Field Theory

1.01 Introduction to Electromagnetics

Stated in a simple fashion, electromagnetics is the study of the effects of electric charges at rest and
in motion. From elementary physics we know that there are two kinds of charges: positive and
negative. Both positive and negative charges are sources of an electric field. Moving charges
produce a current, which gives rise to a magnetic field. Here we tentatively speak of electric field
and magnetic field in a general way. A field is a spatial distriution of a !uantity, which may or may
not e a function of time. "n other words, time varying electric and magnetic field, and vice versa.
"n other words, time varying electric and magnetic fields are coupled, resulting in an
electromagnetic field. #nder certain conditions, time$dependent electromagnetic fields produce
waves that radiate from the source.
%he concept of fields and waves is essential in the e&planation of action at a distance. %he
possiilities of satellite communication and of receiving signals from space proes millions of miles
away can e e&plained only y postulating the e&istence of electric and magnetic fields and
electromagnetic waves. %he su'ect of electromagnetics is concerned with the principles and
applications of the laws of electromagnetism that govern electromagnetic phenomena.
(lectromagnetics is of fundamental importance and indispensale in understanding the
principle of cathode$ray oscilloscopes, radar, satellite communication, electromagnetic
compatiility prolems and so on. )ircuit concepts represent a simplistic, a special case, of
electromagnetic concepts. *hen the source fre!uency is very low so that the dimensions of a
conducting network are much smaller than the wavelength, resulting in a !uasi$static situation,
which simplifies an electromagnetic prolem to a circuit prolem.
%wo situations illustrate the drawack of circuit$theory concept and the need for
electromagnetic$field concepts. A monopole antenna of the type we see on a walkie$talkie. +n
transmit, the source at the ase feeds the antenna with a message$carrying current at an appropriate
carrier fre!uency. From a circuit theory of view, the source feeds into an open circuit ecause the
upper tip of the antenna is not connected to anything physically, hence no current would flow, and
nothing would happen. %his viewpoint cannot e&plain how communication takes place. *hen the
length of the antenna is an appreciale part of the carrier wavelength, a non$uniform current will
flow along the open$ended antenna. %his current radiates a time$varying electromagnetic field in
space, which propagates as an electromagnetic wave and induces currents in other antennas at a
distance.
"n another situation in which an electromagnetic wave is incident from the left on a large
conducting wall containing a small hole. (lectromagnetic fields will e&it on the right side of the
wall at points, such as points that are not necessarily directly ehind the hole. )ircuit theory is
oviously inade!uate for the determination of the field.
1.02 Vector Analysis
%he use of vector analysis in the study of electromagnetic field theory helps to give a clearer
understanding of the physical laws that mathematics descries. -ectors allow e&pressing these
physical relations in a more concise form as a whole, rather than in its scalar component parts.
Scalar. A !uantity that is characteri.ed only y magnitude and algeraic sign is called a
scalar. (&amples of physical !uantities that are scalars are time, mass, temperature etc. %hey are
represented y italic letters, such as A, B, ), a, and c.
Vector. A !uantity that has direction as well as magnitude is called is vector. Force, velocity,
displacement, and acceleration are e&amples of vector !uantities. %hey are represented y letters in
oldface type, such as A, B, C, a, b and c. A vector can e represented geometrically y an arrow
Field Theory
whose direction is appropriately chosen and whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the
vector.
Field. "f at each point of a region there is a corresponding value of some physical function,
the region is called a field. Fields may e classified as either scalar or vector, depending upon the
type of function involved.
"f the value of the physical function at each point is a scalar !uantity, then the field is a
scalar field, the temperature of the atmosphere, the height of the surface of the earth aove sea level
are e&amples of scalar fields.
*hen the value of the function at each point is a vector !uantity, the field is a vector field.
%he wind velocity of the atmosphere, the force of gravity on a mass in space and the force on a
charge ody placed in an electric field, are e&amples of vector fields.
Sum and Difference of Two Vectors. %he sum of any two vectors A and B is illustrated in
Fig. /./0a1. "t is apparent that it makes no difference whether B is added to A or A is added to B.
Hence
0/$/1
*hen the order of the operation may e reversed with no effect on the result, the operation is said to
oey th commutative law.
Figure /$/01 illustrates the difference of any two vectors A and B
(a) (b)
Figure 1.1
"t is to e rememered that the negative of a vector is a vector of the same magnitude, ut with a
reversed direction.
1. !"e #ectangular Coordinate $ystem
"n the rectangular coordinate system there are three coordinate a&es mutually at right angles to each
other, indicated as &,y and . a&es. "t is customary to choose a right$handed coordinate system, in
which a rotation of the &$a&is into y$a&is would cause a right$handed screw to progress in the
direction of the .$a&is. Figure /.2 shows a right$handed rectangular co$ordinate system.
Figure 1.2
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A point is located y giving its &, y, and . coordinates. %hese are the distances from the origin to the
intersection of the perpendicular dropped from the point to the &, y, and . a&es. An alternative way
of interpreting a point is to consider the point as the intersection of three surfaces as shown in the
figure /.30a1, the planes & 4 constant, y 4 constant, and . 4 constant, the constants eing the
coordinate value of the point.
Figure /.3 shows the points 5 and 6 whose coordinates are 0/, 2, 31 and 02,$2, /1,
respectively. 5oint 5 is therefore located at the common point of intersection of the planes & 4 /, y 4
2, and . 4 3, while point 6 is located at the intersection of the planes & 4 2, y 4 $2, . 4 /.

(a)
(b)
Figure 1. 0a1 A point is defined as intersection of three orthogonal surfaces. 01%he location of
points 50/,2,31 and 602,$2,/1.
1.% !"e &ot 'roduct
%he dot product , or scalar product of two vectors is a scalar !uantity whose magnitude is e!ual to
the product of the magnitude of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle etween them. %his type
of multiplication is indicated y a (.) 0dot1 placed etween the two vectors to e multiplied.
7iven two vectorsAandB, the dot product,orscalar product,isdefined as the product of the
magnitude of A, the magnitude of B, and the cosine of the smaller angle etween them.
%he dot, or scalar, product is a scalar, and it oeys the commutative law, for the sign of the angle
does not affect the cosine term. %he e&pression A*B is read 8A dot B.9
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Figure 1.% : a) %he scalar component of Bin the direction of the unit vector ais
B:a.(b) %he vector component of Bin the direction of the unit vector ais 0B:a1a.
A more helpful result is otained y considering two vectors whose rectangular components are
given, such as A4A
&
a
&
;A
y
a
y
;A
.
a
.
and B4B
&
a
&
;B
y
a
y
;B
.
a
.
. %he dot product also oeys the
distriutive law, and, therefore, A:Byields the sum of nine scalar terms, each involving the dot
product of two unit vectors. Because the angle etween two different unit vectors of the
rectangular coordinate system is <=
>
,we then have
%he remaining three terms involve the dot product of a unit vector with itself, which is unity, giving
finally
A vector dotted with itself yields the magnitude s!uared, or
and any unit vector dotted with itself is unity,
1.+ !"e Cross 'roduct
7iven two vectors A and B, we now define the cross product, or vector product, of A and B,
written with a cross etween the two vectors as A,B and read 8A cross B.9 %he cross product A,B
is a vector, the magnitude of A,B is e!ual to the product of the magnitudes of A, B, and the sine of
the smaller angle etween A and B, the direction of A,B is perpendicular to the plane containing A
and B and is along one of the two possile perpendiculars which is in the direction of advance of a
right$handed screw as A is turned into B.
As an e!uation we can write,


Figure 1.+: %he direction of A,B is in the
direction of advance of a right$handed screw
as A is turned into B.
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Figure 1.-: )ross 5roduct of A and B, A?B
)onsider two vectors whose rectangular component are given such as A 4 A
&
a
&
;A
y
a
y
;A
.
a
.
and
B 4 B
&
a
&
;B
y
a
y
;B
.
a
.
. %he cross product of the two vectors yields the sum of nine vector terms each
containing the vector product of two unit vectors. Since the angle etween any two unit vectors is
<=
o
, we then have,
a
&
,a
y
4

a
.
, a
y
, a
.
. a
&
, a
.
,a
&
4

a
y
a
&
,a
&
. a
y
,a
y
. a
.
,a
.
4 =
Finally we have ,
A,B . 0A
y
B
.
$ A
.
B
y
1 a
&
; 0A
.
B
&
$ A
&
B
.
1 a
y
; 0A
&
B
y
$ A
y
B
&
1 a
.
"n the determinant form,
1.- Cartesian Coordinates
A point 50&
/
, y/, ./1 in cartesian coordinates is the intersection of three planes specified y &
4 &
/
, y4 y
/
, . 4 .
/
as shown in Fig. "t is a right$handed system with ase vectors a
&
, a
y
, and a
.

satisfying the following relations:
%he position vector to the point 50&
/
, y
/
, .
/
1
A vector A in cartesian )oordinates can e written as
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Figure 1./: %he differential volume element in rectangular coordinates, d&, dy, and d.
are, in general, independent differentials.
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1.0 Cylindrical Coordinate system
"n cylindrical coordinating a point 50@
/
, A
/
, .
/
1 is the intersection of a circular cylinder
surface @ 4 @
/
, a half$plane containing the .$a&is and making an angle A

4 A
/
with &.$plane, and a
plane parallel to the &y$plane at . 4 .
/
. As indicated in figure, angle A is measured from the positive
&$a&is, and the ase vector a
A
is tangential to the cylindrical surface. %he following right$hand
relations apply:
Figure 1.0: 0a1 %he three mutually perpendicular surfaces of the circular cylindrical co$ordinate
system. 01 %he three unit vectors of the circular cylindrical coordinate system.
)ylindrical )oordinates are important for prolems with long line charges or currents, and in places
where cylindrical or circular oundaries e&ist. %he two$dimensional polar coordinates are a special
case at .4=.
A vector in cylindrical coordinates is written as
A 4 A
@
a
@
; A
A
a
A
; A
.
a
.
%wo of the three coordinates, r and . are themselves lengths, however, A is an angle re!uiring a
metric coefficient to convert d to dl. %he general e&pression for a differential length in cylindrical
coordinates is,
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1.1 $2"erical Coordinates
A point 50B
/
, C
/
, A
/
1 in spherical coordinates is specified as the interaction of the following three
surfaces: a spherical surface at the origin with a radius B 4 B
/
, a right circular cone with its ape& at
the origin, its a&is coinciding with the .$a&is
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Field Theory