THE SOURCES OF PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE

(PCK) USED BY MATHEMATICS TEACHERS DURING

INSTRUCTIONS: A CASE STUDY


Noor Shah bin Hj. Saad Sazelli Ab. Ghani
Department of Mathematics, Department of Mathematics
Faculty of Science & Technology, Faculty of Science & Technology
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris. Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
<noorshah@upsi.edu.my> <sazelli@upsi.edu.my>

N.S. Rajendran
Faculty of Science Cognitive &
Human Development
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.
<nsrajendran@upsi.edu.my>

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore the sources of knowledge as stated in the components
of the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), namely; the content knowledge, the general pedagogical
knowledge, the specific pedagogical knowledge and contextual knowledge among the secondary schools
mathematics teachers. The study involved four teachers who taught Form Fours KBSM mathematics.
Two of them were novice teachers while the other two could be described as advanced beginners
according to Berliners category (1986). The studys data were obtained through interviews, observations
and documents. Each participant was interviewed at least six times by using the five interviewing
protocols. In addition, three sessions of observations in the classroom were also conducted as well as the
analysis of the documents related to the teaching and learning of Trigonometry. The study revealed the
novice and advanced beginners teachers lack of knowledge concerning the component of content
knowledge especially relating to the aims of mathematics education, the aims and objectives of the
KBSM mathematics curriculum and the syntactic structural knowledge. As far as the general pedagogical
knowledge were concerned, both groups of teachers displayed a good mastery of them where the teaching
and time management was adequate, had the ability to conduct a two-ways interaction and were well-
versed with the problems students encountered in learning mathematics. In the area of specific
pedagogical knowledge, both groups of mathematics teachers were found to use various teaching
strategies which were deemed appropriate to the learning of Trigonometry. However, the teaching
methods employed were typical and limited to exposition, questioning and answering questions orally,
giving students exercises to do, a bit of monitoring and finally a homework was assigned. The novice
mathematics teachers seemed to rely only on textbooks and examination revision books to prepare for the
planning of their lessons. Remedial activities were carried out in the classroom through monitoring and
students themselves solved the problems given on the board. The teachers contextual knowledge did not
really help in improving the novice and advance begginers teaching qualities since they were not given
the opportunity to attend any professional development programme. Furthermore, they seldom interacted
with their colleagues to discuss matters concerning the teaching of mathematics in school. It was also
found that teaching experiences of less than two years did not really contribute to the improvement of
their teaching. They were able to control the students discipline in the classroom but still lacked the skills
to motivate students and helped foster positive attitudes toward the learning of mathematics. This study
also discussed the several implications that arise from the findings and also suggestions to improve the
standard and quality of the mathematics education programmes in the local public institutions of higher
learning (IPTA).

Introduction

The essential skill that a teacher should possess is the ability to transform the knowledge to be
delivered to the students in a form that could be easily understood. An effective teaching should
not only involve the teachers skilful demonstration of his knowledge but should also include the
capability to guide the students to understand meaningfully the content of the knowledge (Hansen,
1995). This can be achieved by identifying possible strategies to help students gain the best
experience in learning. Although comprehending the mathematical knowledge is central to the
transformation process in the teaching of mathematics, teachers should make the effort to know
how students learn best and use the appropriate teaching strategies to help them learn. According
to Greenwood (1984) and Ball & Bass (2000), the teaching method employed by the teacher is one
of the factors that could influence a students achievement in mathematics. A skilful and very
knowledgeable teacher has the potential to make the learning of mathematics more meaningful to
the students (Public Agenda, 2000 in Graham & Fennell, (2001)).

A teachers mastery of the mathematical content knowledge could affect his teaching in many
ways. Firstly, his current mathematical content knowledge based on his experiences in school and
university could influence his choice in selecting or restructuring the mathematical content to be
delivered, the teaching materials and textbooks as well as the activities and assignments for the
students (Shulman & Grossman, 1987). In addition, the teacher also needs to combine his
mathematical and pedagogical knowledge in his teaching. This in turn, could affect positively his
teaching and delivery style. Finally, a competent mastery of the mathematical content would,
undoubtedly, enable the teacher to make a linkage between the various topics and skills so as to
produce a meaningful teaching of a concept (NCTM, 2000, p.370)

Teacher Knowledge
A report on the professional teacher education states that If the promise of the teaching
profession is to be achieved, we must attend to the processes by which its knowledge base is
developed and transmitted (Howsam et al, 1976). Some researchers in teacher education have
developed a few models of teacher knowledge. Elbaz (1983) categorises five types of teacher
knowledge namely knowledge of self; knowledge of the milieu of teaching; knowledge of subject
matter; knowledge of curriculum development; and knowledge of instructional. Leinhardt & Smith
(1985) categorise teacher knowledge into two categories only: subject matter knowledge and
knowledge of lesson structure.

Shulman (1986a 1987) and Wilson, Shulman & Richert (1987) define seven categories of teacher
knowledge: content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, curriculum knowledge,
knowledge of learners and their characteristics, knowledge of educational context, knowledge of
educational ends, purposes, and values, and their philosophical and historical grounds, pedagogical
content knowledge (PCK) which is the integration of content and pedagogy that constitutes a
special form of the teachers professional understanding.

Although the researchers give many different definitions to the various components of teacher
knowledge, Grossman (1990) points to the fact that four general categories emerge namely
pedagogical knowledge, content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge and contextual
knowledge.

Among these knowledge base categories, PCK stands out since it is the knowledge about
delivering the teaching content so as to enable the students to understand them meaningfully. PCK
can also be viewed as the synthesis of pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge to
understand better how certain topics, problems or issues can be arranged, represented and adapted
in the form of teaching with the students interest and ability in mind (Shulman, 1987).

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)
The construct of PCK was first proposed by Shulman in 1986 and then expanded through the
Knowledge Growth in Teaching project as a wider perspective to understand the process of
teaching and learning (Shulman & Grossman, 1987). The project involved an investigation into
how novice teachers gained new understanding of the subject matter they taught and subsequently
how this understanding influenced their teaching. Shulman further explained PCK as

a way of knowing unique to teachers whereby they take an aspect of the subject matter and
transform their understanding of it into instruction that their students can comprehend. (p.8)

In this regard, PCK could be described as a specific knowledge (Geddis, 1993). Shulman also
espoused PCK as a knowledge which is unique to the teaching profession. This knowledge
distinguishes a teacher from a non-teaching expert of the subject matter. PCK is also the most
suitable way to convey ideas, powerful analogies, illustrations, examples and visual information to
represent the subject matter in a comprehensible form to others. In addition, PCK also includes a
teachers attributes in guiding a learner to comprehend the content knowledge meaningfully and
Shulman thus, suggested that PCK as an essential knowledge for the fundamental of teaching such
that:

The key to distinguishing the knowledge base of teaching lies at the intersection of content and
pedagogy, in the capacity of a teacher to transform content knowledge he or she possesses into
forms that are pedagogically powerful and yet adaptive to the variations in ability and
backgrounds presented by the students (p.15)
According to Shulman (1987), PCK for any topic must include analogies, examples, effective
explanations and demonstrations, an understanding of the aspects that could make the learning of
any topic either easy or difficult, students misconceptions about the topic; and a knowledge
concerning effective teaching strategies. Other factors that are also included in PCK are
assessment techniques, the mastery of skills and the development of a meaningful teaching
strategy of the content knowledge for the students (Wisema, Cooner & Knight, 1999). Grossman
(1990), on the other hand, linked PCK with the teaching of the subject matter. In his Model of
Teacher Knowledge, he has put forward some questions relating to the development of PCK such
as the purpose of teaching, curriculum materials, students comprehension of the subject matter,
instruments to assess students understanding, effective teaching practices to teach certain subject
matter and certain principles for the teachers to create the right conditions for learning. The term
PCK is also used to explain how the new knowledge gained by the teachers related to the subject
taught is transformed into something that can be comprehensible to the students (Fenstermacher,
1994). As Gudmundsdottir (1991) cleverly points out, PCK is something that comes about when
teachers have to transform their knowing into telling.

As mentioned earlier, PCK is the domain knowledge which is necessary to the teaching profession
such that it can differentiate a teacher from the other subject matters experts such as the
mathematicians, scientists and journalists. The challenge is for the teachers and the teacher
educators alike to understand the process involved in the development of a teachers PCK. For
this study, the researcher used the outcomes of the research conducted by Shulman and his
colleagues as a platform to identify, investigate and explore the PCK among the secondary
mathematics teachers.

The Objectives of the Study

Specifically, the purposes of this study were to investigate a) the content knowledge; b) the
pedagogical knowledge; c) the specific pedagogical knowledge; and d) the contextual knowledge
that being used in teaching and learning of mathematics by the novice and the advanced beginner
mathematics teachers.

Methodology

The Study Design
This study was based on the naturalistic paradigm using the case study approach. The case study
employed here involved multiple cases and multiple sites. As pointed out by Yin (1987), a
multiple case design would bring about a converging reality and the overall results of the study
would be sturdier. A qualitative data collection would enable a researcher to study a certain
phenomenon more deeply and in detail (Patton, 1990). Merriam (1999) describes a case study as a
method that enables a researcher to comprehend and explain a phenomenon clearly and in an exact
manner rather than based on speculations. In this study, qualitative data were collected through
interviews and classroom observations as well as the analysis carried out on the teachers planning
of the lessons. Additional information for this study was also obtained through documents relating
to the teaching such as the syllabus, the teachers record books, tests given to the students,
modules and other materials which were deemed helpful to complement the data collection of this
study.

The Participants of the Study
Two novice and two advanced beginner mathematics teachers who taught Form Four
mathematics in secondary schools were selected based on their PCK scores obtained through the
questionnaires given earlier to fulfill the purposive sampling criteria (Patton, 1990; Merriam,
1999). All the participants were interviewed at least six times before and after the teaching had
taken place. In addition, observations in the classroom were also carried out at least three times per
participant.

The Study Instruments
The main instruments were in-depth interviews, document analysis, observations of the teaching
and learning processes in the classroom and questionnaires. Interview protocols and a modified
checklist for classroom observation were used to obtain the information from the participants. A
modified version of five sets of interview protocols (obtained from Grossman, 1990) were used by
the researcher while narrative reports method incorporating the thematic notes were used during
the classroom observation. The latter was based on Shulmans Model of Pedagogical Reasoning
(1986, 1987, 1992) and modified from the checklist items of Teachers In-Depth Content
Knowledge (INTIME, 2003)

Results

Biographical Descriptions of the Participants
A total of 4 teachers (25.0%) who had 4 years or less teaching experiences were chosen as
participants based on their good perceptions of PCK (mean score = 4.0). The profile descriptions
of the four participants were summarised as in Table 1.2. As all the information obtained from this
study were promised to be treated confidentially and anonymously, participants were given names
other than their own as well as codes to represent them.

Table 1.2
Participants Profiles
Category of Teachers Novice Advanced
Participants code G5 G6 G9 G10
Gender P L P L
Universitys entry qualification Diploma Special Intake Ex-
teachers
Ex-
teachers
Teaching experience (primary school) 0 0 5 5
KBSM mathematics teaching experience
(F4)
> 1 < 1 > 2 > 2
Academic qualification B.Ed
(Mat)
B. Ed
(Mat)
B.Ed
(Mat)
B.Ed
(Mat)
Subject taught MM/AM MM/AM MM/AM MM/AM
Number of courses attended 0 1 2 1

Notes: MM Modern Mathematics Code and Fake Name of those involved:
AM Additional Mathematics G5 Cikgu Zainon
Mat Major in Mathematics G 6 Cikgu Sazali
IT Major in IT G9 Cikgu Nurul
B.Ed. Bachelor of Education (Hons) G10 Cikgu Abdullah


Sources of Novice and Advanced Beginner Teachers Knowledge

Content Knowledge
The mathematics curriculum. Both novice and advanced teachers appeared to be less
knowledgeable as far as the aims and objectives of the KBSMs mathematics syllabus were
concerned. Most of them admitted to have just a single glance through the syllabus either when
they were undergoing teacher training in the university or at the beginning of their teaching
careers.

They also seemed to be less sensitive with the aims of the mathematics education in Malaysia from
the pure mathematics perspective where mathematics is learned so as to enhance the development
of the mathematical discipline. Both groups of teachers believed that in order to fulfill the aims
and objectives of the KBSMs mathematics curriculum, the reliance on textbooks during the
planning of the lessons and during instruction was thought to be sufficient. However, as compared
to the advance teachers, the novice teachers were observed to be less critical of the textbooks used
and less inclined to reorganise the content to suit the ability of the students during instruction
(Hashweh, 1987; Reynolds et al, 1988).

The substantive structural knowledge.In the study, this involved the knowledge of the
trigonometric function based on the unit circle, problem solving, graphs, sine and cosine rules,
exponential and logarithmic functions and the triangles solution (Nik Azis Nik Pa, 1996). The
novice teachers appeared to give less emphasis on the understanding of the basic concepts of sine,
cosine and tangent for the acute angles, the facts about the values of positive/negative signs in
trigonometric function and the definitions for the various corresponding angles in the four
quadrants of the circle even though they followed religiously the content of the textbooks.
Although the advance beginner teachers too made full use of the textbooks, they seemed to
reorganize the content by emphasizing the understanding of the concepts, facts and definitions as
well as explaining clearly the appropriate procedures used to solve problems relating to
trigonometric function.

The syntactic structural knowledge. Both groups of teachers appeared to be able to identify topics
in the KBSMs mathematics syllabus and also able to list down the topics according to the main
domains namely Number, Shape, and Relationship. They were also able to identify topics related
to the topic of Trigonometry through the construction of a concept map such as triangles, negative
numbers, circles, straight lines, squares and square roots, Pythagoras Theorem, angles, function
graphs, ratios and coordinates. This indicated that both groups of teachers were aware of the
necessary current knowledge that students should possess in order to teach Trigonometry. They
were observed to introduce the topic of Trigonometry through the ratio concept applied to the three
sides of a right-angled triangle to identify the sine, cosine and tangent.

The teachers belief. Both groups of teachers believed that the mastery of the mathematical
content knowledge and the ability to deliver them in the manner that could be easily understood by
the students were the prerequisites for an effective teaching of mathematics. This belief is in
accordance with the findings from the studies of Shulman (1986), Grossman (1988), Magnusson et
al. (1998 and Ball & McDiarmid (2001)

The General Pedagogical Knowledge
Classroom management. Teachers in both groups were able to demonstrate an adequate grasp of
this essential knowledge by a good control of the teaching and learning processes in any class
settings. If the number of students in a classroom was small, this seemed to help the novice
teachers more in managing the teaching and learning processes. On the other hand, if the number
of students totaled more than 30, the advance beginner teachers appeared to have the upper hand in
controlling the students discipline by raising their voices throughout the teaching period. To
reduce the interference from some problematic students, the teachers rearranged the seating
positions of these students before the beginning of the lesson and this appeared to be good move.

Time management. In a typical teaching period, the novice teachers were seen to divide the amount
of time available in accordance with the number of skills needed to be taught. Each skill was
allocated a certain amount of time such 5 minutes for the induction set and 15 minutes to carry out
the teaching plan for the said skill. However, they appeared to be less skilful in managing the time
for group activities. The advance beginner teachers on the other hand, tended to manage the time
less rigidly but more flexible to achieve the teaching objectives of a certain skill. For group
activities, they managed the time efficiently by making sure that each activity and worksheet to be
completed within the specific time allocated.

Knowledge of communication. The novice teachers were observed to be lacking the skill in
conducting a good two-way communication. They were rarely seen to pose oral questions to the
students during instruction and tended to accept responses from the whole class. The advanced
beginner teachers, on the other hand, displayed confidence when interacting with the students
where the latter were encouraged to explain the solutions of the mathematics problems that they
solved to the whole class, expressed their opinions as well as interacting with fellow students
during group activities.

Knowledge concerning the students learning styles. Both groups of teachers agreed to the fact
that the form four science students favoured the explanations given by the teachers, took down
notes and copied diligently the examples given on the white board. Activities using certain
materials were deemed to be less appropriate and in fact could be considered as a hindrance for
weak students to understand the skills being taught.

Monitoring. Teachers in both groups were observed to monitor the learning process by walking
around the classroom when the students were doing the exercises given and this could turn out to
be a basis for evaluating their own teaching as well as the learning objectives to be achieved. They
were also seen to guide some students individually when the latter faced with a problem or
encountered a difficulty. The reflection in action practice appeared to have been employed by
both groups of teachers during the teaching and learning processes. However, only the advanced
beginner teachers appeared to employ the practice of reflection on action in the classroom.

Specific Pedagogical Knowledge
Curriculum content knowledge All the teachers involved displayed a good knowledge about the
curriculum content in Trigonometry. They introduced Trigonometry by applying the ratio concept
to the three sides of the right-angled triangle and then linked to the concept of a unit circle as
follows:


Sin = opposite/hypotenuse hypotenuse
Kos = adjacent/hypotenuse Opposite
Tan = opposite/adjacent
Adjacent

Sin = y/r 90
Kos = x/r
Tan = y/x y r




Teaching method. Teachers in both groups were observed to employ the exposition method which
included a lot of explanations during the teaching and learning of mathematics. They believed that
this method was essential to explain mathematical concepts by providing examples extracted from
the textbook and then followed by the students themselves doing the exercises in the classroom.

Specific strategy. All the teachers employed various strategies which were deemed suitable for
each skill in Trigonometry. Strategies employed included making use of diagrams, tables and
technological hardware such as overhead projector and scientific calculator.

Planning the activity for teaching and learning. Both groups appeared to have the same idea
concerning the teaching plan for the topic of Trigonometry. Their teaching activities could be
described as typical starting with the set induction followed closely with giving explanations about
the concept and skill to be learned and then proceeded to provide exercises for the students to
complete either on the white board or in their exercise books while the teachers monitored their
progress around the classroom and finally a set of homework was given normally obtained from
the textbook.

Teaching resource materials. The novice teachers mostly referred to the textbooks and other
reference books as the main source when planning the teaching and learning processes without
making any criticism or any suitable changes (Ball & MacDiarmid, 2001). Although they were
aware of their own shortcomings, they tended to shy away from seeking advice and assistance
from the more experienced teachers due to certain social constraints. The advanced teachers also
appeared to use examples obtained from the textbooks and other reference books but somehow
were able to make the necessary adjustments and changes accordingly to suit the students level of
achievement and understanding. In providing examples of mathematical problems and solutions
and in planning the appropriate activities, the advanced teachers drew from their own previous
experiences and also held continuous discussions with their colleagues who also taught
mathematics.

Knowledge about assessment and evaluation. The novice teachers were observed to make initial
assessment of the students learning by monitoring the latters progress when moving around the
classroom. Help and guidance were offered individually on the spot to those students who
appeared to encounter difficulties. In addition to the close monitoring of the students progress, the
advanced teachers were also likely to employ techniques of questioning to probe the students
understanding. Oral questions were directed frequently to those students who had been identified
as weak. If those students were able to answer correctly the questions posed, then other students
with higher ability would also be assumed to have mastered the concepts learned.

Contextual Knowledge
Previous experience in teaching Trigonometry. Of course for the novice teachers, this would be
considered to be their first experience in teaching Trigonometry and thus were observed to rely
heavily on textbooks and reference books as main sources of information in planning the teaching
and learning processes. They expected that students would encounter three types of difficulty in
learning Trigonometry: a) in determining the signs for the values of sine, cosine and tangent for
angles in certain quadrants of the circle; b) in finding the corresponding angles in the first
quadrant; and c) in determining the coordinates in the graphs for the sine, cosine and tangent
functions. To overcome these types of difficulty, the novice teachers were observed to put up
more examples and always had the important formulas written at the top end corner of the white
board.

For the advanced teachers who had the experience of teaching this topic for the second time or
more, they identified the concept of coordinates for both x and y axes in the unit circle and the
values of the corresponding angles in the first quadrant as well as the corresponding values of sine,
cosine and tangent with acute angles as the main sources of difficulty that students would face.
These difficulties were overcome by giving further explanations and providing various examples
with proper solving procedures on the white board.

Courses to enhance professionalism. Both groups appeared to have a positive view about attending
courses relating to the teaching and learning of mathematics. They believed that by enrolling in
some of the courses that were related to the method of teaching and marking of examinations
answer scripts could contribute in increasing their confidence during classroom instruction.



Implications from the Studys Findings and Some Suggestions

Several practical suggestions relating to the mathematics programme structure, curriculum input
and mathematics courses are put forward in order to enhance the mastery of the four components
of PCK and in addition to the development of an effective mathematics teaching for the teachers.

Implications of the Studys Findings Toward the Mathematics Education Programme in
IPTA (Public Institutions Of Higher Learning)

a) The Training Programme
Currently, the teacher-training programme in Malaysia appears to adopt the technology orientation
approach put forward by Feiman-Nemser (1990) which emphasises the aspect of teaching skills
such as the multiple approaches, strategies, methods and techniques that need to be mastered
before setting foot into the classroom for the first time (Lilia et al., 1998). Based on the findings
from this study which are outlined earlier, it would be sensible if the Mathematics Education
progrmmes available in the various IPTA to modify their orientation currently in practice to that of
an academic orientation such that a trainee teacher will be able to master and understand the
mathematical content that is to be taught as well as to develop his or her PCK through enrolling in
certain mathematics and mathematics education courses.

b) The Curriculum for the Mathematics Education Programme
The syntactic structural knowledge that deals with the development and importance of the
mathematical history, philosophy, fundamentals ad culture should be included as a topic in the
major courses. Questions on how knowledge is generated and evaluated are rarely be given
prominence. The way teachers define certain concepts, facts and principles in the domain of
mathematics are likely to influence them in planning and managing the curriculum and instruction.
Lacking in this knowledge will definitely interfere with the teachers ability in developing the PCK
during the mathematics instruction. The aims and objectives of the KBSMs mathematics
curriculum need to be given a detailed emphasis and should be discussed actively in the lecture
room through presentations or debates and not merely through lectures.

c) Macro/Micro Teaching
The macro/micro teaching is beneficial for the trainee teachers in training them on how to apply
the theoretical knowledge acquired during the lectures with the teaching and learning of
mathematics in an actual classroom setting. To achieve this purpose, a new course which only has
the component of macro and micro teaching with an assigned two credit-hour should be
incorporated into mathematics education programme so as to provide contextual knowledge and
experience.

d) The Teaching Practicum Programme
The teaching practicum programme should be extended to cover the whole semester of the student
teachers study instead of 6 to 12 weeks that is being practised now. The purpose is to provide
contextual knowledge and experience. The method of supervision should be improved by
incorporating the clinical supervision concept instead of giving a mere assessment score that is
currently in practice. This should reinforce the concept of the teaching practicum supervision. The
trainee teachers should be encouraged to engage in the collaborative teaching processes with his or
her peers during the teaching practicum. The practice of writing up a journal and making
reflections should be emphasised so that trainee teachers will be able to carry out a reasoning
process after each session in the classroom.

e) Courses To Enhance Professionalism
The focus of the in-service course should be on the aspect of how to teach certain difficult topics to
students that have been identified through studies or research. As part of their professional
development, mathematics teachers should be provided with the opportunity to work
collaboratively with their colleagues from the same or other schools so as to form a pooled
knowledge, to evaluate the pedagogy and to make comparisons about the progress of their
respective students. Every educational institution of higher learning is urged to have a one-day
seminar for their former graduates to share experiences concerning the problems in teaching
concepts of certain topics, the difficulties encountered by students and the learning styles of
students.
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Copyright 2005 Noor Shah Saad, Sazelli Ab Ghani & N.S. Rajendran