piero de&&a Francesca: AD 1!!+*1!>/
, religious fraternity in 7ansepolcro, near ,re((o, re=uires a new altarpiece.
2n @anuary "$$: the members commission it from a young man in his late
twenties, who has been away in Florence for the past few years learning his
craft but who is now bac- in his small provincial home town.
The painter is 8iero della Francesca. e spends much of his wor-ing life in
7ansepolcro and in ,re((o, far from the main artistic centres, which to some
e)tent e)plains why his name is largely forgotten for several centuries after
his death. ,nother reason may be the profound calm of his wor-,
unfashionable in periods when art has tended more to the dramatic gesture.
e is now recogni(ed as one of the great masters of the 2talian Renaissance.
Chile in Florence, the young 8iero has clearly seen -asaccio's frescoes. is
frst altarpiece at 7ansepolcro is old-fashioned in concept, with a gilded
bac-ground, but the fgures already achieve the rounded solidity pioneered
in the frescoes of the Brancacci chapel.
From this beginning, within a few years, 8iero evolves his own characteristic
and inimitable style. 2t is visible in the famous Ba!tism of Christ, probably
painted as an altarpiece in 7ansepolcro in the early "$:%s. The fgures stand
with monumental stillness, bathed in a cool light of seemingly eternal clarity.
This is Renaissance hu)anis) in its broadest sense, allowing full weight to
the dignity of man.
The stillness, the sense of a scene perfectly positioned in space, the use of
patches of almost pure colour to suggest a harmony of pattern and order - all
these are characteristics of 8iero's timeless art. They can be seen at their
best in the fresco cycle on theLegend of the True Cross, which he paints in
the church of 7t Francis in ,re((o in the years around "$'%.
Gnderpinning the calm certainty of 8iero's created world is a fascination with
theories of form and "ers"ecti#e, very characteristic of the 2talian
Renaissance. 8iero is the author of two learned treatises on the mathematics
of pictorial illusion.
(ottice&&i: AD 1!=7*1!76
2f Piero's wor- o.ers the mystery of stillness, Botticelli introduces mystery of
another -ind - mysterious content, e)pressed in a restlessly sinuous line.
From about "$B% Botticelli is established as one of the leading painters of
Florence, fre=uently wor-ing for the +edici.
is characteristic style is seen in two of the best loved and most widely
recogni(ed paintings of the Renaissance. TheBirth of "enus#c$%&'() is a
traditional sub*ect #in classical mythology the goddess is born from the foam
of the sea and +oats ashore in a scallo! shell)$ But Botticelli,s tall nude and
her attendant -inds are a strikingly original -ay of de!icting the scene$
2n Prima.era!7pring, c."$B#& the scene itself is profoundly mysterious. 2n a
grove of oranges the three *races dance, while Flora scatters ;owers upon
the ground. 7he wears an e)=uisitely embroidered ;oral dress and is
attended by a woman with a plant growing vigorously from her mouth. This
woman, in her turn, is sei(ed by a man in ;ight.
These fgures depict a scene in 3vid. Jephyr !the west wind& grasps his bride
4hloris !the goddess of ;owers&, whereupon blooms sprout from her lips and
she is transformed into the fully developed Flora, strewing spring ;owers
upon the ground.
These two paintings, imbued with classical allusion, are believed to contain
themes of special signifcance to the 5eo-8latonists of Florence's P&atonic
Acade).. 2t is even possible that their content is devised by the academy's
director, +arsilio Ficino. Prima.eraalso conceals within its imagery several
hints of the names +edici and <oren(o.
Both wor-s are commissioned for his private villa by <oren(o di 8ierfrancesco
de' +edici, a cousin of Loren?o the -a$ni;cent. They suggest very well
the rarefed nature of Renaissance Florence in the late ":th century - an
atmosphere about to be brutally interrupted by the more strident certainties
ofSa#onaro&a.
Renaissance )an: 1+th * 1>th centur. AD
The term Renaissance +an has come to mean someone with e)ceptional
s-ills in a wide range of felds. The description applies to many people during
the Renaissance !a period when it is assumed that artistic talent can be
easily adapted to di.ering crafts&, but there are two outstanding candidates
for the title.
They areLeonardo da Ainci and-iche&an$e&o. The older man,Leonardo, is
e)ceptional in that he e)cels in two entirely di.erent disciplines -
e)perimental science and the visual arts. But on the artistic side
alone,-iche&an$e&omust be the man. e creates wor-s, all of the highest
=uality, in the four distinct felds of sculpture, painting, architecture and
poetry.
Leonardo da %inci: AD 1!76*1+14
<eonardo trains in Florence as a painter, almost certainly with Aerrocchio,
and he becomes a member of the painters' guild in "$B/. But in about "$#/
he sends a letter to <udovico 7for(a, the du-e of +ilan. 2n it he o.ers the
du-e his s-ills, which he lists under ten headings. The frst nine are all to do
with war. The 0%-year-old genius declares that he can provide the du-e with
original designs for portable bridges, siege engines, mining and e)plosive
e=uipment, mortars to spray the enemy with small stones, and even a
cannon-proof vehicle to transport troops safely into the midst of the enemy -
in other words a tan-.
2n the tenth and fnal clause <eonardo adds that he is also a talented
architect, sculptor and painter.
This imbalance may be <eonardo's guess at the du-e's priorities, but it also
re;ects to some e)tent his own interests. is famous noteboo-s show his
hand and his eye and his feverish mind wor-ing ceaselessly together to
observe and to analy(e the physical world, and then to develop the ideas
and designs which emerge from that process of observation.
<eonardo is ahead of his time in the notions which he dreams up !his ;ying
machines, li-e the tan-, are useless until there is an engine to propel them&.
But he is also the pioneer of new scientifc principles. 2n hisanato)ica&
researches, as with %esa&iushalf a century later, observation ta-es
precedence over theory and tradition.
The draughtsmansip in <eonardo's noteboo-s and s-etches would in itself
ran- him among the world's greatest artists. 7o would the =uality of his
surviving paintings, few though they are.
<ittle remains of his two most ambitious pro6ects, a large mural in +ilan and
another in Florence. TheLast Su!!er in 7anta +aria della *ra(ie in +ilan has
been so much restored !because <eonardo used a new but defective
techni=ue& that only its linear design is authentic. The scene of the victory at
An$hiari for the council chamber in Florence was never completed and was
subse=uently painted over. 3nly a few s-etches survive, some of them
showing s-irmishes in the battle.
S5u)ato and the -ona Lisa: AD 1+/+
,rt historians can demonstrate the in;uence of both these wor-s. <eonardo
is a pioneer in his treatment of the human drama between @esus and the
apostles at the <ast 7upper, and in his depiction of movement in battle.
But no e)pert guidance is re=uired to appreciate <eonardo's panel paintings.
They introduce a subtlety in the use of paint, and in the treatment of light,
which adds a new techni=ue to the painter's repertoire. <eonardo gently
blurs his colours, one into another, to avoid hard lines. The e.ect is -nown
assfumato !smo-y& - or in <eonardo's words 'without lines or borders, in the
manner of smo-e'.
<eonardo's smo-y style is seen in the portrait of a young woman which he
paints in Florence in about ":%:. 7he smiles at the viewer, with her hands
folded serenely on a ledge in front of her. er ga(e is wonderfully
mysteriousK so is the dream-li-e roc-y bac-groundK so even is her identity.
2t is probable that the sitter is <isa *herardini, the wife of Francesco del
*iocondo, so the portrait is variously -nown now as La Gioconda or theMona
Lisa !frommonna, an old 2talian word for 'lady'&. 5ow in the <ouvre, she has
been in France since ":"B - whenFrancis I ma-es the elderly <eonardo his
court painter, and ta-es +onna <isa into the royal collection.
-iche&an$e&o the scu&"tor: AD 1!44*1+1>
>arly in "$FF a sculpture of the Airgin +ary, holding on her lap the dead
4hrist, is placed in one of the chapels of old St Peter9s in Rome. This Piet/ is
still one of the most beautiful wor-s of art in the mighty new St Peter9s,
completed a century later. 2t is by a sculptor who has 6ust turned twenty-four
- +ichelangelo.
The precocious genius receives a commission two years later in his home
city of Florence. The authorities want a marble statue of Da#id.
+ichelangelo, using a vast slab of marble abandoned by another sculptor,
presents the biblical hero !more than twice lifesi(e, about "0 feet high& as a
na-ed youth standing with petulant confdence, sling thrown over his
shoulder, before the encounter with *oliath.
+ichelangelo wor-s on Da.idfrom 7eptember ":%" until @anuary ":%$. 2n
":%: the pope, 8u&ius II, summons him to Rome with a commission to
provide a sculpted tomb, with many fgures, for the pope's own memorial.
The vast pro6ect hangs over +ichelangelo for the ne)t four decades. 7ome of
his best -nown wor-s are later carved to form part of it !the great
marbleMoses and the two tormentedSla.es of ":"0-'&. But the pro6ect is
doomed to remain unfnished.
8art of the reason is that 8u&ius II has an even more challenging tas- for this
multi-talented artist. 2n ":%# he commissions +ichelangelo to paint the
ceiling of the Sistine cha"e&.
-iche&an$e&o the "ainter: AD 1+/!*1++/
+ichelangelo's reputation as a painter derives, almost entirely, from his wor-
in one building D the Sistine cha"e&. , few panel paintings possibly survive
from his hand from the period "$F:-":%#, though only one of them is
accepted by scholars beyond any doubt. This is the circular Airgin and 4hild
commissioned by ,ngelo 9oni in about ":%$, now in the G1(i. Two panel
paintings in the 5ational *allery in <ondon have long been attributed to
+ichelangelo by some and re6ected by others.
,t the end of his life there are frescoes for another Aatican building, the
8auline chapel, which +ichelangelo completes in "::%. But all the rest of his
painting is done in two creative bursts - on the ceiling of the Sistine cha"e&
!":%#-"/& and on the wall above the altar !":0'-$"&.
+ichelangelo's concept for the ceiling of the chapel is as bold as his
e)ecution of the fgures. ,n elaborate architectural perspective draws the
eye up past alcoves, in which huge fgures sit, to ever-receding panels which
eventually display a series of narrative scenes.
These vast but distant-seeming panels along the centre of the ceiling !each
about "% by "# feet& tell the story at the start of *enesis - from *od's
creation of the universe to the famous spar- of life !from the 4reator's fnger
to the languid ,dam&, and on through the e)pulsion from >den to the more
conventional form of human frailty in the drun-enness of 5oah.
The attendant fgures, many of them cramped in the available spaces, twist
and turn with convincing ;e)ibility. They seem to have a muscular certainty,
even where distortion is involved, deriving from +ichelangelo's s-ills as a
sculptor. The colours, revealed afresh in a cleaning programme during the
"FF%s, are vibrantly bright, in often startling combinations. !Cith these
surprises, of posture and colour, +ichelangelo inspires a younger generation
to develop the style -nown as mannerism&.
The e.ect of the 7istine ceiling is e)uberant, optimistic. 2t fts with the
confdent papacy of 8u&ius II. The end wall of the chapel is very di.erent. But
it too re;ects its times.
2n ":/B Ro)e is sac3ed by an unruly army of *erman mercenaries, while
4lement A22 shelters helplessly in the 4astel 7ant',ngelo. 2n the aftermath of
this appalling event, 4lement commissions +ichelangelo to paint the end
wall of the 7istine chapel. The sub6ect is to be the Last 8ud$e)ent. ,gain
+ichelangelo captures the mood perfectly, giving this traditional cautionary
tale a dar- and dramatic violence !though the anguished nudity proves too
much for some - twenty years later 9aniele da Aolterra is employed to paint
in some loincloths&.
From the 4reation to the Last 8ud$e)ent, the 7istine chapel forms a single
masterpiece. 2iotto's chapel in 8adua is the only other building to e)press
so thoroughly one painter's vision.
-iche&an$e&o the architect and "oet: AD 1+6/*1+>!
From the ":/%s, when +ichelangelo is indisputably 2taly's greatest artist
!<eonardo and Raphael have died in ":"F and ":/%&, he is fre=uently
commissioned to provide architecture as well as sculpture and painting.
is frst ma6or architectural pro6ect, in Florence, is a commemorative chapel
for the +edici family. +ichelangelo designs it from ":/%, providing both the
architectural setting and sculptures for the tombs. The full scheme is never
completed, for the chapel contains only two tombs - on which recline the
famous pairs of allegorical fgures, 9ay and 5ight, 9awn and 9us-. ,nother
commission begun in Florence a few years later is the <aurentian <ibrary !or
Biblioteca +edicea-<auren(iana&.
2n Rome in the ":0%s +ichelangelo designs the buildings on the 4apitol,
together with the steps leading up to them, much as they are today. 2n the
centre of the pia((a of the 4apitol he builds a plinth and moves on to it the
magnifcent e=uestrian statue, from Roman times, of the emperor -arcus
Aure&ius.
The fnal architectural commission of +ichelangelo's long life comes in ":$'.
+uch against his will, he is put in charge of the new St Peter9s. Cith a sure
touch he simplifes the pro6ect !bringing it bac- towards Bramante's original
conception&. The great drum supporting the dome is completed, to his own
design, before his death in ":'$.
From his early days in Florence, when his talent is encouraged by Loren?o
de9 -edici, +ichelangelo also ta-es a -een interest in literature and
philosophy.
,bout /:% of his poems survive. , few are madrigals, others are religious,
but the ma6ority are sonnets, written with platonic passion to a female poet,
Aittoria 4olonna, and a young boy, Tommaso de' 4avalieri. 8ublished frst in a
bowdleri(ed form in "'/0, they only become fully -nown and appreciated
after an edition of "#'0. They have subse=uently won +ichelangelo a
reputation among 2taly's leading poets, to add to his other distinctions.
Ra"hae&: AD 1+/!*1+6/
Chile +ichelangelo is painting the ceiling of the Sistine cha"e&, Raphael -
his 6unior by eight years - is wor-ing on another commission from 8u&ius
II 6ust a few hundred yards away.
Raphael may be described as the boy wonder of the 2talian Renaissance.
Born in Grbino in "$#0, the son of a minor painter !*iovanni 7anti&, Raphael
ma-es his way in about ":%$ to Florence. 3ver the ne)t few years he paints
the serenely beautiful +adonnas and oly Families, set in lu)uriant
landscapes, which frst reveal his genius. The style derives from 8erugino, in
whose studio Raphael probably learnt his craft, but in these paintings there is
a new certainty of composition, modelling and colour.
5ews of his talent must have spread rapidly among the patrons of the day,
because towards the end of ":%# he is summoned to Rome and is given a
papal commission of great importance. @ulius 22 wants frescoes for a series of
rooms in the Aatican which he intends to use as his own apartment. This
sensitive tas- is entrusted, in ":%F, to the /'-year-old Raphael. 2t occupies
him for the rest of his life.
Raphael's astonishing achievement in the 7tan(e !2talian for 'rooms', and the
simple name by which they are still -nown& is a triumph over many di.erent
problems, all new to him when he begins.
The themes to be depicted for the pope are often intellectual and thematic,
and thus much harder to bring to life than the intimacy of the oly Family.
They involve large numbers of characters, re=uiring compositional s-ills
similar to those of a director presenting a scene on a stage. ,nd the vaulted
rooms, with walls interrupted by doors or alcoves, present irregular and
di1cult surfaces.
Raphael triumphs over these obstacles. 2n the very frst room which he
underta-es, the 7tan(a della 7egnatura, he creates with great confdence
two crowded and contrasted scenes - theSchool of Athens, featuring 8lato,
,ristotle and many others, and the Dis!uta in which biblical fgures and
saints discuss the 4hristian sacrament.
Raphael's wor- on the 7tan(e is interrupted from ":": by another important
papal commission. 8ope Leo @, elected in ":"0, wants a set of ten tapestries
to hang around the lower walls of the 7istine chapel. e as-s Raphael to
design ten scenes from the 5ew Testament, to be sent north to >urope's best
weavers in Brussels.
Raphael, by now a master of large narrative compositions, paints the scenes
as full-si(e cartoons in gouache on paper. 2n spite of ha(ardous 6ourneys to
Brussels and bac- to Rome, and then to >ngland in "'/0 !after being bought
for 4harles 2's tapestry factory in +ortla-e&, seven of these cartoons survive
in surprisingly good condition in the Aictoria and ,lbert +useum.
9uring these same years Raphael has been developing formidable s-ills as a
male portraitist, painting his sub6ects more informally than has been the
tradition, with a soft play of light on fabric and ;esh, usually against neutral
bac-grounds, to focus all attention on the man's character. is sitters include
both his papal patrons, @ulius 22 and <eo L, and his friend the writer
Baldassare 4astiglione.
The brilliant portrait of 4astiglione, with its muted range of blac-s and greys
and browns, is the perfect e)ample of this new style. 2t is a style which will
be developed with great ;air during the "'th century by the portrait painters
of Aenice, in particular Titian.
Chen Raphael is painting 4astiglione's portrait, in ":":, -iche&an$e&o has
recently fnished the 7istine ceiling and Leonardo da Ainci is also in Rome -
not painting, but busy with scientifc e)periments. , mere si) years after
beginning the 7tan(e, Raphael is as much admired as the two older men. e
has a thriving studio, with a great number of assistants. e has been
appointed architect of St Peter9s !in ":"$& and is busy with other
achitectural pro6ects.
These three artists are already seen as the outstanding fgures of the time - a
period subse=uently regarded as the igh Renaissance in Florence and
Rome. Five years later, after a brief illness in ":/%, Raphael dies. e is thirty-
seven. is career has spanned 6ust si)teen years.
%enetian "aintin$: AD 1!=+*1+=>
9uring the ":th century, the great formative period of the 2talian
Renaissance, %enice lags far behind Florence and Rome in responding to the
spirit of the time. The reason is partly the long centuries of By(antine
in;uenceK Aenetian patrons still e)pect a painting to be an ob6ect of solemn
formality, preferably against a gilded bac-ground in the tradition of icons.
2t is also true to say that in architecture, at this same period, the Aenetians
are en6oying a magnifcent late ;owering of the earlier 2othic tradition. The
mood of the Renaissance has less immediate appeal here. But in terms of
painting this changes rapidly after "$B:.
2n "$B: a 7icilian painter, ,ntonello da +essina, arrives in Aenice, where he
spends about eighteen months. e is e)pert in the northern techni=ue of oil
painting, and the rich glowing =uality of his wor- greatly impresses Aenice's
leading painter, *iovanni Bellini.
,fter ,ntonello's visit, the fgures in Bellini's paintings evolve towards the
rounded and richly human style of the 2talian igh Renaissance. The
grouping of the fgures in his altarpieces becomes solidly three-dimensionalK
his Airgins sit at ease with their infants in enchantingly natural landscapesK
his portraits !such as the superb image of Aenice's doge in ":%"& are of ;esh-
and-blood people, even if in their 7unday best.
2n the last years of Bellini's long life there are two young painters in Aenice
capable of more than e=ualling his genius. They add to the Aenetian palette
the richness of colour which becomes the outstanding characteristic of the
school.
The frst of the two is *iorgione. e dies young in ":"% !though only two or
three years younger than Raphael&, and his wor- is only -nown from a very
small number of richly glowing masterpieces. The second is Titian, whose life
is as long as *iorgione's is short. Titian establishes a dominant position in
northern 2talian painting e=ual to that of <eonardo, +ichelangelo and Raphael
in Florence and Rome.
<i-e any other good painter of the time, Titian receives commissions for
church altarpieces !hisAssum!tion of the "irgin for the church of the Frari in
Aenice, in ":"#, is by far the largest yet seen in the city&, but he also
produces large secular paintings for delivery to an impressive clientele of
princely customers.
The frst such patron is ,lfonso d'>ste of Ferrara, for whom Titian paints three
magnifcent classical sub6ects between ":"B and ":/0. 3ne of
them, Bacchus and Ariadne, is today one of the treasures of the 5ational
*allery in <ondon.
Titian's customers also include the two great rivals of the era, Francis 2 of
France and the emperor 4harles A. e has no need to enter their service
abroad. e despatches wor-s to them from his studio in Aenice.
4harles A and his son, 8hilip 22, become Titian's most persistent patrons. They
particularly li-e his mythological sub6ects, or!oesie. +ythology provides
many opportunities to display the na-ed female form, and these paintings
build upon a rich new tradition in western art. (ottice&&i has pioneered the
theme of the nude, but *iorgione and then Titian develop it seductively in
the art of Aenice. !Cranach is doing so at much the same time, with less
subtlety, in *ermany.&
Titian also has an e)tremely busy career as a portrait painter, particularly in
the ":0%s and ":$%s. 9uring his long life !into his mid-#%s& he paints in an
increasingly free style, until his brush stro-es become bold short cuts to the
depiction of reality.
, similar freedom of e)ecution is characteristic of Tintoretto, the ne)t of
Aenice's great masters. Aeronese, arriving from Aerona in ":::, completes
the trio who together give this Aenetian school such distinction. Aeronese
paints his vast canvases in a more measured and controlled style than Titian
or Tintoretto. But the richness and colour remain unmista-able, as with so
many other painters in the studios of Aenice at this time.
DArer: AD 1!4!*1+67
2n "$F$ a young *erman artist, trained originally by his father as a
goldsmith, arrives in Aenice to improve his s-ills as a painter. The following
year he returns to 5uremberg to open a studio in his home town, but in ":%:
he is bac- in Aenice - staying eighteen months to savour the artistic delights
of this city. e is impressed above all by the aged (e&&ini.
The young man is ,lbrecht 9Mrer, who becomes the outstanding fgure in
Renaissance *ermany. is achievement is enhanced by his originality in
many di.ering felds of art.
,n early e)ample is his e)traordinary self-portrait at the age of twenty-two,
now in the <ouvre. , young man with dishevelled blond hair, wearing e)otic
red headgear and lavish robes, stares moodily from the canvas. 2t is the frst
e)ample in history of an artist presenting himself as an eye-catching fgure
of dramatic interest. Renaissance painters in 2taly have sometimes inserted
themselves as bystanders in a crowded scene. But 9Mrer ta-es centre stage,
beginning a long romantic tradition of the self-portrait !carried by
Re)1randt to its greatest lengths&.
Five years later 9Mrer paints himself in even more splendid clothes, with a
view of the ,lps through a window. ere, he says, is a man who has travelled
- to 2taly.
9Mrer's two trips to 2taly result in other wor- of great originality. ,s he
travels, he s-etches in watercolour the features of the landscape which ta-e
his fancy - trees by a la-e, a castle on a hill, mountain valleys. These
watercolours are not preparatory wor- for oil paintings. They are done, it
seems, purely for pleasure - beginning a rich tradition in the story of art.
9Mrer's astonishing s-ill in the medium is evident in his famous ":%/ s-etch
of a hare.
e brea-s new ground yet again, travelling to ,ntwerp in ":/%, when he
-eeps the frst e)ample of a 6ournal illustrated with s-etches. +eanwhile he
ma-es himself the most prolifc Renaissance master in the new "rint)a3in$
techni=ues of woodcut, engraving and etching.
The ;rst artists9 "rints: 1+th * 1>th centur. AD
Chen the frst >uropean prints are published, in the early ":th century, they
are the wor- of craftsmen supplying a demand for cheap holy images or for
"&a.in$ cards. ,rtists only become interested in the possibilities of the
medium from the "$:%s. They are frst attracted by the newest techni=ue at
that time, inta$&io engraving in copper.
The pioneer in the feld is e)tremely prolifc, creating more 0%% engraved
plates, but he is -nown only as +aster >7 from the two initials with which he
sometimes signs his plates. The frst two -nown artists to speciali(e in
engraving begin wor- at the same period, the "$'%s, but in di.erent places -
+antegna in +antua and 7chongauer in 4olmar.
The greatest printma-er among Renaissance artists is, li-e 7chongauer, a
*erman. But unli-e his predecessors, he e)cels in woodcut and etching as
well as engraving.
,lbrecht 9Mrer, familiar with metal from his early training as a goldsmith,
begins engraving copper plates in his twenties and rapidly develops a
mastery of the techni=ue. e is more unusual in tac-ling at the same period,
the "$F%s, the much more mechanical craft of the woodcut !where each area
of white in the image has to be scooped from the bloc- of wood&. But 9Mrer's
large and completely assured woodcuts immediately demonstrate that this
too can be an artist's medium.
The third form of printing in which 9Mrer shows his originality is etchin$.
This is a techni=ue invented during his lifetime !the frst etchin$s are
printed, probably in ,ugsburg in about ":%%, from iron plates at this stage
rather than copper&. 9Mrer frst tries the new medium in ":":. e only
etches si) plates. But he is the frst to demonstrate the informality of
etchin$, which can give the artist almost the same freedom as s-etchin$ in
pencil.
From the end of the "'th century etchin$ is virtually the only form of
printing to attract the artist until the arrival of a0uatint and &itho$ra"h..
<ater masters, such as Re)1randt, develop the potential frst shown by
9Mrer.
Northern hu)anis): 1>th centur. AD
,lthough the pictorial style associated with the Renaissance features early in
northern art !with 8an #an E.c3 and his contemporaries in the 5etherlands&,
the interest in classical studies, which provided the original impulse for the
movement in 1!th*centur. Ita&., arrives late in the north. 2t is associated
above all with 9esiderius >rasmus of Rotterdam.
>rasmus spends much of his life travelling >urope as a scholar, fnding
employment where he can. This brings him into contact with other li-e-
minded men such as @ohn 4olet and Thomas +ore in >ngland.
The interest which unites them can be described as 4hristian humanism.
These men wish to use the classics not as an alternative to 4hristianity but
as a means of strengthening 4hristian life. >rasmus learns *ree- so as to
edit the 5ew Testament in its original form, stating in his preface that he
wants the holy te)t translated into every language to bring the *ospel truth
closer to ordinary men and women.
@ohn 4olet, in similar vein, founds the <ondon school of 7t 8aul's to educate
the ne)t generation in both the classics and the *ree- 5ew Testament.
These men have a detached and even humorous view of the foibles of the
world, as is seen in two of the most popular satirical wor-s of the "'th
century - >rasmus'sPraise of 0olly!":%F& and Tho)as -ore's 1to!ia !":"'&.
But events, in the violent upheaval of the Re5or)ation, overta-e these well-
meaning 4hristian scholars. >rasmus is side-lined in his old age by religious
controversies in which he refuses to come down frmly on either
side. Tho)as -ore dies a martyr's death because he cannot in good
conscience accept the political cynicism of the >nglish Re5or)ation.
2n these early decades of the "'th century the idealism of the Renaissance
dies. Chat lasts is a new ability to =uestion all aspects of life and to accept
the star- facts of reality. The un;inching pragmatism of -achia#e&&i is a
legacy of the Renaissance. 7o is the more gently observant eye
of -ontai$ne, and the all-embracing genius of Sha3es"eare.
The Renaissance spirit is capable of re;ecting the horror of the sac3 o5
Ro)e in ":/B in the contrast between the ceiling and end wall of the
Sistine cha"e&. Cith the same clear sight, Sha3es"eare's amlet can
begin a speech in marvelling mood !'Chat a piece of wor- is manN'& and end
in disillusionment !'and yet, to me, what is this =uintessence of dustO man
delights not me'&.PPP
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