Since atoms & molecules cant even be seen

under the most powerful microscopes, we use

models to explain and understand their
shapes and structures.
JJ Thompson model of the atom
1
+

Hydrogen atom
Positive nucleus
- protons
Negative
spinning in
electron space
The + nucleus attracts the
within the atom & also
the from other atoms.
spin around the nucleus
at different distances from
the nucleus called
energy levels.
The 1
st
energy level may contain up to 2 .
The 2
nd
& 3
rd
energy levels may contain up to 8 each.
in the outer energy level are called valence while
Single in the outer level are called valency
The valency determine whether new molecules are formed.
Atoms & molecules
2
Element Symbol 1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
th
energy levels
Hydrogen H 1
Helium He 2
Lithium Li 2 1
Beryllium Be 2 2
Boron B 2 3
Carbon C 2 4
Nitrogen N 2 5
Oxygen O 2 6
Fluorine F 2 7
Neon Ne 2 8
Sodium Na 2 8 1
Magnesium Mg 2 8 2
Aluminium Al 2 8 3
The ChemCollective:
Periodic Table Applet
3
Element Symbol 1
st
2
nd
3
rd
4
th
energy levels
Silicon Si 2 8 4
Phosphorus P 2 8 5
Sulphur S 2 8 6
Chlorine Cl 2 8 7
Argon Ar 2 8 8
Potassium K 2 8 8 1
Calcium Ca 2 8 8 2
How many valence does each of these elements have?
Electron configuration
4
Lewis structures indicate the valence as dots or crosses
about the symbol of the atom concerned.
Cl Li
x
Cl has 7
valence 3
pairs & 1 single
Li has 1
valence
Atoms of elements
will react to form
molecules or macro-
molecules in order to
reach a more stable
energy state.
Atoms will gain, lose or share in order to achieve the stable
octet structure.
Metals tend to lose their few valence to form + ions while,
non metals tend to gain to form ions both gaining the
octet structures.
Lewis structure
5
In this type of structure, the bonding pairs are
represented by a dash instead of the dots &
crosses as used in the Lewis structures.
The following structure illustrates the Couper
structure:
Methane molecule
C
H
H
H
H
Methane structure
6
-
+
0
E
p

Forces of attraction.
Forces of repulsion.
complete change
E
D
Forming the H2 molecule
As atoms approach each other
the following takes place:
7
Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share one or
more pairs of in order to achieve the stable
structure required to form a molecule.
When 2 H atoms combine to form an H
2
molecule,
the atoms share the pair of electrons between the
respective nuclei in order for each to achieve full
outer energy levels.
+

+

+
+


Atom Atom
+
Molecule
Shared pair
Covalent bonds
8
Each nucleus exerts attraction and repulsion on
the charges nearby:
+ +


& nuclei repel one
another.
Nuclei attract both
Hydrogen molecule
Since the first energy level may only have 2 ,
He, already having 2 in its only energy level
does not react to form He
2
,

as does hydrogen
to form, H
2
.

H.
X
H
Lewis structure
for H
2

Attraction between electrons and nuclei
9
Sometimes there is a sharing of 2 or 3 pairs of in
order to form the stable octet structure.
O O
x x
x
x
x x
O
2
-2 shared pairs
double covalent
bond
N N
N
2
3 pairs shared triple
covalent bond
Check to make sure that each atom now has the
stable octet structure.
Covalent bonds
10
When H
+
ions join onto a molecule & share a
lone pair of electrons, we call this a co-ordinate
covalent bond or a dative covalent bond.
x
x
H
+
Lone
pair
Here the H
+
ion
joins onto the
water molecule to
form the H
3
O
+

ion, called the
oxonium or
hydronium ion.
11
H
2
O + H
+
H
3
O
+

This also happens with the formation of the
ammonium ion.
Dative
covalent bond
12
1. F
2
2. O
2
3. N
2
4. H
2
O
5. NH
3
6. H
3
O
+
7. NH
4
+

Name each of
these particles.
x
x
Using an equation, show how the
ammonium ion is formed.
Lewis structures
13