No Idealitats dels AOs

Limitacions dels Amplificadors

operacionals reals
Some

Opams

of Analog

Devices
OA Schematic
Non-ideal

effects

Finite

open-loop

gain

Constant GxBW

V
i
V
o

R
2
+
-

R
1
+

-

-

+


V
id
V
o

+

-

+
-
-

+

G
BW
G
BW
) (
) (
1
1 1
e
e
+
=
s
A
s A
o
V
) (

) (
BW s
BW G
s A
V
+
=
Non-ideal

effects

Finite

input impedance.

Non-zero

output impedance.
OA Schematic
Non-ideal

effects

Input current

Due

to biasing

requirements

or leakage.

Typically

~10 nanoamperes

for bipolar op-amps,
tens of picoamperes

for JFET input stages, and
only a few

pA

for MOSFET input stages.

Input offset voltage

Voltage

required

across

the

op-amp's

input
terminals to drive

the

output voltage

to 0
How to take into account V
OS

, I
B

and I
OS

?
V
id
V
o

+

-

+
-
-

+

real

V
id
V
o

+
-

+
-
-

+

ideal
+

V
OS
V
id
V
o

+
-

+

-

-

+

ideal
I
N
I
P
Non-ideal

effects: CMRR

Differential-mode gain

A perfect operational amplifier
amplifies only the voltage
difference between its two
inputs, completely rejecting all
voltages that are common to
both.

Common-mode gain

However, the differential input stage of
an operational amplifier is never
perfect, leading to the amplification of
the common input voltage. The
standard measure of this defect is
called the common-mode rejection ratio
(denoted CMRR).

V
id
V
o

+
-

+
-
-

+


V
p
V
o

+
-

+
-
-

+

V
n
+
-
n n p p o
V A V A V =
CMRR

V
p
V
o

+

-

+
-
-

+

V
n
+
-
n p d
V V V =
2
n p
CM
V V
V
+
=
n n p p o
V A V A V =
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2 2
d
CM n
d
CM p o
V
V A
V
V A V
( )
CM n p d
n p
o
V A A V
A A
V +
+
=
2
CMRR

V
p
V
o

+

-

+
-
-

+

V
n
+
-
n p d
V V V =
2
n p
CM
V V
V
+
=
0 =
=
V
V
V
A
CM
d
o
d
0 =
=
V
V
V
A
d
CM
o
CM
CM CM d d o
V A V A V + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
CM
d
A
A
CMRR log 20
CMRR

V
p
V
o

+

-

+
-
-

+

V
n
+
-
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
CM
d
A
A
CMRR log 20
CMRR
How to take

into

account

CMRR effect?
V
id
V
o

+
-

+
-
-

+

ideal
+
V
CM
CMRR

V
id
V
o

+
-

+
-
-

+

real

Non-ideal

effects

Limited

output current

Most op-amps

are

designed

to limit

the

output current

so as not

to
exceed

a specified

level

around

25

mA

for a type

741 IC op-amp

thus

protecting

the

op-amp

and associated

circuitry

from

damage.

Noise

Amplifiers

generate

random

voltage

at the

output even

when

there

is
no signal

applied.

Drift

Real op-amp

parameters

are

subject

to slow

change

over time and
with

changes

in temperature, input conditions, etc.

Temperature

effects

All parameters

change

with

temperature.

Temperature

drift of the

input offset voltage

is especially

important.
Non-ideal

effects

Power-supply

rejection

ratio

Reflects

how well

the

op-amp

can

reject

changes

in its

supply

voltage.

Use

of bypass capacitors

can

improve

the

PSRR.
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
A
=
CC
OS
V
V
PSRR log 20
Non-linear

limitations

Saturation

Maximum

output voltage

value.

It

is close

to the

power

supply.
Rise

Time

Rise

Time
Slew

Rate

Slew

Rate

Represents

the

maximum

rate

of change

of a
signal.

It

is usually

specified

in volts per microsecond.
Max.
OA Schematic
Current

source

with

I
OMAX
Capacitor

Integrator
}
= dt I
C
k V
source o
1
Slew

Rate
}
= dt I
C
k V
source o
1
C
I
k
dt
dV
source o
=
SR
C
I
k
C
I
k
dt
dV
source o
= = =
max
max max
( ) t A V
o
e sin =
( ) t A
dt
dV
o
e e cos =
( ) e e e = = A t A
dt
dV
o
max
max
cos
SR
dt
dV
o
=
max
SR f A
SR A
<
<
t
e
2
f
SR
A

<
t 2
A
SR
f

<
t 2
dt
d
Some

Opams

of Analog

Devices