Noor Shah bin Hj. Saad Sazelli Ab. Ghani Department of Mathematics, Department of Mathematics Faculty of Science & Technology, Faculty of Science & Technology Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris. Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris <noorshah@upsi.edu.my> <sazelli@upsi.edu.my>
N.S. Rajendran Faculty of Science Cognitive & Human Development Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris. <nsrajendran@upsi.edu.my>
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore the sources of knowledge as stated in the components of the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), namely; the content knowledge, the general pedagogical knowledge, the specific pedagogical knowledge and contextual knowledge among the secondary schools mathematics teachers. The study involved four teachers who taught Form Fours KBSM mathematics. Two of them were novice teachers while the other two could be described as advanced beginners according to Berliners category (1986). The studys data were obtained through interviews, observations and documents. Each participant was interviewed at least six times by using the five interviewing protocols. In addition, three sessions of observations in the classroom were also conducted as well as the analysis of the documents related to the teaching and learning of Trigonometry. The study revealed the novice and advanced beginners teachers lack of knowledge concerning the component of content knowledge especially relating to the aims of mathematics education, the aims and objectives of the KBSM mathematics curriculum and the syntactic structural knowledge. As far as the general pedagogical knowledge were concerned, both groups of teachers displayed a good mastery of them where the teaching and time management was adequate, had the ability to conduct a two-ways interaction and were well- versed with the problems students encountered in learning mathematics. In the area of specific pedagogical knowledge, both groups of mathematics teachers were found to use various teaching strategies which were deemed appropriate to the learning of Trigonometry. However, the teaching methods employed were typical and limited to exposition, questioning and answering questions orally, giving students exercises to do, a bit of monitoring and finally a homework was assigned. The novice mathematics teachers seemed to rely only on textbooks and examination revision books to prepare for the planning of their lessons. Remedial activities were carried out in the classroom through monitoring and students themselves solved the problems given on the board. The teachers contextual knowledge did not really help in improving the novice and advance begginers teaching qualities since they were not given the opportunity to attend any professional development programme. Furthermore, they seldom interacted with their colleagues to discuss matters concerning the teaching of mathematics in school. It was also found that teaching experiences of less than two years did not really contribute to the improvement of their teaching. They were able to control the students discipline in the classroom but still lacked the skills to motivate students and helped foster positive attitudes toward the learning of mathematics. This study also discussed the several implications that arise from the findings and also suggestions to improve the standard and quality of the mathematics education programmes in the local public institutions of higher learning (IPTA).
Introduction
The essential skill that a teacher should possess is the ability to transform the knowledge to be delivered to the students in a form that could be easily understood. An effective teaching should not only involve the teachers skilful demonstration of his knowledge but should also include the capability to guide the students to understand meaningfully the content of the knowledge (Hansen, 1995). This can be achieved by identifying possible strategies to help students gain the best experience in learning. Although comprehending the mathematical knowledge is central to the transformation process in the teaching of mathematics, teachers should make the effort to know how students learn best and use the appropriate teaching strategies to help them learn. According to Greenwood (1984) and Ball & Bass (2000), the teaching method employed by the teacher is one of the factors that could influence a students achievement in mathematics. A skilful and very knowledgeable teacher has the potential to make the learning of mathematics more meaningful to the students (Public Agenda, 2000 in Graham & Fennell, (2001)).
A teachers mastery of the mathematical content knowledge could affect his teaching in many ways. Firstly, his current mathematical content knowledge based on his experiences in school and university could influence his choice in selecting or restructuring the mathematical content to be delivered, the teaching materials and textbooks as well as the activities and assignments for the students (Shulman & Grossman, 1987). In addition, the teacher also needs to combine his mathematical and pedagogical knowledge in his teaching. This in turn, could affect positively his teaching and delivery style. Finally, a competent mastery of the mathematical content would, undoubtedly, enable the teacher to make a linkage between the various topics and skills so as to produce a meaningful teaching of a concept (NCTM, 2000, p.370)
Teacher Knowledge A report on the professional teacher education states that If the promise of the teaching profession is to be achieved, we must attend to the processes by which its knowledge base is developed and transmitted (Howsam et al, 1976). Some researchers in teacher education have developed a few models of teacher knowledge. Elbaz (1983) categorises five types of teacher knowledge namely knowledge of self; knowledge of the milieu of teaching; knowledge of subject matter; knowledge of curriculum development; and knowledge of instructional. Leinhardt & Smith (1985) categorise teacher knowledge into two categories only: subject matter knowledge and knowledge of lesson structure.
Shulman (1986a 1987) and Wilson, Shulman & Richert (1987) define seven categories of teacher knowledge: content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, curriculum knowledge, knowledge of learners and their characteristics, knowledge of educational context, knowledge of educational ends, purposes, and values, and their philosophical and historical grounds, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) which is the integration of content and pedagogy that constitutes a special form of the teachers professional understanding.
Although the researchers give many different definitions to the various components of teacher knowledge, Grossman (1990) points to the fact that four general categories emerge namely pedagogical knowledge, content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge and contextual knowledge.
Among these knowledge base categories, PCK stands out since it is the knowledge about delivering the teaching content so as to enable the students to understand them meaningfully. PCK can also be viewed as the synthesis of pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge to understand better how certain topics, problems or issues can be arranged, represented and adapted in the form of teaching with the students interest and ability in mind (Shulman, 1987).
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) The construct of PCK was first proposed by Shulman in 1986 and then expanded through the Knowledge Growth in Teaching project as a wider perspective to understand the process of teaching and learning (Shulman & Grossman, 1987). The project involved an investigation into how novice teachers gained new understanding of the subject matter they taught and subsequently how this understanding influenced their teaching. Shulman further explained PCK as
a way of knowing unique to teachers whereby they take an aspect of the subject matter and transform their understanding of it into instruction that their students can comprehend. (p.8)
In this regard, PCK could be described as a specific knowledge (Geddis, 1993). Shulman also espoused PCK as a knowledge which is unique to the teaching profession. This knowledge distinguishes a teacher from a non-teaching expert of the subject matter. PCK is also the most suitable way to convey ideas, powerful analogies, illustrations, examples and visual information to represent the subject matter in a comprehensible form to others. In addition, PCK also includes a teachers attributes in guiding a learner to comprehend the content knowledge meaningfully and Shulman thus, suggested that PCK as an essential knowledge for the fundamental of teaching such that:
The key to distinguishing the knowledge base of teaching lies at the intersection of content and pedagogy, in the capacity of a teacher to transform content knowledge he or she possesses into forms that are pedagogically powerful and yet adaptive to the variations in ability and backgrounds presented by the students (p.15) According to Shulman (1987), PCK for any topic must include analogies, examples, effective explanations and demonstrations, an understanding of the aspects that could make the learning of any topic either easy or difficult, students misconceptions about the topic; and a knowledge concerning effective teaching strategies. Other factors that are also included in PCK are assessment techniques, the mastery of skills and the development of a meaningful teaching strategy of the content knowledge for the students (Wisema, Cooner & Knight, 1999). Grossman (1990), on the other hand, linked PCK with the teaching of the subject matter. In his Model of Teacher Knowledge, he has put forward some questions relating to the development of PCK such as the purpose of teaching, curriculum materials, students comprehension of the subject matter, instruments to assess students understanding, effective teaching practices to teach certain subject matter and certain principles for the teachers to create the right conditions for learning. The term PCK is also used to explain how the new knowledge gained by the teachers related to the subject taught is transformed into something that can be comprehensible to the students (Fenstermacher, 1994). As Gudmundsdottir (1991) cleverly points out, PCK is something that comes about when teachers have to transform their knowing into telling.
As mentioned earlier, PCK is the domain knowledge which is necessary to the teaching profession such that it can differentiate a teacher from the other subject matters experts such as the mathematicians, scientists and journalists. The challenge is for the teachers and the teacher educators alike to understand the process involved in the development of a teachers PCK. For this study, the researcher used the outcomes of the research conducted by Shulman and his colleagues as a platform to identify, investigate and explore the PCK among the secondary mathematics teachers.
The Objectives of the Study
Specifically, the purposes of this study were to investigate a) the content knowledge; b) the pedagogical knowledge; c) the specific pedagogical knowledge; and d) the contextual knowledge that being used in teaching and learning of mathematics by the novice and the advanced beginner mathematics teachers.
Methodology
The Study Design This study was based on the naturalistic paradigm using the case study approach. The case study employed here involved multiple cases and multiple sites. As pointed out by Yin (1987), a multiple case design would bring about a converging reality and the overall results of the study would be sturdier. A qualitative data collection would enable a researcher to study a certain phenomenon more deeply and in detail (Patton, 1990). Merriam (1999) describes a case study as a method that enables a researcher to comprehend and explain a phenomenon clearly and in an exact manner rather than based on speculations. In this study, qualitative data were collected through interviews and classroom observations as well as the analysis carried out on the teachers planning of the lessons. Additional information for this study was also obtained through documents relating to the teaching such as the syllabus, the teachers record books, tests given to the students, modules and other materials which were deemed helpful to complement the data collection of this study.
The Participants of the Study Two novice and two advanced beginner mathematics teachers who taught Form Four mathematics in secondary schools were selected based on their PCK scores obtained through the questionnaires given earlier to fulfill the purposive sampling criteria (Patton, 1990; Merriam, 1999). All the participants were interviewed at least six times before and after the teaching had taken place. In addition, observations in the classroom were also carried out at least three times per participant.
The Study Instruments The main instruments were in-depth interviews, document analysis, observations of the teaching and learning processes in the classroom and questionnaires. Interview protocols and a modified checklist for classroom observation were used to obtain the information from the participants. A modified version of five sets of interview protocols (obtained from Grossman, 1990) were used by the researcher while narrative reports method incorporating the thematic notes were used during the classroom observation. The latter was based on Shulmans Model of Pedagogical Reasoning (1986, 1987, 1992) and modified from the checklist items of Teachers In-Depth Content Knowledge (INTIME, 2003)
Results
Biographical Descriptions of the Participants A total of 4 teachers (25.0%) who had 4 years or less teaching experiences were chosen as participants based on their good perceptions of PCK (mean score = 4.0). The profile descriptions of the four participants were summarised as in Table 1.2. As all the information obtained from this study were promised to be treated confidentially and anonymously, participants were given names other than their own as well as codes to represent them.
Table 1.2 Participants Profiles Category of Teachers Novice Advanced Participants code G5 G6 G9 G10 Gender P L P L Universitys entry qualification Diploma Special Intake Ex- teachers Ex- teachers Teaching experience (primary school) 0 0 5 5 KBSM mathematics teaching experience (F4) > 1 < 1 > 2 > 2 Academic qualification B.Ed (Mat) B. Ed (Mat) B.Ed (Mat) B.Ed (Mat) Subject taught MM/AM MM/AM MM/AM MM/AM Number of courses attended 0 1 2 1
Notes: MM Modern Mathematics Code and Fake Name of those involved: AM Additional Mathematics G5 Cikgu Zainon Mat Major in Mathematics G 6 Cikgu Sazali IT Major in IT G9 Cikgu Nurul B.Ed. Bachelor of Education (Hons) G10 Cikgu Abdullah
Sources of Novice and Advanced Beginner Teachers Knowledge
Content Knowledge The mathematics curriculum. Both novice and advanced teachers appeared to be less knowledgeable as far as the aims and objectives of the KBSMs mathematics syllabus were concerned. Most of them admitted to have just a single glance through the syllabus either when they were undergoing teacher training in the university or at the beginning of their teaching careers.
They also seemed to be less sensitive with the aims of the mathematics education in Malaysia from the pure mathematics perspective where mathematics is learned so as to enhance the development of the mathematical discipline. Both groups of teachers believed that in order to fulfill the aims and objectives of the KBSMs mathematics curriculum, the reliance on textbooks during the planning of the lessons and during instruction was thought to be sufficient. However, as compared to the advance teachers, the novice teachers were observed to be less critical of the textbooks used and less inclined to reorganise the content to suit the ability of the students during instruction (Hashweh, 1987; Reynolds et al, 1988).
The substantive structural knowledge.In the study, this involved the knowledge of the trigonometric function based on the unit circle, problem solving, graphs, sine and cosine rules, exponential and logarithmic functions and the triangles solution (Nik Azis Nik Pa, 1996). The novice teachers appeared to give less emphasis on the understanding of the basic concepts of sine, cosine and tangent for the acute angles, the facts about the values of positive/negative signs in trigonometric function and the definitions for the various corresponding angles in the four quadrants of the circle even though they followed religiously the content of the textbooks. Although the advance beginner teachers too made full use of the textbooks, they seemed to reorganize the content by emphasizing the understanding of the concepts, facts and definitions as well as explaining clearly the appropriate procedures used to solve problems relating to trigonometric function.
The syntactic structural knowledge. Both groups of teachers appeared to be able to identify topics in the KBSMs mathematics syllabus and also able to list down the topics according to the main domains namely Number, Shape, and Relationship. They were also able to identify topics related to the topic of Trigonometry through the construction of a concept map such as triangles, negative numbers, circles, straight lines, squares and square roots, Pythagoras Theorem, angles, function graphs, ratios and coordinates. This indicated that both groups of teachers were aware of the necessary current knowledge that students should possess in order to teach Trigonometry. They were observed to introduce the topic of Trigonometry through the ratio concept applied to the three sides of a right-angled triangle to identify the sine, cosine and tangent.
The teachers belief. Both groups of teachers believed that the mastery of the mathematical content knowledge and the ability to deliver them in the manner that could be easily understood by the students were the prerequisites for an effective teaching of mathematics. This belief is in accordance with the findings from the studies of Shulman (1986), Grossman (1988), Magnusson et al. (1998 and Ball & McDiarmid (2001)
The General Pedagogical Knowledge Classroom management. Teachers in both groups were able to demonstrate an adequate grasp of this essential knowledge by a good control of the teaching and learning processes in any class settings. If the number of students in a classroom was small, this seemed to help the novice teachers more in managing the teaching and learning processes. On the other hand, if the number of students totaled more than 30, the advance beginner teachers appeared to have the upper hand in controlling the students discipline by raising their voices throughout the teaching period. To reduce the interference from some problematic students, the teachers rearranged the seating positions of these students before the beginning of the lesson and this appeared to be good move.
Time management. In a typical teaching period, the novice teachers were seen to divide the amount of time available in accordance with the number of skills needed to be taught. Each skill was allocated a certain amount of time such 5 minutes for the induction set and 15 minutes to carry out the teaching plan for the said skill. However, they appeared to be less skilful in managing the time for group activities. The advance beginner teachers on the other hand, tended to manage the time less rigidly but more flexible to achieve the teaching objectives of a certain skill. For group activities, they managed the time efficiently by making sure that each activity and worksheet to be completed within the specific time allocated.
Knowledge of communication. The novice teachers were observed to be lacking the skill in conducting a good two-way communication. They were rarely seen to pose oral questions to the students during instruction and tended to accept responses from the whole class. The advanced beginner teachers, on the other hand, displayed confidence when interacting with the students where the latter were encouraged to explain the solutions of the mathematics problems that they solved to the whole class, expressed their opinions as well as interacting with fellow students during group activities.
Knowledge concerning the students learning styles. Both groups of teachers agreed to the fact that the form four science students favoured the explanations given by the teachers, took down notes and copied diligently the examples given on the white board. Activities using certain materials were deemed to be less appropriate and in fact could be considered as a hindrance for weak students to understand the skills being taught.
Monitoring. Teachers in both groups were observed to monitor the learning process by walking around the classroom when the students were doing the exercises given and this could turn out to be a basis for evaluating their own teaching as well as the learning objectives to be achieved. They were also seen to guide some students individually when the latter faced with a problem or encountered a difficulty. The reflection in action practice appeared to have been employed by both groups of teachers during the teaching and learning processes. However, only the advanced beginner teachers appeared to employ the practice of reflection on action in the classroom.
Specific Pedagogical Knowledge Curriculum content knowledge All the teachers involved displayed a good knowledge about the curriculum content in Trigonometry. They introduced Trigonometry by applying the ratio concept to the three sides of the right-angled triangle and then linked to the concept of a unit circle as follows:
Sin = opposite/hypotenuse hypotenuse Kos = adjacent/hypotenuse Opposite Tan = opposite/adjacent Adjacent
Sin = y/r 90 Kos = x/r Tan = y/x y r
Teaching method. Teachers in both groups were observed to employ the exposition method which included a lot of explanations during the teaching and learning of mathematics. They believed that this method was essential to explain mathematical concepts by providing examples extracted from the textbook and then followed by the students themselves doing the exercises in the classroom.
Specific strategy. All the teachers employed various strategies which were deemed suitable for each skill in Trigonometry. Strategies employed included making use of diagrams, tables and technological hardware such as overhead projector and scientific calculator.
Planning the activity for teaching and learning. Both groups appeared to have the same idea concerning the teaching plan for the topic of Trigonometry. Their teaching activities could be described as typical starting with the set induction followed closely with giving explanations about the concept and skill to be learned and then proceeded to provide exercises for the students to complete either on the white board or in their exercise books while the teachers monitored their progress around the classroom and finally a set of homework was given normally obtained from the textbook.
Teaching resource materials. The novice teachers mostly referred to the textbooks and other reference books as the main source when planning the teaching and learning processes without making any criticism or any suitable changes (Ball & MacDiarmid, 2001). Although they were aware of their own shortcomings, they tended to shy away from seeking advice and assistance from the more experienced teachers due to certain social constraints. The advanced teachers also appeared to use examples obtained from the textbooks and other reference books but somehow were able to make the necessary adjustments and changes accordingly to suit the students level of achievement and understanding. In providing examples of mathematical problems and solutions and in planning the appropriate activities, the advanced teachers drew from their own previous experiences and also held continuous discussions with their colleagues who also taught mathematics.
Knowledge about assessment and evaluation. The novice teachers were observed to make initial assessment of the students learning by monitoring the latters progress when moving around the classroom. Help and guidance were offered individually on the spot to those students who appeared to encounter difficulties. In addition to the close monitoring of the students progress, the advanced teachers were also likely to employ techniques of questioning to probe the students understanding. Oral questions were directed frequently to those students who had been identified as weak. If those students were able to answer correctly the questions posed, then other students with higher ability would also be assumed to have mastered the concepts learned.
Contextual Knowledge Previous experience in teaching Trigonometry. Of course for the novice teachers, this would be considered to be their first experience in teaching Trigonometry and thus were observed to rely heavily on textbooks and reference books as main sources of information in planning the teaching and learning processes. They expected that students would encounter three types of difficulty in learning Trigonometry: a) in determining the signs for the values of sine, cosine and tangent for angles in certain quadrants of the circle; b) in finding the corresponding angles in the first quadrant; and c) in determining the coordinates in the graphs for the sine, cosine and tangent functions. To overcome these types of difficulty, the novice teachers were observed to put up more examples and always had the important formulas written at the top end corner of the white board.
For the advanced teachers who had the experience of teaching this topic for the second time or more, they identified the concept of coordinates for both x and y axes in the unit circle and the values of the corresponding angles in the first quadrant as well as the corresponding values of sine, cosine and tangent with acute angles as the main sources of difficulty that students would face. These difficulties were overcome by giving further explanations and providing various examples with proper solving procedures on the white board.
Courses to enhance professionalism. Both groups appeared to have a positive view about attending courses relating to the teaching and learning of mathematics. They believed that by enrolling in some of the courses that were related to the method of teaching and marking of examinations answer scripts could contribute in increasing their confidence during classroom instruction.
Implications from the Studys Findings and Some Suggestions
Several practical suggestions relating to the mathematics programme structure, curriculum input and mathematics courses are put forward in order to enhance the mastery of the four components of PCK and in addition to the development of an effective mathematics teaching for the teachers.
Implications of the Studys Findings Toward the Mathematics Education Programme in IPTA (Public Institutions Of Higher Learning)
a) The Training Programme Currently, the teacher-training programme in Malaysia appears to adopt the technology orientation approach put forward by Feiman-Nemser (1990) which emphasises the aspect of teaching skills such as the multiple approaches, strategies, methods and techniques that need to be mastered before setting foot into the classroom for the first time (Lilia et al., 1998). Based on the findings from this study which are outlined earlier, it would be sensible if the Mathematics Education progrmmes available in the various IPTA to modify their orientation currently in practice to that of an academic orientation such that a trainee teacher will be able to master and understand the mathematical content that is to be taught as well as to develop his or her PCK through enrolling in certain mathematics and mathematics education courses.
b) The Curriculum for the Mathematics Education Programme The syntactic structural knowledge that deals with the development and importance of the mathematical history, philosophy, fundamentals ad culture should be included as a topic in the major courses. Questions on how knowledge is generated and evaluated are rarely be given prominence. The way teachers define certain concepts, facts and principles in the domain of mathematics are likely to influence them in planning and managing the curriculum and instruction. Lacking in this knowledge will definitely interfere with the teachers ability in developing the PCK during the mathematics instruction. The aims and objectives of the KBSMs mathematics curriculum need to be given a detailed emphasis and should be discussed actively in the lecture room through presentations or debates and not merely through lectures.
c) Macro/Micro Teaching The macro/micro teaching is beneficial for the trainee teachers in training them on how to apply the theoretical knowledge acquired during the lectures with the teaching and learning of mathematics in an actual classroom setting. To achieve this purpose, a new course which only has the component of macro and micro teaching with an assigned two credit-hour should be incorporated into mathematics education programme so as to provide contextual knowledge and experience.
d) The Teaching Practicum Programme The teaching practicum programme should be extended to cover the whole semester of the student teachers study instead of 6 to 12 weeks that is being practised now. The purpose is to provide contextual knowledge and experience. The method of supervision should be improved by incorporating the clinical supervision concept instead of giving a mere assessment score that is currently in practice. This should reinforce the concept of the teaching practicum supervision. The trainee teachers should be encouraged to engage in the collaborative teaching processes with his or her peers during the teaching practicum. The practice of writing up a journal and making reflections should be emphasised so that trainee teachers will be able to carry out a reasoning process after each session in the classroom.
e) Courses To Enhance Professionalism The focus of the in-service course should be on the aspect of how to teach certain difficult topics to students that have been identified through studies or research. As part of their professional development, mathematics teachers should be provided with the opportunity to work collaboratively with their colleagues from the same or other schools so as to form a pooled knowledge, to evaluate the pedagogy and to make comparisons about the progress of their respective students. Every educational institution of higher learning is urged to have a one-day seminar for their former graduates to share experiences concerning the problems in teaching concepts of certain topics, the difficulties encountered by students and the learning styles of students. References
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