ENGENIOUS SYSTEMS, INC.

StormShed 2
nd
Generation
Methods &
Reference
Volume
1

S TORMS HED 2
ND
GENERATI ON
Methods & Reference
Engenious Systems, Inc.
PO Box 30188

Seattle WA 98103



Table of Contents
Precipitation ............................................................... 1 Mannings Equation........................................... 29
IDF curves.............................................................. 1 Kutter Formula................................................... 31
SCS Rainfall Patterns........................................... 2 Hazen-Williams Formula................................... 31
Huff Storm Coefficients ....................................... 3 Darcy-Weisbach Formula.................................. 32
Abstraction ................................................................. 4 Control Structures.................................................... 35
Curve Number Approach .................................... 4 Weirs .................................................................... 35
Broad................................................................. 35
Unconnected Impervious CN............................... 8
Reverse Flow.................................................... 37
Rectangular ....................................................... 37
Holtans Equation................................................. 8
Reverse Flow.................................................... 38
Green-Ampt Equation.......................................... 9 Vee.................................................................... 39
Reverse Flow.................................................... 40
Time of Concentration............................................. 10
Overflow........................................................... 41
SCS TR-55 ........................................................... 10
Orifice .................................................................. 41
Sheet.................................................................. 10
Multiple............................................................. 41
Shallow ............................................................. 11
Reverse Flow.................................................... 42
Channel ............................................................. 13
Vertical.............................................................. 42
Reverse Flow.................................................... 43
Fed Aviation Administration Formula............. 13
Culvert ................................................................. 43
Izzard.................................................................... 14
Reverse Flow.................................................... 44
Kerbys Formula................................................. 14
Storage Structure ..................................................... 49
Kinematic Wave Formula.................................. 15
Vault ..................................................................... 49
Kirpich ................................................................. 15
Trapezoidal.......................................................... 49
Morgali & Lindsay Formula ............................. 15
Underground Pipe .............................................. 50
SCS Equation ...................................................... 16 Circular ............................................................. 51
Arch .................................................................. 51
Estimating Runoff.................................................... 17
Ellipse ............................................................... 51
Unit Hydrograph................................................. 17
Stage-Storage....................................................... 51
Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph .................. 19
Reservior Routing .................................................... 53
Estimating Peak Rates ............................................. 20
Level Pool (Puls) ................................................. 53
Rational Method ................................................. 20
Runge-Kutta........................................................ 54
King County Rational Method.......................... 21
Numerical ............................................................ 54
SCS & SBUH Hydrographs............................... 22
Channel Routing...................................................... 57
Uniform Flow........................................................... 25
Storage ................................................................. 57
Section Shapes ..................................................... 25
Muskingum-Cunge ............................................. 58
Rectangular ....................................................... 25
Trapezoid .......................................................... 25 Convex.................................................................. 59
Circular ............................................................. 26
Kinematic............................................................. 60
Arch................................................................... 26
Ellipse ............................................................... 28

Travel Time Shift................................................ 60

Hydraulics of Storm Sewers .................................... 61
Bernoulli Equation.............................................. 61
Friction Losses..................................................... 61
Transition Losses ................................................ 62
Contraction Losses............................................ 62
Expansion Losses.............................................. 62
Manhole Losses ................................................... 62
Entrance Losses ................................................ 62
Junction Losses................................................. 62
Bend Losses...................................................... 62
Direct Step Profiles............................................. 63
Appendix................................................................... 66
SCS Rainfall Distributions................................. 66
Creating your own Rainfall Distribution......... 67
Culvert Loss Coefficients ................................... 68
Table of Figures
Figure 1: Applicable region for various SCS Type curves (Soil Conservation Service, 1986). 2
Figure 2: SCS type curves for distribution of 24-hour rainfalls. 3
Figure 3: Solution to Runoff Equation (TR-55 June 1986) 5
Figure 4: Average Velocities for Estimating Travel Time for Overland Flow. 17
Figure 5: Hydraulic Properties of Arch Conduits Flowing Part Full 27
Figure 6: Ellipse Dimensions 29
Figure 7: Broad Crested Weir 36
Figure 8: Rectangular Weir 37
Figure 9: Triangular or Vee Weir 40
Figure 10: Vee Weir Coefficients 40
Figure 11: Multiple Orifice Structure 41
Figure 12: Vertical Orifice 42
Figure 13: Culvert Logic Diagram 44
Figure 14: Terms in Bernoulli Equation 61
Figure 15: Sewer Bend Loss Coefficient 63


D E S I G N C U S T O M I Z A T I O N
Forward
This manual should not be read front to end as it would be boring
and without context. Instead, this should be treated as a reference
manual for determining how engineering principles are treated or
applied by the program.
The topics discussed in this reference manual correspond to the major divisions within
the StormShed2G program. A section on Stormwater Runoff Estimation leads the
topics because it is fundamental to the purpose of the program. Without stormwater,
there is no point in designing conveyance systems or detention facilities. Stormwater is
created by precipitation from the skys.
The remaining chapters in details the equations used by the program in each of the
major categories. Uniform flow describes the assumptions and equations used by the
program to compute flow and velocity. The chapter on control structures describes
the equations and structures that are supported by the program.
Storage structures describe the equations used to develop stage storage rating curves
that are used in conjunction with the stage discharge rating curves developed in the
Control Structure topic.
Reservoir Routing describes the methodology used by the program to determine the
amount of storage available in detention ponds. There are several methods that are
supported, the most common of which is the Level Pool method. The last chapter
describes various forms of hydrologic routing that are supported by the program.
This manual is not intended to teach engineering principles. It is assumed that those
individuals using the program already have a firm grasp of the theory and its
application. The material in this manual simply describes the procedure and equations
that are used. No attempt is made to explain why the procedure is appropriate in the
instance that it is used within the program.


D E S I G N C U S T O M I Z A T I O N

S T O R M W A T E R R U N O F F E S T I M A T I O N
Stormwater Runoff Estimation
The amount of runoff from a parcel of land can be thought of as
an amount of rain applied to a known area of land, from which
losses are subtracted.
Precipitation
Everyone acknowledges that when it rains, runoff is generated. From a design point of
view, we need something else. We need to know how much and how often it rains on
our project location. Typically this information is generated from data collected by the
U.S. National Weather Service through a system of rain gages. While the raw data is
important, it is of little use to StormShed2G.
IDF curves
Depending on the design methodology, the form of precipitation data that is relevant
for design is either the Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) curves or a Probably
Maximum Precipitation. Both are tools that allow the engineer to predict what will
happen in the future, instead of what happened in the past. IDF curves are typically
used for the Rational Method of storm water peak runoff analysis. The most common
source for runoff intensity data is U.S. Weather Bureau TP40 and HYDRO-35. Most
of the reviewing agencies have developed a set of IDF curves for use within their
jurisdiction.
The equation
( )
n
x
b T
KF
i
+
=
Where F is the frequency, and K, b, x, and n are constants for a specific location.
Given an IDF curve, the constants can be estimated using nonlinear regression
analysis. Use of the equation has generally been replaced with IDF curves provided by
reviewing agencies. 2G uses a variation of the above relationship
1
Chapter
1

2
n
c
T
m
i
) (
=
Where m and n are coefficients for a particular location.
SCS Rainfall Patterns
Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) is defined as the theoretically greatest depth
of precipitation for a given duration that is physically possible over a given size storm
area at a particular location at a certain time of the year (National Research Council,
1985). Suffice to say that from a designers standpoint, there are a series of isopluvials
that are commonly used to read PMP for a particular design event. The isopluvials are
essentially maps of rainfall contour, typically in tenths of an inch. Hence if the contour
over the project site is 30, it translates to 0.3 inches for the design event and duration
specified on the map that is being read.
Typically, the maps are either 6 or 24 hour maps for 2, 10, 25, 50 or 100 year design
events. In conjunction with the use of isopluvial maps to determine the amount of
rainfall at a particular location, the SCS has developed several rainfall patterns. The
patterns are defined as rainfall types that govern most of the United States.

Figure 1: Applicable region for various SCS Type curves (Soil Conservation Service, 1986).
The Type II curve is applicable to the majorityof the United States and represents the
most intense storm pattern. Based on the following figure, the inflection point of the
curves represents the peak storm runoff for the pattern. As can be seen, the Type II
pattern has an inflection point at 12 hours, whereas the Type IA storm pattern peaks at
approximately 8 hours.


Figure 2: SCS type curves for distribution of 24-hour rainfalls.
Tabular equivalents to the above figure can be found in the Appendix.
Huff Storm Coefficients
Similar to the SCS Rainfall pattern is the Huff Dimensionless Storm Coefficients. The
Huff distributions are used by the State of Illinois and is represented in a tabular form.
Storms are grouped in four (4) categories depending on whether the rainfall peak
occurred in the 1
st
through 4
th
quarter of the storm duration (referred to as quartile).
The 1
st
quartile curves is associated with short duration events, roughly 62% of the
precipitation whereas the 4
th
quartile curve represents longer duration storms where the
rainfall is more evenly distributed over the entire storm duration. It has been suggested
that the 3
rd
quartile distributions are suitable for the Pacific seaboard.
3
Dimensionless Huff Storm Coefficients
P
t
/P
tot
for quartile
t/t
d
1 2 3 4
0.00 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.05 0.063 0.015 0.020 0.020
0.10 0.178 0.031 0.040 0.040
0.15 0.333 0.070 0.072 0.055
0.20 0.500 0.125 0.100 0.070
0.25 0.620 0.208 0.122 0.085
0.30 0.705 0.305 0.140 0.100
0.35 0.760 0.420 0.155 0.115
0.40 0.798 0.525 0.180 0.135

0.45 0.830 0.630 0.215 0.155
0.50 0.855 0.725 0.280 0.185
0.55 0.880 0.805 0.395 0.215
0.60 0.898 0.860 0.535 0.245
0.65 0.915 0.900 0.690 0.290
0.70 0.930 0.930 0.790 0.350
0.75 0.944 0.948 0.875 0.435
0.80 0.958 0.962 0.935 0.545
0.85 0.971 0.974 0.965 0.740
0.90 0.983 0.985 0.985 0.940
0.95 0.994 0.993 0.995 0.975
1.00 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Table 1: Dimensionless Huff Storm Coefficients
Abstraction
Abstraction is the term used to describe the amount of rainfall that doesnt turn into
runoff. There are numerous processes that intercept rainfall. Some rainfall never even
reaches the ground, instead being intercepted by leaves on trees. Some rainfall is
evaporated back into the atmosphere. Of the rainfall that reaches the ground, some is
infiltrated and some just ponds with no outlet.
There are several methods (and lots of equations) for accounting the precipitation than
never becomes runoff. StormShed2G does not exhaustively account for all runoff. In
particular, the program does not address evapo-transpiration.
Curve Number Approach
One of the most common methods of dealing with precipitation losses is the SCS
curve number approach. The SCS methodology is popular because it combines
infiltration losses with initial abstraction based on the following relationship:
( )
S P
S P
Q
8 . 0
2 . 0
2
+

= , P>0.2S
Where Q is the accumulated runoff volume, P is the accumulated precipitation, and S
is the maximum soil water retention parameter. S is defined as:
10
1000
=
CN
S
4
Where CN is the SCS curve number and S is in inches. Based on the above equation,
P must exceed 0.2S before any runoff is generated. Incidentally, the 0.2 in the above
equation is known as the abstraction coefficient. Many programs, including
StormShed2G allows for its modification, however, we have not seen any guidance on
how to modify the coefficient. In the SCS method, the abstraction coefficient is not
limited to a single loss type, but is a catchall for evaporation, interception, infiltration,

and surface depression. For the case where the abstraction coefficient is 0.2, the SCS
has created a simple chart to quickly determine the amount of runoff in inches based
on the site CN number.

Figure 3: Solution to Runoff Equation (TR-55 June 1986)
The SCS has classified most soils into four (4) hydrologic soils groups. The groups are
defined are:
HSG A (low runoff potential). These soils are characterized by high
infiltration rates even when thoroughly wetted and consists of deep, well to
excessively drained sands or gravels.
HSG B These soils have a moderate infiltration rate when thoroughly wetted.
They are moderately deep to deep, moderately well to well drained with
moderately fine to moderately coarse texture.
HSG C. These soils have slow infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted.
They typically consist of soils with a layer that impeded downward movement
or soils with moderately fine to fine texture.
5
HSG D (high runoff potential). These soils have a very slow infiltration rate
when thoroughly wetted. They consists mostly of clay with high swelling
potential. These soils also have high water tables, or are soils with a clay pan or

clay layer at or near the surface and shallow soils over nearly impervious
material.
The SCS also considers the antecedent moisture condition (AMC) of the soil. The
AMC is defined as the amount of rainfall in a period of five to thirty days preceding the
design event.
AMC I Soils are dry, but not to the wilting point.
AMC II Average case.
AMC III Heavy or light rainfall and low temperatures having occurred
during the previous five days.
Generally, AMC III is used for most detention design application. StormShed2G has a
database of all the SCS soils types. Simply enter the soils name and the program will
return its HSG classification. It should be noted that when the CN number that is
entered in StormShed2G is the CN number for AMC II. When the program
computes the runoff hydrograph, the CN numbers are adjusted for the AMC
condition that is specified. The adjustment are made based on the following equations:
) ( 13 . 0 10
) ( 23
) (
) ( 058 . 0 10
) ( 2 . 4
) (
II CN
II CN
III CN
II CN
II CN
I CN
+
=

=

There is no adjustment for AMC II.
While the SCS provides the HSG for various soils, there must be a mechanism of
converting the HSG to the Curve Number (CN) values that can be used in design.
Table 9.1 of the National Engineering Handbook, Section 4 (NEH-4) provides the
relationship between land uses and CN. The problem with the table is that the land
uses are Fallow, Row Crops, Small Grain, Close-seeded legumes or rotation meadow,
Pasture or range, and roads. For the most part, these land use types are of little use for
todays current engineering projects.
Many Municipalities have created their own land use tables. The following is one
adopted by Washington State.
SCS Western Washington Runoff Curve Numbers (Published by SCS 1982)
Runoff curve numbers for selected agricultural, suburban and urban land use Type 1A rainfall
distribution, 24- hour storm duration
6
Land Use Description
Curve Numbers by Hydrologic
Soil Group

A B C D
Cultivated land (NEH4 Chapter 9,
1972)
winter condition 86 91 94 95
Mountain open areas
low growing brush
and grasslands
74 82 89 92
Meadow or pasture 65 78 85 89
undisturbed or older
second growth
42 64 76 81
Wood or forest land
young second
growth
55 72 81 86
Orchard with cover crop 81 88 92 94
grass cover on 75%
or more of the area
68 80 86 90
Open spaces, lawns parks golf ,
courses, ceme eries, landscaping t
grass cover on 50%
to 75% or more of
the area
77 85 90 92
Gravel roads and parking lots 76 85 89 91
Dirt roads and parking lots 72 82 87 89
Impervious surfaces, pavements, roofs, etc. 98 98 98 98
Open water bodies
lakes, wetlands,
ponds, etc.
100 100 100 100
Single Family Residential (assumes roof and driveway
runoff is directed into street/storm system)

Dwelling unit/gross Acre % Impervious

1.0 15

1.5 20
2.0 25
2.5 30
3.0 34
3.5 38
4.0 42
4.5 46
5.0 48
5.5 50
6.0 52
6.5 54
7.0 56
Planned unit developments,
condominiums, apartments,
commercial business and industrial
areas.
% impervious must
be computed
Separate curve number shall be
selected for pervious and
impervious portion of the site or
basin.


Table 2: Washington State Land Use Curve Numbers
7
StormShed2G provides a built-in lookup table that will automatically lookup the CN
value based on the land use. The table is fully customizable.

Unconnected Impervious CN
StormShed2G applies an additional adjustment for unconnected impervious areas
when computing a composite CN value. In the case where a CN of 98 or higher is
included with the CN numbers for compositing, the program assumes that the areas
with 98 or higher CNs are unconnected if the total impervious area is less than 30%.
It then applies the following adjustment:
( )( )( ) 5 . 0 98 100 /
p imp p c
CN P CN CN + =
Where:
CN
c
= Composite runoff CN
CN
p
= Pervious runoff CN
P
imp
= Percent imperviousness.
If the total imperviousness is greater than or equal to 30% the following equation is
used:
( )( )
p imp p c
CN P CN CN + = 98 100 /

Holtans Equation
Holtan (1961) developed a procedure based on the concept that the amount of runoff
that could be infiltrated was proportional to the unfilled capacity of the soil to hold
water.
c
n
p
f aF f + =
Where f is the infiltration, f
c
is the final infiltration rate, F
p
is the unfilled capacity of the
soil and a and n are constants. The exponent n is typically 1.4 for many soils. F
p
is the
most interesting coefficient. It can be range from the maximum available water
capacity (AWC) to zero. Values for it are given in Agricultural Service publications, US
Dept of Agriculture.
Values of the a coefficient are taken from the following table developed by Holtan et
al (1975):
8
Estimates of Holtan a coefficient
Basal Area Rating
1

Land Use or cover Poor Condition Good Condition
Fallow
2
0.10 0.30
Row corps 0.10 0.20
Small grains 0.20 0.30
Hay (legumes) 0.20 0.40

Hay (sod) 0.40 0.60
Pasture (bunchgrass) 0.20 0.40
Temporary Pasture (sod) 0.40 0.60
Permanent Pasture (sod) 0.80 1.00
Woods & Forests 0.80 1.00
1
Adjustments needed for weeds and grazing.
2
For fallow land only, poor condition means after row crop, and good condition means after sod.
Estimates for f
c
coefficient, the final infiltration rate can be based on the SCS
Hydrologic soils group as follows:
HSG A 0.45 to 0.30 inches per hour
HSG B 0.30 to 0.15 inches per hour
HSG C 0.15 to 0.05 inches per hour
HSG D 0.05 or less inches per hour
Green-Ampt Equation
Green and Ampt developed an infiltration model based on Darcys law. Generally, the
governing equation is:
f
f
L
L d K
f
) ( + +
= = K(change in potential)/distance
where is the infiltration rate, K is the hydraulic conductivity of the wetted soil part
of the profile, L
f
f
is the depth of the wetting front, and is the pressure head for
wetting at the wetting front, and d is the depth of ponding of water on the soil surface.
By assuming the ponded depth is small enough to be neglected, the equation can be
transformed to:
(

= 1
) (
) (
t F
K t f
|
.
|

\
|

+ + =
) (
1 ln ) (
t F
K t F
t

where F(t) is the cumulative infiltration rate at time t and is the change in water
content across the wetting front. Typical Green Ampt parameters are:

9
Soil texture Total porosity Effective
porosity
Pressure head
(cm)
K (cm/hr)
Sand 0.437 0.417 4.95 11.78

Loamy sand 0.437 0.401 6.13 2.99
Sandy loam 0.453 0.412 11.01 1.09
Loam 0.463 0.434 8.89 0.34
Siltloam 0.501 0.486 16.68 0.65
Sandy clay loam 0.398 0.330 21.85 0.15
Clay loam 0.464 0.309 20.88 0.10
Silty clay loam 0.471 0.432 27.30 0.10
Sandy clay 0.430 0.321 23.90 0.03
Silty clay 0.479 0.423 29.22 0.05
Clay 0.475 0.385 31.63 0.03
Table 3Green Ampt Infiltration Parameters (Rawls et all., 1983)
Time of Concentration
Over the years, there have been many different equations that have been developed for
time of concentration. StormShed2G supports the following methods. Time of
concentration is defined as the time for runoff to travel from the hydraulically most
distant point of the watershed to a point of interest within the watershed. For most
practical design projects, time of concentration is made up of multiple travel time
components.
Time of concentration affects both the shape and peak of the runoff hydrograph. A
shorter time of concentrations (TC) results in an increased peak runoff rate.
SCS TR-55
The method described in the SCS TR-55 manual specifies that travel time flow can be
categorized into three different types. Sheet, Shallow and Channel flows. Each type
makes as its primary assumption an implied hydraulic radius. Please refer to the TR-55
manual, much of the information presented here was taken directly from the manual.
Sheet
TR-55 describes sheet flow as flow over plane surfaces. The general assumption is the
friction value is an effective roughness coefficient that includes the effect of raindrop
impact; drag over the plane surface; obstacles such as litter, crop ridges, and rocks; and
erosion and transportation of sediment. These values are for flow depths of less than
0.1 ft. Prior to 1992, the practice was to allow sheet flow lengths up to 300 ft. Today
the NRCS has changed their position based on a review of overland flow literature,
limiting sheet flow to 100 ft or less..
10
( )
( )
4 . 0 5 . 0
2
8 . 0
007 . 0
s P
nL
T
t
=

Where
T
t
= Travel time (hr)
n= Mannings roughness coefficient
L= flow length (ft)
P
2
= 2-year, 24 hour rainfall (inches)
s= slope of hydraulic grade line (ft/ft).
The sheet flow equation is a simplified form of the Mannings kinematic solution and is
based on the following:
1. shallow steady uniform flow
2. constant intensity of rainfall excess
3. rainfall duration of 24 hours
4. minor effect of infiltration on travel time.
Roughness coefficients (Mannings n) for sheet flow
Surface Description n
1

Smooth surfaces (concrete, asphalt, gravel, or bare soil) 0.011
Fallow (no residue) 0.05
Cultivated soils:
Residue cover <= 20% 0.06
Residue cover > 20% 0.17
Grass:
Short grass prairie 0.15
Dense grasses
2
0.24
Bermuda grass 0.41
Range (natural) 0.13
Woods
3
:
Light underbrush 0.40
Dense underbrush 0.80
Table 4: Roughness coefficients (Manning's n) for sheet flow
Shallow
Early versions of TR-55 used the following velocity equation for slopes greater than
0.005 ft/ft:
V
L
T
t
3600
=

1
The n values are composite of information compiled by Engman (1986)
2
Includes species such as weeping lovegrass, bluegrass, buffalo grass, blue grama grass, and native grass
mixtures.
11
3
When selecting n, consider cover to a height of about 0.1 ft. This is only part of the plant cover that will
obstruct sheet flow.

Where T
t
is travel time (hr), L is flow length (ft), and V is average velocity (fps). 3600 is
a conversion factor from seconds to hours.
For slopes less than or equal to 0.005, th following equations for shallow flow were
used:
Unpaved: ( )
5 . 0
1345 . 16 s V =
Paved ( )
5 . 0
3282 . 20 s V =
Where
V= average velocity (fps)
s= slope of hydraulic grade line (ft/ft)
The two equations are based on Mannings equation with different assumptions for n
and hydraulic radius. For unpaved areas, n is 0.05 and r is assumed to be 0.4; for paved
areas n is 0.025 and r is 0.2.
The current version of TR-55 now does away with the velocity
equation and removed the 0.005 limit on paved and unpaved
shallow flow. In fact, shallow flow is now separated into paved
and unpaved for any slope. StormShed2G now computes
shallow flow velocity based on the paved and unpaved
equations. It bases the determination by the mannings value.
Values greater than 0.013 are considered unpaved.
The remainder of this discussion on Shallow flow is considered obsolete and
remains only as a reference source.
StormShed2G uses the following relationship to compute an average velocity.
s k V =
Where V is velocity in (fps), k is time of concentration velocity factor (fps), and s is the
slope of flow path.
k has been computed for various land covers and channel characteristics with an
assumed hydraulic radius using the relationship:
12
( ) n R k / 49 . 1
667 . 0
=

where R is hydraulic radius and n is Mannings roughness coefficient for open channel
flow. StormShed2G provided the following lookup values based on the above
equation with an assumed hydraulic radius of 0.1.
K
s
values for Shallow Concentrated Flow (R=0.1)
Forest w th heavy ground litter and meadows (n=0.10) i 3
Brushy ground with some trees (n=0.060) 5
Fallow or minimum tillage cultivation (n=0.040) 8
High grass (n=0.035) 9
Short grass, pastures and lawns (n=0.030) 11
Nearly bare ground (n=0.025) 13
Paved and gravel areas (n=0.012) 27
Table 5: "k" values used in Travel Time/ TC Shallow flow computations.
Channel
The computation of channel flow is similar to that of shallow flow. TR-55 again points
to the use of Mannings equation as the basis of the computation. Again, the actual
T5-55 manual is silent on the assumption that should be used for hydraulic radius
when using Mannings equation. StormShed2G follows the same procedure to
develop a set of k coefficients that are suitable for channel flows. In this case, two
conditions have been developed. They are intermittent channel flow (R=0.2) and
continuous channel flow (R=0.4). The following table lists the values of k available in
StormShed2G.
K
c
values for Intermittent Channel Flow (R=0.2)
Forested swale with heavy ground litter (n=0.100 5
Forested drainage course/ravine with defined channel bed (0.050) 10
Rock lined wa erway (n=0.035) t 15
Grassed waterway (n=0.030) 17
Earth lined waterway (n=0.025) 20
CMP pipe (n=0.024) 21
Concrete pipe (n=0.012) 42
Other waterways and pipes 0.508/n
K
c
values for Continuous Channel Flow (R=0.4)
Meandering stream with some pools (n=0.040) 20
Rock lined stream (n=0.035) 23
Grass lined stream (n=0.030) 27
Other streams, man-made channels and pipes 0.807/n
Table 6: "k" Values Used in Travel Time/TC Channel Flow computations
Fed Aviation Administration Formula
( )
33 . 0
1 . 1 8 . 1
s
L C
t
c

=
13
Where:

L= Length (ft)
C= Runoff coefficient
S= Surface slope (%)
t
c
= Time of concentration in minutes.
Izzard
67 . 0
033 . 0

=
e
KLq t
c

Where:
( )
33 . 0
0007 . 0

+ = s C I K
I= Rainfall intensity (in/hr)
K= Length of overland flow (ft)
q
e
= 0.0000231 I L (cfs/ft)
s= Surface slope (ft/ft)
C= 0.046 (bluegrass turf)
Value of C are:
Very smooth asphalt 0.007
Tar & sand pavement 0.0075
Crushed slate roof 0.0082
Tar & gravel pavement 0.017
Closely clipped sod 0.046
Dense Bluegrass 0.06
Kerbys Formula
Generally, this method applies for lengths less than about 1200 ft.
( )
467 . 0
5 . 0
83 . 0

= nLS t
c

Where :
L= Length of flow path (ft)
S= Surface slope (ft/ft)
n= Coefficient (see accompanying table)
t
c
= in minutes.
Typical values of n:
14
Smooth impervious surface 0.02
Smooth bare packed soil 0.10
Poor grass, cultivated row crops 0.20
Moderately rough bare ground 0.20
Pasture or average grass 0.40

Deciduous timberland 0.60
Conifer timberland or dense grass 0.80
Kinematic Wave Formula
This equation is generally most applicable for turbulent flow on homogeneous
surfaces.
3 . 0 4 . 0
6 . 0 6 . 0
93 . 0
s i
L n
t
c
=
Where
L,S= see Kerbys formula
i= Rainfall intensity (in/hr)
n= Coefficient
Typical values for n:
Surface.......................................................................................n
Asphalt pavement ...............................................................................................................0.012
Concrete pavement.............................................................................................................0.014
Bare packed soil...................................................................................................................0.020
Rough bare packed soil......................................................................................................0.030
Mowed poor grass ..............................................................................................................0.030
Cultivated rows, no crop...................................................................................................0.030
Cultivated row, with crop..................................................................................................0.040
Pasture average grass.......................................................................................................0.040
Dense grass...........................................................................................................................0.060
Shrubs and brushes.............................................................................................................0.080
Woods and forests..............................................................................................................0.200
Land Use.....................................................................................n
Business...........................................................................................................................0.015-0.030
Semi-business.................................................................................................................0.020-0.035
Dense residential ...........................................................................................................0.025-0.040
Suburban residential .....................................................................................................0.030-0.055
Parks.................................................................................................................................0.040-0.080
Light Industrial ..............................................................................................................0.015-0.035
Kirpich
This formula is similar to the Kerby Formula.
( )
77 . 0
5 . 0
00013 . 0

= LS t
c

Morgali & Lindsay Formula
15
This formula is identical to the Kinematic Wave formula form and variables, but
exponents are different.

38 . 0 388 . 0
593 . 0 605 . 0
99 . 0
s i
L n
t
c
=
SCS Equation
This is the classic SCS velocity equation for sheet flow.
V
L
t
c
60
=
Where L is the distance to the hydraulically most remote point and V is an overland
flow velocity for specific type of ground surface. The following equations are taken
from the SCS velocity chart.
b
as V =
Where s is average slope in direction of flow and a & b are coefficients. The
coefficients are:
Forest and fallow 2.5 0.5
Minimum tillage cultivation 4.7 0.5
Short pasture and lawn 7.0 0.5
nearly bare ground 10.1 0.5
Grassed waterway 15.0 0.5
Paved surface 20.0 0.5
16
The following figure is representative of the equations given above. The Figure was taken from Modern
Sewer Design, 1995 and includes additional land use types.


Figure 4: Average Velocities for Estimating Travel Time for Overland Flow.
Estimating Runoff
Unit Hydrograph
The unit hydrograph is a hydrograph that results from rainfall excess occurring at a
uniform rate and uniformly distributed in a specified time period. It is based on several
assumptions.
1. The rainfall excess is uniformly distributed over the watershed.
2. The unit hydrograph reflects all basin characteristics to the degree that the
runoff rate is simply proportional to the runoff volume for a given rainfall
excess.
17
A full discussion on the unit hydrograph is outside the scope of this manual, however,
StormShed2G does use a unit hydrograph in computing runoff, so a discussion as to

the shape of the hydrograph is of interest. Generally, the unit hydrograph has an
empirical shape that was originally drawn not computed. It wasnt until 1966
(DeCoursey) and 1970 (Haan) that dimensionless hydrograph equations were
developed. The form that is used by this program
4
is:
( )
K
t
t
p p
p
e
t
t
q
t q
(
(

=
1

where q(t) is the hydrograph ordinate at any time t, q
p
is the peak flow rate (iph), t
p
is
the time to peak (hrs), and K is a parameter defined by the equation
| | ( ) K
K
e
t q V
K
p p
=
where V is the runoff volume, e is the base of the natural logarithms, represents the
gamma function. The relationship between K and q
p
t
p
/V can be approximated by:
95 . 1
5 . 6
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
V
t q
K
p p

The SCS dimensionless unit hydrograph corresponds with a K of 3.77.
StormShed2G also supports the use of unit hydrograph files. The default file is
scsduh.uh located in the RAC subdirectory. It contains the standard SCS Unit
Hydrograph values. When computing runoff hydrographs StormShed2G allows for
the specification of a peaking factor (default is 484) defined as:
p
p
t
A
q
484
=
where q
p
is the peak Flow of the unit hydrograph, A is area in square miles and t
p
is the
time to peak in hours. The time to peak factor is defined as:
2
D
t t
L p
+ =
where t
L
is the basin lag in hours and D is the duration of the rainfall excess. D is
should be from one fifth to one third the time to peak. Note that the basin lag is
simply 0.6 times the time of concentration.

18
4
Material adapted from Design Hydrology and Sedimentology for Small Catchments, Haan, Barfield, Hayes,
Academic Press, 1994

and a time to peak factor, which ranges from 3 to 5. The time to peak factor is the
range that the SCS recommends for the Duration. Generally, the time to peak is a
function of the computed lag and Duration.
Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph
The discussion on this methodology is adapted from the King County Surface Water Design Manual,
1994, King County Washington. The Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph (SBUH) was
developed by the Santa Barbara Flood Control and Water Conservation District in
California as a short cut to the SCS Unit hydrograph. The primary difference between
the SBUH and the SCSUH method is the use of the unit hydrograph in computing the
runoff hydrograph. The SBUH replaces the unit hydrograph with an algorithm. The
SBUH method greatly simplifies the computation of runoff hydrographs.
The SBUH uses two (2) steps to synthesize the runoff hydrograph.
1. Computing the instantaneous hydrograph
2. Computing the runoff hydrograph
The instantaneous hydrograph, I
t
, in cfs, at each time step, dt is computed as follows:
dt A R I
t t
/ 5 . 60 =
Where
R
t
= total runoff depth at time increment dt (inches).
A= area in acres
dt= time interval in minutes.
The runoff hydrograph, Q
t
, is then obtained by routing the instantaneous hydrograph
It through an imaginary reservoir with a time delay equal to the time of concentration,
Tc of the drainage basin. The following equation estimates the routed flow, Q
t
.
( ) ( )
| |
t t t t t
Q I I w Q Q 2
1 1
+ + =
+ +

Where
( ) dt Tc
dt
w
+
=
2
dt = time interval in minutes.
The entire computation can easily be performed on a spreadsheet. Many of the steps
are identical to the SCSUH method. It is only the last two (2) steps that are unique to
the SBUH methodology. Format a spreadsheet as follows:
19
Spreadsheet forma for SBUH Method t
Column 1 Time step number. This is column starting with zero (0) and incrementing by one (1).

Column 2 Time in minutes. For a time step of 10 minutes, the column would increment from
zero (0) , 10, 20, 30 etc.
Column 3 Rainfall distribution as a % of the total precipitation .
Column 4 Incremental rainfall (inches). This is just the total precipitation times column 3. Be
sure to divide by 100, since column 3 is in %
Column 5 Accumulated Rainfall (inches). Just sum the previous column. We should make a
comment about columns 3, 4 and 5. Generally, the rainfall distribution is provided as
an accumulated distribution, meaning at time zero, there is zero rainfall and at the last
time step, the rainfall is one (1) or 100% accumulated. If that is the case, column 3 can
be omitted, column 4 can be the accumulated rainfall ratio and column 5, this column
can just be the total precipitation multiplied by the column 4.
Column 6 Accumulated Runoff. This column checks to see if the Column 5 is less than 0.2s. If it
is, then zero (0) is returned, otherwise the abstraction is return.
) 8 . 0 5 (
) 2 . 0 5 (
2
s col
s col
Q

=
Column 7 Incremental Runoff. Just subtract the previous column 6 from this column 6.
Column 8 Total Runoff. This should be the same as column 7 unless there are several areas that
are being combined. In which case, it is the sum of the column 7 of each of those
areas.
Column 9 Instant Hydrograph. This is where the SBUH method diverges from the SCSUH
method. For the SBUH method, we just apply the equation:
dt A Col I
t
/ ) 8 ( 5 . 60 =
Where A is the total project area and dt is the time increment.
Column 10 Design Hydrograph. We apply the remainder of the SBUH method equation:
( )
| | 10 Pr 2 9 9 Pr 10 Pr
1
evCol Col evCol w evCol Q
t
+ + =
+

Table 7: SBUH Spreadsheet Routing
Estimating Peak Rates
Rational Method
The Rational Method is well documented. StormShed2G attaches an additional
variable, f to the well known equation.
fcia Q =
Where
f= Design Event multiplier
c= Rational Coefficient
i= Rainfall intensity (in/hr)
a= Area in acres.
20
The Design Event multiplier is typically 1, hence having no effect on the original
equation. However, there are instances were a multiplier is associated with different
design events to scale the computed value. StormShed2G offers a customizable table
where the Design Event Multiplier can be modified.

For multiple drainage are projects, the value for c is typically defined as:
( )
t n n
A A C A C A C c / ...
2 2 1 1
+ + + =
Where
A
t
= total area (acres)
A
1,2,..n
= Areas of land cover types (acres)
C
1,2,..n
= runoff coefficients for each area land cover type
When accumulating flows, the common practice is to compute the time of
concentration, look up the associated intensity and compute the flow. In the case of a
confluence of several storm sewer lines, the practice is to evaluate each incoming storm
sewer line to determine the longest time of concentration. The intensity of the
confluence is then computed based on the longest time of concentration.
StormShed2G provides an additional safeguard.
In the case where there are two storm sewer line merging, the program first evaluates
each incoming line to determine the line with the longest time of concentration. It
then evaluates the accumulated c time area ratio (ca) for each incoming sewer line to
determine if the longest time of concentration also coincides with that sewer. If they
are in agreement, the intensity is computed based on the longest time of concentration.
Should the two tests not agree, a lesser drainage area has the longest time of
concentration. This is not necessarily bad, however, should the difference in ca be
great, perhaps the sewer line A services 10 acres with a tc of 15 minutes and sewer
line B which services 1 acre has a tc of 30 minutes, there may be a problem.
Typically, this scenario requires engineering judgment. With StormShed2G, a
threshold can be set to automatically evaluate the ca associated with each sewer line.
The program will use the longest time of concentration only if the threshold ratio times
the ca of its associated drainage area is greater than that of the others. The default is
90%.
King County Rational Method
This program supports a narrow subset of the traditional Rational Method
implementation. The following procedure is only applicable in King County,
Washington.
King County uses the following Rational Method equation:
A CI Q
r r
=
where
21
Q
r
= peak flow (cfs) for a storm of return frequency R
C= estimated runoff coefficient

I
r
= peak rainfall intensity (inches/hr) for a storm return frequency R
A= drainage subbasin area (acres).
The formulation of C is the same as the traditional method. It is the I
r
value that is
interesting. I
r
is the peak rainfall intensity computed by:
( )(
r r r
i P I = )
where
P
r
= the total precipitation at the project site for a 24-hour duration storm
event, for a given return frequency.
( )( )
r
b
c r r
T a i

=
Tc is the time of concentration in minutes, (must be between 6.3 and 100).
arand br are coefficients used to adjust the equation for he design storm.
Using the King County Rational Method also requires that the travel times used for
computation be computed using the SCS TC equation.
Ron Mayo P.E. formulated the above equation is based on the original Renton/Seattle
Intensity/Frequency/Duration curves. The procedure is specific only to the King
County, Washington.
SCS & SBUH Hydrographs
22
The peak runoff rate for hydrographs created using either the SCS, or SBUH
methodology is based on the hydrograph interval. Since both methods store ordinates
at 10 minute intervals, the program reports back the largest hydrograph ordinate as the
peak runoff rate. From a theoretical point of view, the reported peak is probably
slightly lower than the theoretical, which occurred in either the hydrograph time
interval before or after the reported peak.
U N I F O R M F L O W



Uniform Flow
Section Shapes
Computer programs dealing with hydrology and hydraulics must support the many
sections that are used. While there are many references for shapes, the primary source
used by this program is Table 2-1 of Open Channel Hydraulics, Ven Te Chow, 1959,
McGraw-Hill.
The key relationship for hydraulic computations is the Hydraulic Radius, R
WP
Area
R =
Where Area is the cross sectional area of water and WP is the wetted perimeter. For
each section, knowing the area and wetted perimeter allows the program to compute
hydraulic radius.
Rectangular
Given:
b: bottom dimension
y: depth
by Area =
y b WP 2 + =
Trapezoid
Given:
b: bottom dimension
y: depth
z: side slope h:1v
( )y zy b Area + =
( )
2
1 2 z y WP + =
25
Chapter
2

Circular
Given:
= interior angle in radians
d
o
=diameter
y= depth
( )
2
0
sin
8
1
d Area =
0
2
1
d WP =
In computing the theta for circular sections, there are three conditions to deal with.
Case 1, 0<y<d/2
(
(
(
(
(

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=

y
d
y
d d
2
2 2
tan 2
2 2
1

Case 2, y=d/2
=
Case 3, d/2<y<d
(
(
(
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

y
d
y
d d
2
2 2
tan 2 2
2 2
1

The maximum flow capacity in circular sections occurs at a depth of 0.938 times the
diameter, however, it is common to design circular conduits to carry maximum flows
when flowing full at 100% of the diameter. Wave action and irregularities make it
difficult to maintain flows at 0.938 times the diameter for very long. The flow is
unstable at that depth.
Arch
26
The geometry of the arch section is actually very non-standard. It seems that there is
not single equation governing the design of arch pipe. All manufactures tend to vary
the specific dimensions of the various arch dimensions. To provide an approximate

solution to arch shaped sections, the program relies on a set of table provided in
Modern Sewer Design, American Iron and Steel Institute, 1995 for guidance.

Figure 5: Hydraulic Properties of Arch Conduits Flowing Part Full

Table 8: Determination of Arch Area
27


Table 9: Determination of Hydraulic Radius

Table 10: Determination of Arch Top Width
Ellipse
The elliptical section is very nonstandard. The program uses a generic mathematical
equation to approximate the ellipse sections that are produced by various
manufactures. The primary reference for the ellipse equations used by this program is
Engineering Mathematics Handbook, Jan J. Tuma, Second Edition, McGraw Hill,
1979.
28


Figure 6: Ellipse Dimensions
b
a
r
a
2
=
a
b
r
b
2
=
b a
b a
m
+

=
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + + + = ...
265 64 4
1
6 4 2
m m m
b a C
( ) | | ( )
4
16 64
3 64
5 . 1
2
4
ab
A
ab A
m
m
b a ab b a C
ipse quarterEll
ellipse
approx

=
=

+ = + =

a
x ab
A
ripedWedge VerticalSt
1
cos
2

=
a
x ab
A
edWedge HorizStrip
1
sin
2

=
a
x
ab xy A
RightHalf
1
cos

+ =
Where
nce circumfere C
B of curvature
r
A of curvature
r
area A
curve of length S
semiaxis b a
b
a
=
=
=
=
=
=
_ _
1
_ _
1
_ _
,

The wetted perimeter is computed by iterating through the wedges until the correct
wedge x/a dimension is found.
Mannings Equation
29
The Mannings equation finds its roots in the Chezy formula for steady uniform flow:

RS C v =
Where the coefficient C is
6
1
489 . 1
R
n
C =
which gives the more familiar form:
( )
2
1
3
2
49 . 1
S R
n
v =
Where
n=Mannings Coefficient
R=Hydraulic Radius
S=Slope in ft/ft.
Note on Metric Units
For metric units use 1.0 in place of 1.49 in the above equation.
There are numerous sources for Values of Mannings n.
30
N Values
Type and description of conduits
Min Design Max
Channels, Lined

Asphalt concrete, machine placed 0.014
Asphalt, exposed prefabricated 0.015
Concrete 0.012 0.015 0.018
Concrete, rubble 0.016 0.029
Metal, smooth (flumes ) 0.011 0.015
Metal, corrugated 0.021 0.024 0.026
Plastic 0.012 0.014
Shotcrete 0.016 0.017
Wood, planed (flumes) 0.009 0.012 0.016
Wood, unplanned (flumes) 0.011 0.013 0.015
Channel, earth

Earth bottom, rubble sides 0.028 0.032 0.035
Drainage ditches, large, no vegetation
<2.5 hydraulic radius 0.040
2.5-4.0 hydraul c radius i 0.035 0.040
4.0-5.0 hydraul c radius i 0.030 0.035
>5.0 hydraulic radius 0.025 0.030
Small drainage ditches 0.035 0.040 0.040
Stony bed, weeds on bank 0.025 0.035 0.040
Straight and uniform 0.017 0.0225 0.025

Winding, slugg sh i 0.0225 0.025 0.03
Natural S reams t

(a) Clean, straight bank, full stage, no rifts or deep pools 0.025 0.033
(b) Same as (a) but some weeds and stones 0.030 0.040
(c ) Winding, some pools and shoals, clean 0.035 0.050
(d) Same as (c ), lower stages, more ineffective slopes and
sections
0.040 0.055
(e) Same as (c ), some weeds and stones 0.033 0.045
(f) Same as (d), stony sections 0.045 0.060
(g)Sluggish river reaches, rather weedy or with very deep
pools
0.050 0.080
(h) Very weedy reaches 0.075 0.150
Pipe

Asbestos cement 0.009
Cast iron, coated 0.011 0.013 0.014
Cast Iron, uncoated 0.012 0.015
Clay or concrete drain tile (4-12 in.) 0.010 0.0108 0.020
Concrete 0.010 0.014 0.017
Metal, corrugated 0.021 0.025 0.0255
Steel, riveted and spiral 0.013 0.016 0.017
Vitrified sewer pipe 0.010 0.014 0.017
Wood stave 0.010 0.013
Wrought iron, black 0.012 0.015
Wrought iron, galvanized 0.013 0.016 0.017
Table 11: Typical Manning's Values, (Design Hydrology and Sedimentology for Small Catchments, Haan, Barfield, Hayes, 1994.
Kutter Formula
Like the Mannings equation, Kutters equation also finds its roots with the Chezy
formula for uniform flow. In this case the coefficient C is
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ +
=
S R
n
n S
C
00281 . 0
65 . 41 1
811 . 1 00281 . 0
65 . 41
U.S. Units
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ +
=
S R
n
n S
C
00155 . 0
23 1
1 00155 . 0
3 . 2
Metric Units
Both Mannings and Kutter formula share the same values for the n coefficient.
Hazen-Williams Formula
This equation is used for the design of pipes under pressure.
54 . 0 63 . 0
318 . 1 S CR v =
31
Typical values of C are:

Extremely smooth and straight pipes...............................................................................................140
New, smooth cast iron pipes..............................................................................................................130
Average cast iron, new riveted steel pipes........................................................................................110
Vitrified sewer pipes .............................................................................................................................110
Cast iron pipes, some years in service...............................................................................................100
Case iron pipes, in bad condition ......................................................................................................80
Table 12: Schaums outline series, Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics 2
nd
Ed.
Darcy-Weisbach Formula
g D
Lv
f h
f
2
2
=
Where
f
h
f
= headloss in ft or m.
= Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
D= Diameter of pipe (ft or m)
L= Length of pipe (ft or m)
v= flow velocity (fps or mps)
g= gravitational acceleration
For all pipes, the Hydraulic Institute and many engineers consider the Colebrook
equation most reliable for evaluating the friction factor.
(
(

+ =
f R D
k
f
e
51 . 2
7 . 3
log 2
1

Where
k = roughness height in ft or mm
R
e
= Reynolds Number
The Reynolds Number is defined as:

vD
R
e
=
Where
is absolute viscosity in lb sec/ft
2
32
The trick to solving the Colebrook equation is to select a friction factor that balances
the left and right sides of the equation. Since the Reynolds number is dependent on
viscosity, the temperature of runoff is of concern. The following table provides a range
of viscosity of water at various temperatures.

Tempera ure (deg F t ) Spec G avi y r t Kin. Viscosity (ft
2
/sec)
40 1.000 1.664
50 1.000 1.410
60 0.999 1.217
70 0.998 1.059
80 0.997 0.930
90 0.995 0.826
100 0.993 0.739
110 0.991 0.667
120 0.990 0.610
150 0.980 0.475
Table 13: Specific Gravity and Kinematic Viscosity of Water
Stormshed2G currently assumes a default temperature of 68 deg F.
33

U N I F O R M F L O W



Control Structures
The purpose of control structures is the control the discharge of stormwater runoff.
They are common in all detention structures and can be thought of as anything that
impedes the natural flow of runoff. A byproduct of control structures is that they
cause runoff to be impounded. As such, a culvert under a roadway crossing can be
thought of as a control structure if it impounds stormwater runoff. While the
predominant consideration of this program when computing flow through the various
control structures is flow in the upstream to downstream condition, there are instances
where it becomes necessary to estimate flow in the reverse direction. The program
attempts to estimate reverse flow using data that was originally intended to be used for
flow in the normal condition. The following section outlines equations, methodologies
and assumptions used for flow in both directions, based on the data that is available to
the program.
Weirs
The most common type of control structure is a weir. Weirs are simply obstructions in
channels that constrict water as it goes over the crest of the weir. The crest of the weir
is the edge of the weir over which water flows.
One type of weir is the sharp crested weir. They are generally constructed from sheet
metal in such a manner that flow over the weir creates a nappe. Broad crested weirs
are used where debris may damage a sharp crested weir.
Broad
This is the standard weir formulation. All that is required is the weir elevation and
length. The max elevation is required for report printing only. The program will
compute the discharge for any elevation greater than the crest elevation.
35
Chapter
3


Figure 7: Broad Crested Weir
The following practical design recommendations have been proposed for broad
crested weirs.
h
1
>= 0.06 m or >= 0.05L, whichever is greater
radius of cill nose r=0.2H
1max
;
p
1
>= 0.15 m or >= 0.67H
1
, whichever is greater;
20H
1
>= L >= 2H
1
, to ensure parallel flow while avoiding undulation over
the cill;
b = 0.3 m or >= H
1
or >= L/5, whichever is greater;
to ensure modular flow conditions, the downstream depth and step height
p
2
should comply with modular limit values set out in the following table
H
2
/H
1

H
1
/p
2

Vertical back
face
Sloping back
face(1:4)
0.1 0.71 0.74
0.2 0.74 0.79
0.4 0.78 0.85
0.6 0.82 0.88
0.8 0.84 0.91
1.0 0.86 0.92
2.0 0.90 0.96
4.0 0.94 0.97
7.0 0.96 0.98
10.0 0.98 0.99
Where
h
1
is the approach HGL.
H
1
is the approach EGL
L is the length of the weir
p
1
is the depth from the weir cill to the approach bottom of channel.
36
p
2
is the depth from the weir cill to the bottom of the departing channel.

The broad crested weir as implemented by this program simplifies the input
requirement for the following equation:
Q CdLH =
1 5 .
where Q is the discharge in cfs; Cd = 3.216; L is the weir length; and H is the stage
above the weir.
Reverse Flow
In the reverse flow condition, where the water surface elevation downstream is higher
than the water surface upstream of the broad crested weir, the program simply applies
the weir equation based on the absolute value of the difference between the upstream
and down stream elevations.
Rectangular
These weirs have large capacity, but have less sensitivity for flow measurement. The
rectangular weir is also known as a notch weir. The weir coefficient is based on ratio
between the head on the weir crest and the height above the bottom of the pond.
Based on the standard formula, in cases where the length is small and the depth is
great, the standard formula can become negative. When the adjusted length is less than
0.2 ft, the program will assume that the weir is operating as an orifice with the opening
area defined by the current water surface elevation and the weir length. The orifice
formula is applied to the centroid of the weir (stg-crest) divided by 2.

37
Figure 8: Rectangular Weir

Practical design limits for the rectangular weir are:
H >= 0.03 meters;
H/p1 <= 2 and p1

>= 0.1 meters;
L >= 0.15 meters
The tail water level should be at least 0.05 meters below the weir crest.
Where:
H is the depth of flow above the weir.
p1 is the height from the weir crest to the bottom of the approach channel;
L is the length of the weir.
Discharges are computed based on the following equation:
Q cLH =
1 5 .
Where Q is the discharge rate in cfs; L is the crest length (ft); H is the stage above the
crest (ft); and c is given by the equation:
c
H
p
= + 327 0 4 . .
where p is the height of the weir above the bottom.
Note that L is an adjusted length shortened by 0.2H! This means that the length
can be adjusted to zero and the Q can be reduced to zero! When the adjusted
length is less than 0.2ft, the program computes flow through the weir using the
orifice equation. The head on the imaginary orifice is the average water surface
elevation. The orifice coefficient is assumed to be 0.61.
Reverse Flow
Reverse flow over the rectangular weir is computed based on two conditions. The
first condition is if the downstream water surface is higher than the upstream
water surface and the weir elevation is also higher than the upstream water surface.
In this condition, the weir equation is applied with H based on the downstream
water surface elevation. Note that the value p is assumed to be the same as
normal weir flow conditions.
38
The second condition occurs when the downstream and upstream water surface
elevations are both higher than the weir elevation. In this case, the program
estimates the reverse flow by using Bernoullis equation. The entrance loss
coefficient k is taken as 0.5 for square or sharp edges.

g
v
y h
g
v
y
e
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
+ = + +
g
v
y
g
v
k
ga
a v
y
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
+ = + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
1
2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
2
k
a
a
y y
g
v

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
1
2
2
1
2
2
1 2 2
2
k
a
a
y y g
v
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
1
2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
k
a
a
y y g
a Q
Vee
These weirs have greater control under low flow conditions. This weir is either a sharp
or broad crested vee shaped weir. The angle of the vee can vary from greater than zero
degrees to 180 degrees. It cannot be zero or 180 degrees.
The following are design limits for practical applications of sharp crested V-Notch
weirs:
H/p
1
<= 1.2
H/B <= 0.4 and B >= 0.6m;
0.60 >= H >= 0.05 m;
p1 >= 0.10 m;
100 deg >= theta >= 25 deg;
tailwater level >= 0.05 m below the vertex of the V-Notch.
V-Notch sharp crested weir coefficients
39
Notch angle (degrees) 20 40 60 80 100
C
e
0.595 0.581 0.577 0.577 0.580
K
h
(mm) 2.8 1.8 1.2 0.85 0.80


Figure 9: Triangular or Vee Weir
Kindsvater and Carter (1957) proposed that the discharge coefficient is a function
of the notch angle and effective head (h
e
) on the weir. The effective head is the
head on the weir corrected by a correction factor k
h
such that h
e
= h
1
+ K
h

This program uses the simplified formula:

( )
Q c H = tan
.

2
1 5

where c is the orifice coefficient; is the weir angle and H is the stage above the
crest elevation(ft).
Values of c are computed at runtime based on the following graph:

Figure 10: Vee Weir Coefficients
Reverse Flow
40
See the discussion for the rectangular weir.

Overflow
This weir type is provided as a convenience. It is a broad crested weir with sideslopes
applied to each end.
The effect of varying the sideslope is to vary the weir coefficient. Flow are computed
based on:
( ) Q c g LH H = +
|
\

|
.
|
2 0 67
8
15
1 5 2 5
. tan
. .

Where: Q Discharge in cfs
c 0.6
L crest length (ft);
H Stage above crest (ft);
tan(theta) side slope xH:1V;
Orifice
Multiple
This control is a specialized control that allows for the definition of up to five separate
circular orifice at different elevations. The control is characterized by a lowest orifice
elevation which is BELOW the outlet elevation. The outlet elevation is considered the
elevation of the receiving pipe from the pond. The remaining four orifice are located as
a distance from the previous orifice.

Figure 11: Multiple Orifice Structure
41
Note that the orifice diameters are in inches. This implies that the diameters are
suppose to be rather small (no 3 ft diameter orifice). However, the program is not very
intelligent and will compute flows through orifice up to 5 ft in diameter.

The program does not consider the occurrence of weir flow through any orifice. All
flow through any orifice is assumed to be under submerged orifice flow conditions.
Driving heads applied to the orifice are computed to the orifice invert. No adjustment
is attempted to correct for flow to the centroid of the orifice.
The lowest orifice is simply a placeholder to identify where it physically is located. For
hydraulic computations, the elevation that matters is the outlet elevation. Flows
through each orifice is computed relative to the outlet elevation.
Reverse Flow
Reverse flow occurs in the multiple orifice control structure when the downstream
water surface elevation is higher than the upstream water surface elevation. An
additional condition is that the upstream water surface elevation must be higher than
the outlet elevation. Note that the downstream water surface elevation can be lower
than the outlet elevation. Reverse flow is computed based on the difference in
elevation between the downstream and upstream water surface elevations NOT the
outlet elevation, as is the case of flow in the normal direction.
Vertical
This is a standard orifice defined by area. The orifice can be sharp or rounded, circular,
rectangular or any other configuration. It is up to the user to specify the coefficient to
apply to the orifice. No provision is made to compute weir flows for the weir at low
head conditions. It is assumed that the orifice opening is submerged and that the
orifice equation applies. This is typically not a problem for small orifice, there would
be a problem for large openings.

Figure 12: Vertical Orifice
For circular sharp edged orifice, the following practical design limits are
recommended:
edge distance >= d/2;
upstream channel cross-sectional area >= 10 times orifice area;
upstream submergence of top of orifice >= d;
h >= 0.03 m.
42
Where

h is the difference between upstream and downstream water surface
elevations.
d is the orifice diameter.
Under fully contracted, submerged conditions, the discharge coefficient cd may be
taken as 0.61 for rectangular sharp crested orifice shapes.
Uses the orifice formula:
Q cA h = 64 4 .
where c is the orifice coefficient; A is the area of the opening in sf and h is the
driving head acting on the orifice.
Typically 0.61 for a sharp crested orifice. Can be anything that is reasonable.
Some typically coefficients for sharp crested weirs:
Orifice Diameter (m) Cd - Free flow Cd - Submerged Flow
0.02 0.61 0.57
0.025 0.62 0.58
0.035 0.64 0.61
0.045 0.63 0.61
0.05 0.62 0.61
0.065 0.61 0.60
0.075
0.60 0.60
Table 14: Typical Orifice Coefficients for Sharp Crested Orifice
Reverse Flow
Reverse flow for the vertical orifice occurs when the downstream water surface
elevation is greater than the centroid of the orifice and also greater than the upstream
water surface elevation. Because the program requires the area of the orifice opening
in sq ft (sm), the program assumes the opening is a square and estimates the opening
height by simply taking the square root of the opening. The centroid is assumed to be
half the height. The program does not attempt to account for the transition from weir
flow to orifice flow. The program simply assumes that once the downstream water
surface exceeds the vertical orifice centroid, orifice flow will occur. As with all the
estimates of reverse flow for control structures, they are estimates based on limited
information that is available to the program.
Culvert
43
The program supports a number of different types of culverts for use as control
structures. They include circular concrete, circular cmp, pipe arch, elliptical and box
shapes. The procedure for inlet and outlet control computations for all support
culverts come from Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts (HDS-5).

Standard shapes for pipe arch culverts are taken from Modern Sewer Design,
American Iron and Steel Institute, Third Edition, 1995. Standard sizes for concrete
elliptical shapes are taken from Concrete Pipe Design Manual, American Concrete Pipe
Association, Nov 1992.

Figure 13: Culvert Logic Diagram
The above flow diagram is used to evaluate the flow conditions for each culvert based
on the flow to be routed through it. In the case of an M1 or M2 condition, a direct
step backwater computation is performed to determine impingement. The
methodology for the direct step computation is outlined in Chow, Open Channel
Hydraulics, 1959.
Reverse Flow
StormShed2G can estimate the flow that occurs when the downstream tailwater
elevation is higher than the water surface elevation at the upstream end of the pipe.
The characteristics and assumptions are :
The culvert slope is in the direction of normal downstream flow.
44
There is no gate that prevents flow to reverse itself.

The approach velocity is negligible.
Under such a scenario, the program distinguishes three computational conditions
characterized by the following relationship:
DnWS>UpWS
UpWS>UpCrown Condition1
UpWS>DnCrown DnWS>UpCrown Conditon1
DnCrown <=DnWS<=UpCrown Conditon2
UpWS<=DnCrown DnWS<=DnCrown Condtion3
UpCrown>=DnWS>=DnCrown Condtion2
DnWS>UpCrown Condition1
COMP UT AT I ONAL CONDI T I ON 1
This is a full flow condition and can be computed directly. The diagram depicts the
most obvious condition, when both the upWS and dnWS are higher than the culvert
crown. This condition also exists when the upWS is higher than the dnCrown
elevation and the dnWS is higher than the upCrown elevation. In such a scenario, the
entire length of the culvert should be submerged. The third case occurs when the
upWS is lower than the dnCrown, but the dnWS is higher than the upCrown. Again,
the culvert barrel will flow full when this occurs.

45
3
4
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
2
1
22 . 2
2
2 2
R
L n v
h
h
g
v
ke h
where
y
g
v
z y
g
v
h
f
f L
L
=
+ =
+ = + + +


Since this is the full flow condition, the velocity is the same at each end of the culvert,
and can be dropped out of Bernoullis equation.
va Q
R
L n
g
ke
z y y
v
z y y h
y z y h
L
L
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
=
= + +
3
4
2
1 1 2 2
1 1 2
2 1 1
22 . 2
2

COMP UT AT I ONAL CONDI T I ON 2
Here the dnWS is between the upCrown and dnCrown elevations while the upWS is
below the upCrown elevation. What happens here is that the barrel is partially
submerged.

The analysis is base on Bernoullis equation.
2
2
2
1 1
2
1
2 2
y
g
v
z y
g
v
h
L
+ = + + +
46
1 1 2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
z y y
a
a
g
v
h
L
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

3
4
2
2
2 2
2
1
2 2
1
2
2
22 . 2
2
R
L n v
h
a
v a
v
h h
g
v
ke h
full
partial full L
=
=
+ + =

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
+
=
3
4
2
3
4
1
2
1
2
2 1
2 2
2
3
4
2
1
2 2
2
3
4
1
2
1
1
2 2
2
2
2
2 1
1
44 . 4
44 . 4 44 . 4
2
R R a
a L n v
R
L n v
R a
L n v a
sf sf
h
partial

|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
3
4
2
3
4
1
2
1
2
2 1
3
4
2
2
2
2
2
1
2 22 . 2 2
R R a
a L
R
L n
g
ke
v h
L

1 1 2
2
1
2
2
3
4
2
3
4
1
2
1
2
2 1
3
4
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1 1
2 22 . 2 2
z y y
a
a
g
R R a
a L
R
L n
g
ke
v =
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
COMP UT AT I ONAL CONDI T I ON 3
This is the open channel flow condition where the water surface on both ends of the
culvert is below the crown of the culvert.

Analysis is also based on Bernoullis equation.
2
2
2
1
2
1
2 2
y
g
v
x s y
g
v
h
o L
+ = + + +
47
2 2 1 1
a v a v =

1
2 2
1
a
v a
v =
2
2
2
1
2
1
2 2
2 2
y
g
v
x s y
g
a
v a
h
o L
+ = + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
x s y y
g
v
ga
v a
h
o L
= +
1 2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2 2

( )
g
v
ke
L sf sf
h
L
2 2
2
2 2 1
+
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
g
ke
R a
a
R
L n v h
L
2 44 . 4 44 . 4
1
3 / 4
1
2
1
2
2
3 / 4
2
2 2
2

x s y y
a
a
g g
ke
R a
a
R
L n v
o
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
1 2
2
1
2
2
3 / 4
1
2
1
2
2
3 / 4
2
2 2
2
1
2
1
2 44 . 4 44 . 4
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
1
2
1 1
44 . 4
2
1
2
2
3 / 4
1
2
1
2
2
3 / 4
2
2
1 2 2
2
a
a
ke
g R a
a
R
L n
x s y y
v
o

48

S T O R A G E S T R U C T U R E S
Storage Structure
There really isnt much to say about storage structures. They are fairly straight forward.
Storage structures are used for detention pond routing. Their contribution to the
computation is generally in the form of a rating table. That is, a stage-storage
relationship. Obviously, different shaped structures have different characteristics. An
open storage shape like a trapezoidal pond theoretically only needs to increase the stage
to increase the available volume. However, an underground pipe (a closed detention
pond), cannot increase its stage beyond the crown of the pipe.
Consider a four (4) foot diameter pipe acting on a one inch orifice at the its invert
elevation. Since the pipe is constrained vertically, it is not possible to discharge any
more runoff through the four(4) inch orifice than what four feet of head will allow. It
doesnt make a difference whether the pipe is one(1) for or one hundred feet long!
On the other hand, if the storage structure is an open pond, one only needs to increase
the stage in order to increase the discharge.
Vault
A vault is the simplest of storage structures. It is generally treated as an open structure,
meaning that the stage will rise to whatever is necessary to complete the computation.
It is up to the engineer to decide if there is enough physical space to accommodate the
storage depth.
lwd v =
where
l= length in ft or m
w= width in ft or m
d= depth in ft or m
v= volume in cf or cm.
Trapezoidal
The Trapeziodal shaped detention pond is the most common open detention pond.
The pond features a bottom area and side slopes on four sides. Typically the side
slopes can vary.
3 / d hdist hdist d w l v
w l m m
+ =

Chapter
4

Where
( )
2
2 1 s s
l
l l
hdist
+
=
( )
2
2 1 s s
w
w w
hdist
+
=
l m
dhdist l = Average length (ft or m)
w m
dhdist w = Average width (ft or m)
sx
l = side slope on length side xh:1v
sx
w = side slope on width side, xh:1v
Underground Pipe
The volume of pipes used for detention storage is simply the area times the length of
the pipe. To support pipes on a slope, we break up the pipe into various components
and use average end areas to come up with a rating curve. The following sketch shows
the various sections.

B
D
B L
B
D
Y H
B
L
Y
s
cos
tan 0
cos
0
tan
0
+ = + =
= =

Where
VolA = Volume of pipe fully occupied by water
VolB= Volume of pipe partially occupied by water
50
H= Water depth measured from the I.E. of the inlet end of the
pipe

HA= Wetted water depth at the downstream end.
HB= Wetted water depth at the upstream end.
Circular
The volume of a circular pipe is simply the area of the circle (see previous chapter)
multiplied by the length.
Arch
The volume of an arch section is simply the area of the arch (see previous chapter)
multiplied by the length.
Ellipse
The volume of an ellipse section is simply the area of the ellipse (see previous chapter)
multiplied by the length.
Stage-Storage
51
There are actually two flavors of Stage Storage rating curves. They can be describes as
either a stage-volume relationship or a stage-area relationship. The most
straightforward is the stage-volume relationship. Stage-area relationships must first
compute an average volume between stages based on the areas.
S T O R A G E S T R U C T U R E S


R E S E R V I O R R O U T I N G
Reservior Routing
Three techniques for pond routing is provided in StormShed2G. The answers will be
identical for the most part, mainly due to the way StormShed2G creates the storage
characteristic curve. The program uses a small interval, 0.1 ft in most cases in creating
the curve.
In cases where there is not much data, or the detention pond is rather large, as in
reservoir size, then the different methods would make a difference and the Runge-
Kutta or Numeric Routing techniques would give more accurate results. The ability of
the two more advanced methods are generally lost when the interval between stage-
storage data points is small. In cases where volumes are estimated from topographic
information and where contours are not uniformly separated, these two methods
would be a better choice than Puls routing.
Level Pool (Puls)
Level pool routing is also knows as the Storage-Indication Method as well as Puls
routing. Generally, it relies on what is known as a storage characteristic curve. The
details of how to create a storage characteristic will not be discussed here, only the
format of the table itself.
Generally the storage characteristic table consists of eight columns:
Column 1 Elevation in feet.
Column 2 Stage in feet. This is just the difference between values in column 1.
Column 3 Area in acres. This column may or may not be required depending on
the storage structure that is selected.
Column 4 Incremental Volume (acre-feet). Generally based on the storage
structure that is selected.
Column 5 Storage (acre-feet). This column is just the accumulated values from
the previous column.
Column 6 Flow (cfs). This is the discharge that can be expected from the stage in
column 2. Based on the control structure that is selected.

Chapter
5

Column 7 S-Odt/2. This is an important column. It is the storage minus the
outflow times half the time interval. In acre-feet.
Column 8 S+Odt/2. This is the opposite of the previous column. It is the
storage plus the outflow times half the time interval. In acre-feet.
Once the storage characteristics table is completed, it will be used in the actual routing
of the flows through a detention pond. Routing is based on the continuity equation:
1 2
2 1 2 1
2 2
S S t
O O
t
I I
=
+

+

The formula is rearranged to the following form:
t
I I
t
O
S t
O
S
+
+ = +
2 2 2
2 1 1
1
2
2

It is now clear that the rearranged form of the continuity equation is directly related to
the format of the storage characteristic table. Namely the S-Odt/2 and S+Odt/2
columns.
The procedure is now straightforward. Given the time increments I
1
and I
2
, it is easy
to compute the t
I I

+
2
1 2
portion of the above equation. The second part of the
above equation is based on the computed stage of the previous time step. Using the
previous stage, look up the t
O
S
2
1
1
value from the storage characteristics table.
With the right side of the above equation completely solved, all one needs to do is to
look up the stage and flow that corresponds to the S+Odt/2 value that was just
computed.
Runge-Kutta
A more accurate method of solving the continuity and storage equations is the Runge-
Kutta method (Chapra and Canale, 1985). The Runge-Kutta method is a method for
solving ordinary differential equations with various orders of accuracy. The
implementation in StormShed2G extends to the fourth order of accuracy following the
technique outlined in Example 4.6 of Hydrology and Floodplain Analysis, Philip B.
Bedient and Wayne Huber, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, copyright 1988.
A full discussion of the steps and theory behind the method is outside the scope of this
manual.
Numerical
54
In addition to the Level Pool and Runge-Kutta techniques, StormShed2G also
provides a classic Numerical Routing technique. The numerical technique solves the

continuity equation for the unknowns S
2
and O
2
. Since both S and O are functions of
the stage, they are functionally related and can be used to solve for O
2
. Solving for O
2

requires an interative solution.
The solution procedure is as follows:
1. Assume O
2
= O
1

2. Calculate delta S from the continuity equation
3. Calculate S
2
= S
1
+ delta S
4. Determine Y
2
for S
2
and the stage-storage curve.
5. Determine O
2
for Y
2
from the stage-discharge curve.
6. Repeat steps 2-5 until O
2
remains unchanged.
The technique is demonstrated in example 6.7 of Design Hydrology and
Sedimentology for Small Catchments, Haan, Barfield, Hayes, Academic Press, 1981.
55

R E S E R V I O R R O U T I N G


C H A N N E L R O U T I N G
Channel Routing
Channel routing deals with unsteady flows. Unsteady flows are flows that change
relative to time. Hydrographs are an excellent example of unsteady flows. The storage
in the channel has a major impact on hydrographs by reducing the peaks and
redistributing the hydrograph volume. Factors impacting the shape of the hydrograph
are channel slope, roughness and shape as well as available storage between two points
along the channel.
If the channel is steep, prismatic, smooth with little storage and no immediate inflows,
the outflow hydrograph from the channel would look very similar to the inflow
hydrograph except for a time lag equal to the travel time between the upper and lower
end. However, for flat, irregular shaped, hydraulically rough channels with much
storage capacity available, the outflow hydrograph would be attenuated. Its peak
would be decreased, and volume redistributed.
Channel routing based on the continuity equation is known as hydrologic routing.
There are several hydrologic routing methods, Storage, Muskingum-Cunge, Convex,
and Kinematic are among them. On the other hand, routing based on both
momentum and continuity equations are known as hydraulic routing. They typically
require a numeric solution. StormShed2G supports the following hydrologic routing
methods. Of the routing methods supported by StormShed2G, the Muskingum-
Cunge is probably the most stable method. It is currently the preferred channel
routing method.
Storage
Storage routing is the simplest form of hydrologic routing. It relies on the assumption
that the storage in a reach is related to the depth of flow based on the outflow from the
reach. As we previously said, hydrologic routing is based on the continuity equation.
The continuity equation states
t
V
O I

=
where V is the volume. When the equation is rewritten over a finite interval, it
becomes the more familiar form.

Chapter
6

1 2
2 1 2 1
2 2
S S t
O O
t
I I
=
+

+

The formula is rearranged to the following form:
t
I I
t
O
S t
O
S
+
+ = +
2 2 2
2 1 1
1
2
2

The storage in the channel is dependent on the average cross sectional area of the
reach for a given flow rate. It can be determined by developing a flow rate area
relationship based on the Mannings equation. The channel length multiplied by the
average cross section yields the storage in the reach at a given flow rate.
Generally, the average flow velocity is computed at either bank full condition or at a
flow of 75% of the hydrograph peak. The procedure is similar to the Storage
Indication Reservoir routing technique. A channel properties table is first developed.
The table lists stage, flow, storage, S-Odt/2 and S+Odt/2.
With the properties table, the right side of the above equation is solved. The
t
O
S
2
1
1
value is just a lookup in the properties table for the previous stage. With
the right side of the above equation now known, simply look up the stage, flow and
storage for the left side of the equation.
Muskingum-Cunge
Muskingum-Cunge routing differs from Storage routing in that it considers a linear
change in depth along the reach length. This method is more accurate because unlike
the Storage Routing method, it does not assume that the flow depth is the same
throughout the reach length. In fact the inflow rate is not the same as the outflow rate.
Consider the case when flow is in the rising stage of the inflow hydrograph. Under
such a condition, the inflow rate would exceed the outflow rate. Commensurate with
this realization, it is obvious that the depth of flow at the upstream end would be
greater than at the outlet end. The Muskingum method accounts for this by making
the storage in the reach a linear function of both the inflow and outflow rates.
( ) | | O x xI k S ) 1 + =
where k and x are channel characteristics. The coefficient k is also known as the
storage constant an is usually equal to the travel time through the reach. If x is set to
zero, the method reduces to reservoir storage routing.
58
Outflow can be expressed as:

1 2 1 1 2 0 2
O C I C I C O + + =
where
( )
( )
( )
( ) t x k
t x k
C
t x k
t kx
C
t x k
t kx
C
+

=
+
+
=
+
+
=
5 . 0 1
5 . 0 1
5 . 0 1
5 . 0
5 . 0 1
5 . 0
2
1
0

In 1967 Cunge developed an approach for estimating the values of C0, C1, C2 that did
not rely on simply setting the k value to the reach travel time and x to some assumed
constant. In Cunges method,
c
x
k

=
where is the reach length and c represents a flood wave clerity determined from x
mv c =
The coefficient m can be taken as 5/3 (Viessman, 1989). The velocity, v, can be taken
as the average velocity at bank full discharge. The value of x is then
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
x c S
q
x
0
0
1
2
1

where q
0
is the peak flow rate and S
0
is the channel slope.
Convex
The Soils Conservation Service (U.S Department of Agriculture, 1971) developed a
routing algorithm known as the convex method. It is similar to the Muskingum
method in that it involves inflow and outflow hydrograph relationships. Unlike the
Muskingum method, the continuity equation is not directly involved. The routing
equation is:
( )
1 1 2
1 CI O C O + =
Where C is a constant between zero (0) and 1. It is estimated from
59
( ) v
v
C
+
=
7 . 1


where v is the average flow velocity of the reach. Typically, it is computed at the
bankfull discharge or 75% of the peak hydrograph flow rate. The determination of
average velocity appears to be somewhat subjective (engineering judgement). The
value of C is usually approximated at 2x, where x is the Muskingum x. The convex
method is somewhat sensitive to the routing interval. The routing interval can be
computed from:
( )
t
t
C C

=
*
1 1
where is the desired time interval. Some additional guidelines are that the
ratio should be a close to unity as possible and that should be limited to
t
* t
t t / * t
p
/5.
This method is slowly falling out of favor, the SCS in 1983 replaced the method in its
TR-20 application with a method knows as Att-Kin.
Kinematic
The kinematic routing method is based on both the continuity and uniform flow
equations. It solves the continuity equation in the form of
q
t
A
x
Q
= +

and a rating function
( ) A f Q =
In theory, kinematic waves will not accelerate and will flow downstream without
appreciable change in shape or loss in peak. This contrasts to other storage routing
techhiques where hydrographs are attenuated based on the available storage. The
Kinematic wave computation as applied to channel routing is also falling out of favor
because of these characteristics.
Travel Time Shift
Travel time shift is include in this section because it is presented as an alternative to
Storage, Muskingum-Cunge, Convex or Kinematic routing methods. Travel time shift
is definitely not in the hydrologic or hydraulic routing category.
60
Travel time shift simply uses Mannings equation to compute the travel time from the
upper to lower end of a reach. It then shifts the peak of the hydrograph the computed
time. The similarity of this method to the kinematic routing method should be
recognized. As we said above, the kinematic routing method in theory does not
appreciably change the shape the hydrograph or its peak flow rate.

Given that description, it is essentially travel time shift. Travel time shift as
implemented by StormShed2G has a slight variation. Since the hydrographs are
stored in a specified time interval (the default is 10 minutes), a travel time of less than
the interval would require a shift to an odd interval. In order to do this correctly, it
would mean interpolating the values. Unfortunately interpolating values would
compromise the peak over time as one never interpolates up, just down.
To avoid such a situation, StormShed2G accumulated the travel time until it exceeds
the hydrograph time step. At that point the program shifts the hydrograph the time
step duration and carries over the remainder to be accumulated in future reaches. This
alleviates the necessity of interpolating peaks between time steps and does not
compromise the peak.
Actually, compromising the peak would probably not be a bad thing since the physical
reality of hydrograph routing is more accurately modeled by the Muskingum-Cunge
type methods, but in this case, compromising the peaks also affects the hydrograph
volume, which is unrealistic.
Hydraulics of Storm Sewers
Bernoulli Equation

Figure 14: Terms in Bernoulli Equation
2 1 2 2
2
2
1 1
2
1
1 2

+ + + = + + hl Z y
g
V
Z y
g
V

The Bernoulli equation is the basic equation used to balance the energies associated
with gradually varied flow through prismatic channels. While the velocity (V) and
datum (Z) data is generally known, most of the effort in the design of storm sewer
revolves around estimating the losses (hl
1-2
).
Friction Losses
61
The equations relating to friction loss have been discussed in Chapter 2. The friction
slope is typically back computed based on the velocity or discharge and the known
cross sectional properties of the channel.

Transition Losses
Transition losses occur when storm water enters the sewer system and encounters
hydraulic structures such as manholes, bends, contractions, and enlargements. Each
hydraulic structure that is encountered will result in a loss defined as:
g
V
K H
2
2
=
Where K is a loss coefficient.
Contraction Losses
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
g
V
g
V
H
t
2 2
1 . 0
2
1
2
2
V
2
> V
1

Expansion Losses
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
g
V
g
V
H
t
2 2
2 . 0
2
2
2
1
V
1
> V
2
Where V
1
is upstream velocity and V
2
is downstream velocity.
Manhole Losses
In straight through situations where there are no changes in pipe size and the slope
remains constant through the manhole:
g
V
H
m
2
05 . 0
2
=
Entrance Losses
The coefficient for entrance losses depends of the conduit. See Appendix for a list of
coefficients used by the program.
Junction Losses
Losses at junctions were there are one or more incoming laterals:
( )
( )
=
+
+ cos
2
3
2
3
1
2
1
2
2
2 2 1
2 1
g A
Q
g A
Q
g A
Q A A
D D H
j

Where D
1
and D
2
are the approach pipe diameters and is the angle between them.
Bend Losses
62
Bend Losses are estimated from

g
V
K H
b b
2
2
=
Where
90
25 . 0

=
b
K , =central angle of bend in degrees
For angles less than 40 degrees. If the angle is greater than 40 degrees, it can be
estimated from the following Chart.

Figure 15: Sewer Bend Loss Coefficient

Direct Step Profiles
63
StormShed2G uses a direct step profile computation when flow profiles are needed.
Generally, this will be for culverts and other reaches. The direct step method is fairly
straightforward and can be duplicated on spreadsheets with a little work. While a full
discussion of the theory behind the procedure is outside of the scope of this manual,
an example of the spreadsheet process is in order. Given the geometry of a reach, the
flow rate (cfs) roughness and slope, the steps for filling out a spreadsheet is as follows:

Y
(1)
A
(2)
R
(3)
3 / 4
R
(4)
V
(5)
g V 2 /
2

(6)
E
(7)
E
(8)
S
f
(9)
f
S
(10)
f
S S
0

(11)
x
(12)
X
(13)

Col 1. Depth of flow in ft.
Col 2. Water area in s.f. corresponding to the depth y in column 1.
Col 3. Hydraulic radius in ft corresponding to y in column 1.
Col 4. Four-thirds power of the hydraulic radius.
Col 5. Mean velocity in fps obtained by dividing the flow rate by the water area in
column 2.
Col 6. Velocity head in ft.
Col 7. Specific energy in ft obtained by adding the velocity head in column 6 to the
depth of flow in column 1.
Col 8. Change of specific energy in ft, equal to the difference between the E value in
column 7 and that of the previous step.
Col 9. Friction slope computed by solving for the slope using Mannings equation,
using values from columns 4 and 5.
Col 10. Average friction slope between the steps, equal to the arithmetic mean of the
friction slope just computed in column 9 and that of the previous step.
Col 11. Difference between the bottom slope and the average friction slope.
Col 12. Length of the reach in ft between the consecutive steps computed by dividing
the value in column 8 by the value in column 11.
Col 13. Distance from the section under consideration to the starting point of the
computation.
The procedure is taken from Chow, Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1959.
64

C H A N N E L R O U T I N G


C H A N N E L R O U T I N G
Appendix
SCS Rainfall Distributions
SCS Type IA Distribution
SCS Type 1A Distribution Cumulative Rainfall Table (Revised 1982)
0.5 time interval
0.0000 0.0100 0.0220 0.0360 0.0510
0.0670 0.0830 0.0990 0.1160 0.1350
0.1560 0.1790 0.2040 0.2330 0.2680
0.3100 0.4250 0.4800 0.5200 0.5500
0.5770 0.6010 0.6230 0.6440 0.6640
0.6830 0.7010 0.7190 0.7360 0.7530
0.7690 0.7850 0.8000 0.8150 0.8300
0.8440 0.8580 0.8710 0.8840 0.8960
0.9080 0.9200 0.9320 0.9440 0.9560
0.9670 0.9780 0.9890 1.0000

SCS Type I Distribution
SCS Type 1 Distribution Cumulative Rainfall Table (Revised 1982)
0.5 time interval
0.0000 0.0080 0.0170 0.0260 0.0350
0.0450 0.0550 0.0650 0.0760 0.0870
0.0990 0.1120 0.1260 0.1400 0.1560
0.1740 0.1940 0.2190 0.2540 0.3030
0.5150 0.5830 0.6240 0.6550 0.6820
0.7060 0.7280 0.7480 0.7660 0.7830
0.7990 0.8150 0.8300 0.8440 0.8570
0.8700 0.8820 0.8930 0.9050 0.9160
0.9260 0.9360 0.9460 0.9560 0.9650
0.9740 0.9830 0.9920 1.0000
SCS Type II Distribution
SCS Type 2 Distribution Cumulative Rainfall Table (Revised 1982)
0.25 time interval
0.0000 0.0020 0.0050 0.0080 0.0110
0.0140 0.0170 0.0200 0.0230 0.0260
0.0290 0.0320 0.0350 0.0380 0.0410

0.0440 0.0480 0.0520 0.0560 0.0600

0.0640 0.0680 0.0720 0.0760 0.0800
0.0850 0.0900 0.0950 0.1000 0.1050
0.1100 0.1150 0.1200 0.1260 0.1330
0.1400 0.1470 0.1550 0.1630 0.1720
0.1800 0.1900 0.2030 0.2180 0.2360
0.2570 0.2830 0.3870 0.6630 0.7070
0.7350 0.7580 0.7760 0.7910 0.8040
0.8150 0.8250 0.8340 0.8420 0.8490
0.8560 0.8630 0.8690 0.8750 0.8810
0.8870 0.8930 0.8980 0.9030 0.9080
0.9130 0.9180 0.9220 0.9260 0.9300
0.9340 0.9380 0.9420 0.9460 0.9500
0.9530 0.9560 0.9590 0.9620 0.9650
0.9680 0.9710 0.9740 0.9770 0.9800
0.9830 0.9860 0.9890 0.9920 0.9950
0.9980 1.0000
SCS Type III Distribution
SCS Type 3 Distribution Cumulative Rainfall Table (Revised 1982)
0.3 time interval
0.0000 0.0030 0.0060 0.0090 0.0120
0.0150 0.0180 0.0210 0.0240 0.0280
0.0310 0.0350 0.0380 0.0420 0.0460
0.0500 0.0540 0.0580 0.0630 0.0670
0.0720 0.0770 0.0820 0.0870 0.0930
0.1000 0.1090 0.1180 0.1280 0.1370
0.1480 0.1590 0.1710 0.1850 0.1990
0.2160 0.2350 0.2580 0.2870 0.3280
0.5000 0.6730 0.7140 0.7430 0.7660
0.7850 0.8010 0.8160 0.8290 0.8420
0.8530 0.8640 0.8740 0.8830 0.8920
0.9000 0.9080 0.9130 0.9190 0.9240
0.9290 0.9330 0.9380 0.9420 0.9460
0.9510 0.9550 0.9580 0.9620 0.9660
0.9690 0.9730 0.9760 0.9790 0.9830
0.9860 0.9890 0.9920 0.9950 0.9980
1.0000

reating your own Rainfall Distribution
There is nothing magical about the SCS rainfall distributions. They are simply
templates that the program uses to determine what the hydrograph is shaped like.
67
C

Looking at one of the above distributions, it is apparent that it starts at zero (0) and
Line 2: The interval in hours. Note that the interval appears first,
ext.
er of lines: to
points times the interval gives the
duration of the hyetograph.
Typically, how does o nt to
create a RAC six (6) h owing hourly data:
ends and one (1). StormShed2G stores the rainfall distributions in a subdirectory
under the program installation directory labeled RAC. The RAC subdirectory contains
lots of files with the .rac extension (read dot rac). The format for each RAC file is
similar to what is shown for the SCS rainfall distributions. Each file consists of:
Line 1: A description line.
followed by other t
Remaind The hyetograph points, starting from zero and progressing
one (1). The number of
ne create a RAC file from rainfall data? Assume that you wa
our hyetograph given the foll
Hour Precip (in) Accum (in) hyetograph
0 0 0 0
1 0.15 0.15 0.1829
2 878
3 .20 0.6 0.7317
4 .15 0.75 0.9146
5 .05 0.80 0.9756
6 .02 0.82 1.00
each val
e to ipita inche AC ta
0.25 0.4 0.4
The values to enter in the table is simply ue in the accum column divided by
th tal prec tion, 0.82 s. The R ble does not require that the values are
entered four (4) per row. Entering the values one per row is perfectly acceptable to the
program. Typically the values are cut and paste into the RAC file.
Note: The RAC file is an ascii file, i.e., it is a text file and cannot be a Microsoft
Word document. However, it can be created in a program like Microsoft Word, but
must be saved as a text document.
Culvert

Loss Coefficients
Type Descrip ke K M C Y
Circular Conc
68
Square Edge w/Headwall 0.5 0.0098 2 0.0398 0.67

Type Descrip ke K M C Y
Groove End w/Headwall 0.2 0.0078 2 0.0292 0.74
Groove End Projecting 0.2 0.0045 2 0.0317 0.69
Circular CMP Headwall 0.5 0.0078 2 0.0379 0.69
Mitered to slope 0.7 0.021 3 0.0463 0.75
Projecting 0.9 0.034 1.5 0.0553 0.54
Rect Box 30 to 75 deg Wingwall flares 0.4 0.026 1 0.0385 0.81
90 & 15 deg Wingwall flares 0.5 0.061 5 0.04 0.8
0 deg Wingwall flares 0.5 0.061 0.75 423 .82
45 deg Wingwall flare
d=0.043D
0.4 0.51 0.667 0.0309 0.8
18 to 33.7 deg Wingwall flare
d=0.083D
90 deg w/ 3
90 deg w/ 45 deg bevels 0.2 0.495 0.667 0.0314 0.82
90 deg w/ 37.5 deg bevels 0.2 0.486 0.667 0.0252 .865
3/4" chamfer; 45 deg skewed
headwall
0.2 0.522 0.667 0.0402 0.73
3/4" chamfer; 30 deg skewed
headwall
3/4" chamfer; 15 deg skewed
headwall
45 deg bevels; 10-45 deg
skewed HWall
90 deg headwal
Thick Wall Projecting 0.5 0.0145 5 0.0419 0.64
Thin Wall Projecting 0.9 0.034 1.5 0.0496 0.57
HOR Ellipse Conc - Sq Edge w/ headwall 0.5 0.01 2 0.0398 0.67
Conc - Groove end w/ headwall 0.2 018 .5 0.0292 0.74
Conc - Groove end projecting 0.2 0.0045 2 0.0317 0.69
VER Ellipse Conc - Sq Edge w/ headwall 0.5 0.01 2 0.0398 0.67
Conc - Groove end w/ headwall 0.2 018 .5 0.0292 0.74
Conc - Groove end projecting 0.2 0.0095 2 0.0317 0.69
18in CM Pipe
Arch
18" Corner radius: 90 deg
headwall
0.5 0.0083 2 0.0496 0.57
18" Corner radius: Mitered to
slope
18" Co
31in CM Pipe
Arch
31" Corner radius: 90 deg
headwall
0.5 .0296 1.5 0.0487 0.55
1.3
0.7
0.0 0
0.5 0.486 0.667 0.0249 0.83
/4" chamfers 0.2 0.515 0.667 0.0375 0.79
0
0.2 0.533 0.667 0.0425 0.705
0.2 0.545 0.667 0.04505 0.68
0.2 0.498 0.667 0.0327 0.75
CM Box l 0.25 0.0083 2 0.0379 0.69
1.7
0.0 2
0.0 2
0.7 0.03 1 0.0463 0.75
rner radius: Projecting 0.9 0.034 1.5 0.0496 0.53
0
69

Type Descrip ke K M C Y
31" Corner radius: Mitered to
slope
31" Co
CM Arch Arch: CM - 90 deg headwall 0.5 .0083 2 0.0379 0.69
Arch: CM - Mitered to slope 0.7 0.03 2 0.0463 0.75
Arch: CM - Thin walled
projecting
0.9 .034 .5 0.0496 0.57
Arch
18" Corner R

18" Corner Radius: 33.7 deg
Bevels
0.9 0.003 2 0.0264 0.75
Beveled
Beveled ring, 33.7 deg bevels 0.2 0.0018 2.5 243 0.83
HOR Ellipse CM - 90 deg headwall 0.5 0.0083 2 0.0379 0.69
CM - Mitered to slope 0.7 0.03 2 0.0463 0.75
CM - Thin walled projecting 0.9 .034 .5 0.0496 0.57
VER Ellipse CM - 90 deg headwall 0.5 .0083 2 0.0379 0.69
CM - Mitered to slope 0.7 0.03 2 0.0463 0.75
CM - Thin walled projecting 0.9 .034 .5 0.0496 0.57
RCP Arch Pipe Square Edge w/Headwall 0.5 .0098 2 0.0398 0.67
0.7 0.0087 2 0.0361 0.66
rner radius: Projecting 0.9 0.003 2 0.0264 0.75
0
0 1
18in SP Pipe adius: Projecting 0.5 0.0296 1.5 0.0487 0.55
18" Corner Radius: No Bevels 0.7 0.0087 2 0.0361 0.66
Circular ring, 45 deg bevels 0.2 0.0018 2.5 0.03 0.74
0.0
0 1
0
0 1
0
70
C H A N N E L R O U T I N G