Negative Feedback

There are many ways in which negative feedback is used by organisms in order to
control their internal environments. Its main aim is to return a system back to normal,
to do this the result of the process influences a change and reverses the system
back to normal. Many organisms use this method in maintain a constant internal
environment.

One example of negative feedback is the control of carbon dioxide levels in our blood
to detect a change in this we have receptors in the carotid artery called
chemoreceptors detect changes in pH of the blood. When there is a decrease in the
pH of the blood chemoreceptors detect this change and send impulses to the
medulla oblongata that increases heart rate. Impulses are sent from the medulla
oblongata to the SAN of the heart via the sympathetic nervous system hence
increasing heart rate and hence more carbon dioxide is expelled from the blood. The
pH of the blood then increases back to normal, this is then also detected by
chemoreceptors they then hence reduce the frequency of impulses sent to the
medulla oblongata and hence reduces the frequency of impulses sent from the
medulla oblongata to the SAN in he heart and so heart rate decreases to normal.

Thermoregulation also uses negative feedback in order to return the system back to
the norm, when there is an increase in body temperature this is detected by
thermoreceptors and hypothalamus to which then send impulses to the heat loss
centre of the brain, this then sends impulses to effectors in order to carry out
appropriate functions. One such function is vasodilation in order increase blood flow
to the surface of the skin to allow more heat to be evaporated this way. The body
also starts to sweat to which cools the body down due to the evaporation of water
from the skins surface. Once the body temperature is returned back to normal this is
detected by the thermoreceptors and the hypothalamus to which reduce the
frequency at which they send impulses to the heat gain centre hence reducing the
impulses to effectors and hence returning body temperature to normal.

Hormones that are involved in the regulation of blood sugar levels also use negative
feedback, first is the hormone insulin. Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans detect a
rise in blood sugar level, they then secrete the hormone insulin into the bloodstream.
The hormone secreted then binds to receptors on cells to which causes a change in
shape for protein carrier molecules on the surface of the cells, the change in shape
allows more glucose into cells. Another effect of insulin is that it activates an enzyme
to which converts the glucose in the blood to fat and glycogen. The combined effects
therefore cause blood glucose level to decrease and return to normal. Beta cells then
detect this change and reduce the amount of insulin secreted as blood sugar level is
returned to the norm.

On the other hand when there is a decrease in blood sugar concentration another
hormone is involved, alpha cells in the islets of Langerhans detect a decrease in the
concentration glucose in the blood. These alpha cells then start to secrete the
hormone glucagon, this then activates the enzyme that converts glycogen to glucose
(glycogenolysis), it also increases the conversion of amino acids and glycerol into
glucose known as gluconeogenesis. All of these processes bring about an increase
in blood glucose concentration and hence bring system back to normal.

One the most known biological processes to use negative feedback is the oestrous
cycle, to which first starts with the Follicle Stimulating Hormone to which causes the
ripening of follicle, it then stimulates the production of oestrogen from the follicle, this
hormone repairs of lining of the uterus is preparation to receive a fertilized egg.
Oestrogen in turn stimulates the production of Luteinising Hormone from the pituitary
gland and inhibits the production of FSH. The luteinizing hormone causes ovulation
and development of corpus leuteum, in addition LH also stimulates the production of
progesterone from the corpus leuteum. Progesterone then inhibits the production of
LH and FSH and so maintains the lining of uterus in wait to receive fertilized egg. If
the egg is not fertilized then the corpus leuteum degernerates and hence
progesterone production is stopped, uterus lining breaks away and FSH is not longer
inhibited and resumes its production starting the cycle all over again.

Another example of negative feedback would be the control of blood pressure, there
are receptors on the wall of the carotid artery and aorta that detect changes in blood
pressure. When these pressure receptors detect an increase in blood pressure they
send an impulse to the medulla oblongata to which then sends an impulse via the
parasympathetic nervous system to the SAN of the heart in order to decrease heart
rate. However if your blood pressure was too low, then the pressure receptors send
impulses to the medulla oblongata to which sends impulses via the sympathetic
system to the SAN in order to increase heart rate and therefore increase blood
pressure and hence return it back to normal. Once blood pressure has returned to its
normal level pressure receptors in the carotid artery and aorta will reduce the
frequency of impulses to the medulla oblongata hence reducing the impulses sent to
the SAN via the sympathetic nervous system thereby making sure that the heart rate
increase to the point where it causes the blood pressure to steer away from the
norm.

Another example of negative feedback is the control of blood water concentration,
eg. Taken from Mark Scheme: Regulation of blood water potential, osmosis, role of
receptors in hypothalamus, secretion of ADH from pituitary gland, effect permeability
of d.c.t. and collecting duct, effect of urine concentration. Water potential important,
involved in delivery of oxygen to tissue in need, maintain cells, ensure that they do
not burst or shrink due to changes in water potential.

Population stability, effect of increasing competition, returns size and restors balance
of population.

Selection stabilizing selection resulting in consistency of species

NOTE: Above has not been taught, however needs to learn relationship between
hypothalamus and control of water potential of blood.