Chemistry notes for Year 2 2013

Atomic Structure
Atoms of the same element are all identical. All atoms are made out of subatomic particles:
protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons and neutrons are packed densely in the nucleus,
a.k.a. the nucleons. Electrons spin around the nucleus in fixed orbits. Protons contain a
positive charge of plus 1 and relative mass is 1. Electrons contain a negative charge with a
negligible mass of 0. Neutrons contain a neutral charge and have a relative mass of 1. The
nucleus is positively charged as it contains nucleons (Protons have positive charge). In an
atom, there are an equal number of positively charged protons and negatively charged
electrons. Hence an atom is electrically neutral.
The nucleon (mass) number is the sum of protons and neutrons in the atom. Atomic (proton)
number is the number of protons in an atom. The number of neutrons = Mass Number-
Atomic number. Each element has its own unique proton number. In an electrically neutral
atom, proton numbers is equal to the electron number.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons. Hence, they have different mass numbers compared to the normal atom.
Although isotopes have similar chemical properties (chemical reactions), they have different
physical properties (e.g. boiling points and melting points, densities). Isotopes can be
naturally occurring or formed as a result of nuclear reactions. Isotopes can be divided into
two types: radioactive and non-radioactive. Most isotopes in the air and ground are non-
radioactive. Isotopes have similar chemical formulae and form similar ions. They also have
exactly the same electronic arrangement.
Electrons are arranged in groups of varying energy levels called electron shells. Electron
shells must be filled in order of increasing energy levels. The outermost electron shell is
called the valence shell and electrons there are called valence electrons. The chemical
properties of an element are dependent on the number of valence electrons (valence electrons
form chemical bonds between atoms). All electrons in a given shell have approximately equal
energy. The way in which electrons are managed in an atom among the various energy shells
is called electron configuration.

Periodic Table
The periodic table is a way of arranging and classifying the elements. The elements are
arranged in order of proton/atomic number. The vertical columns in the periodic table are
called groups (written in Roman numerals) and the horizontal rows called periods. Group I
metals are called alkali metals; Group VII elements are halogens and Group 0 elements are
called noble gases. Blocks of metals in between Group II and II are called transition metals.
Metallic characteristics decrease from the left hand side to the right hand side of the periodic
table. Non-metals can react with both metals and non-metals. Metals can only react with non-
metals.
If the relative atomic mass of a naturally occurring element is not a whole number, e.g.
Chlorine (35.5), the most important reason for this is that the element is made up of more
than one type of atom.
Atoms of elements in the same period have the same number of shells; atoms in the same
group have the same number of valence electrons (same chemical properties). Elements with
Chemistry notes for Year 2 2013

both metallic and non-metallic traits are called metalloids. Transition metals have high
densities and high melting points.
Alkali metals are reactive metals with low melting and boiling points. They are silvery and
soft with low densities. Reactive metals lose electrons more readily than normal metals.
Atoms with more electrons lose electrons more readily due to the weaker bond it has with the
nucleus and due to the shielding effect of inner electron shells.
Halogens are reactive non-metals with low melting and boiling points. They have a range of
colours from yellow to red to black and they exist as diatomic molecules. Halogens react with
most metals to form salts. The melting and boiling points increase down the group. Reactivity
decreases and colour becomes darker down the group.
Noble gases (Group 0) are unreactive non-metals with a stable electronic configuration. They
have low melting and boiling points and exist as monatomic colourless gases. Some uses of
noble gases are helium being used in balloons, neon and argon in light bulbs, and neon used
in strip lights.
Reactions of Group I metals generally involve the loss of the outermost shell electron. As a
result the reactivity of the metals is dependent on how readily the electron can be lost. The
reactivity of Group I metals increases down the groups because the size of atoms increase
down Group I. Boiling and melting points decrease down the group. Also, the valence
electrons are found further away from the nucleus. Also the shielding effect due to the inner
filled electron shells increasing down the group contributes to the reactivity. As a result, the
electrostatic forces weaken, thus increasing the reactivity of these metals.
The size of the atoms decrease across period 2 because the number of electron shells remain
the same and the valence electrons are of similar distance from the nucleus. As the electrons
increase, the proton charge increases, thus drawing the valence electrons nearer.
Noble gases are either electron duplets or electron octets. The only electron duplet is Helium
(He) and the rest of the noble gases are electron octets. Atoms of other elements try to
achieve stable electron octets (noble gas electronic structures) by sharing electrons (covalent
bonding) or by the transfer of electrons (ionic bonding).

Chemical Bonding and Structure
Atoms undergo chemical bonding to achieve the noble gas configuration to make them more
stable chemically. There are 3 main types of chemical bondsionic, covalent and metallic.
Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is giving or taking electrons. The strong electrostatic attraction between two
oppositely charged ions which hold the two ions together is called an ion or electrovalent
bond. They are strongly attracted to each other and arranged in a giant lattice/ionic structure.
If electrons are added to or removed from an atom, the atom becomes a charged particle
which is called an ion. The oppositely charged ions attract each other to form an ionic or
electrovalent compound.
A negative ion is formed by adding electrons and positive ions are formed by removing
electrons from an atom. Metals form positive ions, as they have few electrons in their outer
Chemistry notes for Year 2 2013

shell, and they lose these valence electrons readily to achieve the noble gas configuration.
Non-metals form negative ions, as non-metals have many valence electrons. They only need
a few more electrons to achieve the noble gas configuration.

Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals. Ionic compounds have high melting
and boiling points so they are hard, crystalline solids at room temperature. Ions cannot
conduct electricity in the solid state but they can in the
molten (pure liquid) or aqueous state (dissolved in water).
This is because there are free-moving ions that can carry
electrical charges but in the solid state, the ions are held
in fixed positions by strong ionic bonds so they cannot
move freely to conduct electricity. Ions are usually
soluble in water.
During ionic bonding, the metals lose electrons and the
non-metal gains electrons. Ionic bonding can be
represented using a dot and cross diagram. Elements on the left hand side of the periodic
table tend to lose electrons to form positive ion charges while elements on the right hand side
of the periodic able tend to gain electrons to form negative ion charges.
Typical Properties of ionic compounds Explanation in terms of their structure
and bonding
Ionic compounds are usually crystalline
solids
The ions are arranged in a highly regular
pattern
Ionic compounds are hard solids with high
melting points
The electrostatic forces of attraction between
the oppositely charged ions is very strong
and extends over the entire structure, thus
large amounts of energy are required to
overcome the strong forces of attraction.
Ionic compounds cannot conduct electricity
in the solid state but can in the molten and
aqueous state.
In the solid structure, the ions are held in
fixed positions. In a molten or aqueous
solution, the ions are free to move so they
can carry electric charges, so a flow of charge
(an electric current) is possible.
Most ionic compounds are soluble in water. Water molecules are attracted to the charged
ions. This helps to pull the structure apart as
the solid dissolves.

Examples: Sodium Chloride, Magnesium Oxide, Calcium Chloride

Covalent Bonding
The covalent bond is the bond formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms of non-
metal elements. The covalent bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus
and the shared electrons. Covalent bonding usually occurs where non-metal atoms bond to
each other. The outer shells of atoms overlap and electrons are shared, allowing both atoms
forming the bond to attain a stable, noble gas electronic configuration. Covalent bonds can be
Chemistry notes for Year 2 2013

formed between atoms of the same and different elements. They have simple molecular
structure. The atoms in the molecules are held together by strong covalent bonds. However,
the forces between individual molecules (intermolecular forces) are very weak in comparison.
Typical properties of substances with
simple molecular structure
Explanation in terms of their structure and
bonding.
They have low melting and boiling points, so
are often liquids or gases at room
temperature. (With exceptions like iodine and
sulphur which are solids)
The intermolecular forces are very weak, so
little energy is required to overcome the weak
intermolecular forces of attraction to allow
molecules to move around each other (melt)
or to escape completely (boil) .
They do not conduct electricity in any state. Simple molecular structures do not contain
any charged particles (ions and electrons)
which are free to move about.


A molecule is made up of 2 or more atoms held together by covalent bonds while molecules
of compounds contains atoms of different elements covalently bonded together. There are
weak intermolecular forces between the molecules but strong covalent bonds exist within the
molecules. All molecules with two or more atoms contain covalent bonds. They are usually
insoluble in water but covalent molecules like sugar, alcohol and hydrogen chloride.
Examples: Carbon dioxide, Oxygen gas, Methane, Sulphur
Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds with
simple molecular structure
Melting & Boiling point High Low
Electricity conductivity Cannot conduct in solid state,
can conduct in molten or
aqueous state
Cannot conduct in any state
Solubility in water/organic
solvents (alcohol)
Usually soluble in water;
insoluble in organic solvents
Usually insoluble in water;
soluble in organic solvents


Acids and Bases
Acids
An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. E.g.
Hydrochloric Acid (aqueous) Hydrogen Ion (aq) and Chlorine (aq). Acids only show their
properties when they are dissolved in water because acids dissociate in water to form
hydrogen ions which are responsible for their acidic properties. However when dissolved in
organic solvents like alcohol, they do not show any acidic properties.
Examples of strong acids are sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and nitric acid. They are
mineral acids which are commonly used in laboratories. Examples of weak acids are ethanoic
acid and citric acid. They are organic acids which are normally found in fruits and vegetables.
Physical properties of acids:
Chemistry notes for Year 2 2013

Has a Sour taste
Turns blue litmus paper red
pH less than 7
Good conductor of electricity
Chemical properties of acids:
Reacts with metal carbonates to produce carbon dioxide
Reacts with bases to form salt and water (neutralisation) [is an exothermic reaction]
React with reactive metals to give hydrogen gas [Common unreactive metals are
copper, silver and gold]
Bases
A base is a substance that reacts with an acid to form salt and water only. It is any metal
oxide or hydroxide. Metal OxideO, metal hydroxideOH-. Metal oxides and hydroxides
are alkalis. All alkalis are bases but not all bases are acids. Examples of bases are sodium
hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide and sodium oxide.
Soluble bases are known as alkalis. Common alkalis are sodium hydroxide, aqueous
ammonia and calcium hydroxide. Alkalis dissociate to produce hydroxide ions (OH-) when
dissolved in water. Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are examples of strong bases
while aqueous ammonia is an example of a weak base. Group 1 elements are either
hydroxides or oxides and are soluble. Another soluble base (alkali) is calcium hydroxide. If
the question does not specify whether a base is insoluble or not, assume they are insoluble.
Physical properties of alkalis:
Have a bitter taste
Have a slippery and soapy feel
Turn red litmus paper blue
pH more than 7
Good conductors of electricity
Chemical properties of alkalis:
React with acids to form salt and water in an exothermic reaction
React with ammonium salts to produce ammonia gas
Reactions
1, Acid + Reactive metal Salt and hydrogen gas
2. Acid + Metal carbonate Salt, Carbon Dioxide and Water (This reaction is called
neutralisation and is exothermic)
3. Acid + Bases Salt and Water
4. Bases + Ammonium SaltsSalt, Water and Ammonia Gas
When writing word equations for reactions, do not write the word and, write + instead.
The type of salt formed depends on the acid used. Nitric acid forms nitrates, sulfuric acid
Chemistry notes for Year 2 2013

form sulfates and hydrochloric acid forms chlorides. Unreactive metals such as copper, silver
and gold do not react with dilute acids.
Examples:
(a) Magnesium Hydroxide + Sulfuric acid Magnesium Sulfate + Water ( Reaction 3)
(b) Calcium Carbonate + Hydrochloric acid Calcium Chloride + Carbon Dioxide +
Water (Reaction 2)
(c) Zinc + Nitric acid Zinc Nitrate + Hydrogen gas (Reaction 1)
pH and Indicators
pH stands for power of hydrogen. It is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
The pH scale uses a scale of numbers from 0-14. Acids have pH<7 and alkalis have pH>,
neutral solutions have pH=7 under room conditions. Strong acids have a pH range of 1-3
while weak acids have a pH range of 4-7. Strong alkalis usually have a pH range of 12-14
while weak alkalis have a pH range of 8-11. The lower the pH value, the more acidic the
solution; the higher the pH value, the more alkaline/basic the solution is.
Indicators are chemical substances that change colour in solutions of different pH values.
Some common indicators include: litmus paper, Universal indicator, methyl orange and
bromothymol orange. Simple indicators like litmus paper tell us whether a solution is acidic
or alkaline. The Universal indicator contains a mixture of indicators and gives a range of
different colours when placed in solutions with different pH. Hence it can be used to
determine the pH of the solution by observing the colour change. It is used in the form of a
solution or a paper. pH of a solution can also be determined by using a pH meter or a pH
probe attached to a data logger.

Overview
Atomic Structure
An atom contains protons (+1), nucleons (0) and electrons (-1)
Protons = Electrons=Proton/Atomic number, Nucleon number Proton number =
Nucleons
Isotopes are atoms the same element with different number of neutrons (nucleon
number) but same number of protons/electrons (proton number)
Isotopes have similar chemical properties but different physical properties
Electrons of an atom orbit around its nucleus in electron shells.
The outer most shell is called the valence shell and the valence electrons are
responsible for the chemical properties
Periodic Table