Process Control System

Engineering Fundamentals CBT
Printout of CBT Content for Reference Purposes Only

Reference CBT:
Process Control Systems V 1.0
1016697

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE
3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 USA
800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com
Engineering Fundamentals CBT:
Printout of CBT Content for Reference Purposes Only
Reference CBT:
Process Control Systems V 1.0
1016697
December 2008

EPRI Project Manager
Ken Caraway

iv
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NOTE
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Copyright 2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

iii
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION

Summary
This document provides a printout of the CBT content for use as a reference document only.
Students are encouraged to use the CBT as animations, flash video, and interactive features are
intended to enhance their learning experience.
NOTE: The CBT should be used to validate information as errors may have been introduced
when converting the graphics, equations, etc.
Abstract
The Process Control Systems (PCS) module of Engineering Fundamentals (EF-PCS) Version 1.0
provides a basic overview of this topic, applicable to users in all engineering disciplines who are
beginning their career in the nuclear power industry.
Description
The Process Control Systems Version 1.0 module covers basic terms and concepts of process
control systems and discusses their applications in nuclear power plants. This course will help
new engineers understand how their work might impact and/or be impacted by process control
systems in a nuclear power plant. This module is intended for use as orientation training for new
engineering support personnel.
Platform Requirements
The following hardware and software are required:
Windows 2000 / XP / Vista
GB RAM, 120 GB
Microsoft Internet Explorer 6.0
Windows Media Player 10
Adobe Flash Player 9.0
CD-ROM
This personal computer software is designed to:
1) Run directly from the CD-ROM.
2) Be installed and run on a dedicated server where it can be accessed by multiple users from
other computers.

Application, Value and Use
The Process Control Systems module:
Allows engineering support personnel to review the content when they desire and at their
own pace
Uses interactive features and graphics to illustrate key concepts & enhance training.
Keywords
Training Controller
Process control Fundamentals
Analog Digital

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
EPRI would like to acknowledge the following individuals for their active participation
and significant contributions toward the development of this training course:

Sam Bailey South Carolina Electric & Gas Co.
Ken Caraway EPRI
Dennis Deardorff South Carolina Electric & Gas Co.
Glen Hadley Nebraska Public Power District
Fran Kelly First Energy Corporation
Nick Kennedy Entergy Corporation
Chris Prigmore Handshaw, Inc.
Eddie Welch Duke Energy Corporation

vii
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS ......................................................1-1
2 ELEMENTS OF A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM ..... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
3 MEASURING PROCESS VARIABLES ........................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
4 COMPARING AND COMPUTING ................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
5 MAKING CORRECTIONS ............................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6 IMPLEMENTING A CONTINUOUS CONTROL SYSTEMERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
7 PROTECTION SYSTEMS............................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
8 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEMS ..................................1-1
9 INTERACTIONS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

1-1
1
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS
Introduction

Welcome to the Process Control Systems course.
In this course, you will learn about basic process control functions, design
considerations, applications, and how they relate to your job.
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
State the purpose of process control systems in nuclear power plant operation
Define processes in the context of nuclear power plant operation
Describe the basic functions of a process control system

Purpose of Process Controls

The purpose of this training is to provide a basic understanding of process control and
how it is used to control and protect plant systems and equipment.

This understanding is important so that you can:
Learn how specific process controls at your site are applied and used
Appreciate the importance of process control systems to your daily work activities
Understand how certain actions or activities could adversely affect the
performance and function of process control systems
Know when you should consult subject matter experts in making plant,
equipment, and component changes and in assessing abnormal conditions
This training is based on the Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO) Guidelines
for Training and Qualification of Engineering Personnel document ACAD 98-004 Rev. 1.
This module was created by a diverse group of experienced industry personnel to
provide a sound, fundamental understanding of this important aspect of plant design.

1-3
How Process Controls are used in Nuclear Power Plants

Process controls are used to ensure that certain plant and equipment parameters are
controlled to maintain optimal design parameters. Typical parameters that are controlled
include specific tank levels, adequate cooling flow for heat exchangers, reactor coolant
system pressure, and main turbine speed. The graphic at right shows an example of
simple tank level control, much like your home toilet level control.
Some process controls provide simple single parameter control, while others obtain
input from multiple sources and control parameters across many systems. Process
control systems can be designed for manual operator control, fully automatic control, or
automatic protective action.
You may already be familiar with common control systems, such as home heating and
air conditioning thermostats, as well as cruise control in cars. A car computer is an
example of a complex control system that manages numerous engine parameters for
optimal performance and reliability.

Basic Process Control Functions

All Process Control systems perform the four basic steps shown in the graphic. To
explain the function of each step, we will use the example of a cruise control system in a
car.

These process control steps are in constant use to maintain vehicle speed. Obviously, if
feedback shows no setpoint speed error in the Measure and Compare steps, no
Compute and Correction steps are needed, and engine speed remains unchanged.

Measure:
Measurement is normally considered the first step in Process Control. It is the actual
monitoring of a parameter that is desired to be controlled. In our example, this would be
the measurement of the vehicle speed.

Compare:
This next step determines if there is a difference (called an error) between the
measured parameter (vehicle speed) and what was entered as the desired setpoint
vehicle speed. For our purposes here, we will assume there is a difference, and you are
either going too fast or too slow.

Compute:
This third step determines if the error is positive or negative, and what output is needed
to the engine (speed up or slow down).

Correction:
This last step involves the effort performed by the engine to make the actual speed
match the setpoint speed. The engine speeds up or slows down until the measured
speed matches the setpoint speed. Feedback is the term used for the constant input of
the measured process parameter (speed) to achieve the desired setpoint. Some design
methods provide a varied (faster or slower) correction based on how far the measured
process parameter is from the desired setpoint.

1-5
Purpose of Process Control Review Question

What purpose do process control systems serve in nuclear power plant operations?

A. They ensure that the major plant systems are properly managed to prevent corrosion
B. They ensure that equipment will operate as designed in possible accident
environments
C. They ensure technicians perform accurate calibrations
D. They ensure that optimal design parameters are maintained through the control of
plant and equipment parameters

The correct answer is D.
Process control systems regulate plant parameters and processes to ensure the safe
and efficient operation of equipment.

Industry Operating Experience (OE)

Throughout this course, you will have the opportunity to view operating experiences
related to process control systems in nuclear power plants. These operating
experiences are actual events related to the lesson, which demonstrate the importance
of these systems and how your role affects their operation in the plant.
The following operating experience illustrates how a feedwater heater modification
resulted in the inability to control heater level.
Click the graphic below to review the operating experience.

Issue and Problem
A project team working on a power uprate correctly determined that to accommodate the increased flow
requirements, a drain valve larger than the existing 3 valve would be required. A similar 4 valve was added to the
project and installed to accommodate planned increases in flow. The flow coefficient (capability) of the new valve was
approximately 2.5 times the old valve.
Since most of the project was mechanical in nature, no I&C personnel were included in the core project team. Upon
startup, it was found that the heater level was oscillating much more than expected and several level alarms were
received in the control room.
Upon investigation by I&C technicians, it was determined that the level controller would need to be adjusted. While
some improvement in control action was obtained, the controller adjustment was at the maximum value. Further
investigation by System Engineering discovered the change in valve size and flow coefficient. Since the controller
offered limited adjustment, it was necessary to change the range of the controller in order to compensate for the
much larger valve and flow.
Cause
The cause of the event was determined to be a lack of knowledge by the members of the project team with respect to
the change in controllability due to the much larger flow of the new valve. Additionally, the project team did not
communicate the information to the I&C personnel who could have helped the project team avoid this pitfall.

1-7

Conclusion

You've completed the Introduction to Process Control Systems lesson.
Now that you have completed this lesson, you can:
State the purpose of process control systems in nuclear power plant operation
Define processes in the context of nuclear power plant operation
Describe the basic functions of a process control system

2-1

2
ELEMENTS OF A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
Introduction

In the last lesson, we discussed the purpose and basic functions of a process control
system. In this lesson, you will learn how a process control system functions, its basic
elements, and some of the common types of systems.
After you have completed this lesson, you will be able to:
Identify the basic elements of a process control system
Describe how the basic elements of a process control system work together to
perform their function
Describe the importance of feedback to process control systems
Compare analog and digital control systems
Describe manual and automatic control systems

Basic Elements of a Process Control System

In Lesson 1, you learned about the four basic functions of a process control system:
measure, compare, compute, correct. These functions are performed by one or more
individual elements. A basic control loop is shown in the graphic below.
Click each element in the graphic to learn more about its function in a control loop.

Detector:
The detector, also known as the sensor, senses change in the measured variable and provides an output
proportional to the magnitude of the measured parameter.
Typically the detector is directly exposed to the process being measured and is also referred to as a
primary element. For example, an orifice plate used to measure flow is considered a primary element.

Transducer/Transmitter:
The transducer or transmitter receives output from the detector and converts it to a standard electronic or
pneumatic signal range for transmission to the controller. Transducers and transmitters are considered
secondary elements because they convert the output of the primary element. Depending on the
application and the instrumentation used, the function of the transducer and transmitter (and possibly the
detector) may be performed by a single device.

Controller:
The controller receives the transducer or transmitter signal and performs two discrete functions. First, it
compares the measured variable to the setpoint and generates an error signal if they are not equal.
Second, it computes the required output response based on the selected controller functions.
The process variable that is being maintained at a specified value or within a specified range is referred to
as the controlled variable.

Final Control Element:
The final control element receives the output signal from the controller and corrects the process by an
amount required to return the process to setpoint. Final control elements include control valves, dampers,
heaters, and pumps.
Since the final control element manipulates the process parameter, the signal from the controller output to
the final control element is often referred to as the manipulated variable.

Setpoint:
The setpoint is the reference value to which the measured variable is compared. The difference between
the measured variable and the setpoint is known as the error.

2-3

Examples of Process Control Elements

Let's take a look at the type of equipment that performs the functions of the elements in
a process control system.

Detector Transducer/Transmitter Controller
Final Control
Element

Pipe Flow Orifice
Ultrasonic Level
Transmitters
Charging Pump
Controls
Valve

Feedback in Control Systems

The elements of a process control system form a closed loop, also referred to as
closed-loop control. Information concerning the current state of the process is fed back
to the control system through the measuring element - the detector. This process is
known as feedback control.
Feedback works to restore balance or decrease the effect of a disturbance to the
process, as shown in the graphic below. The measurement of the value of the controlled
variable (1) is fed to the controller (2). The controller then feeds the manipulated
variable to the final control element (3), which corrects the process.

2-5

Analog Versus Digital Systems

As you learned earlier, a process is controlled by detecting a change in the process
variable, transmitting the signal to the controller, and sending an output to the final
control element, if necessary. Lets take a look at how this process is typically
implemented in analog versus digital systems.
Analog Systems
In an analog system, signals are transmitted to and from the controller through
electronic or pneumatic means. The controller performs the compare and compute
functions through analog means, as well.
Digital Systems
In older digital systems, signals are typically transmitted to and from the controller
(which is digital) through analog means, while newer transmitters digitize the signal.
Because analog and digital systems cannot interface directly, and processes are
analog, there must be some form of analog to digital conversion prior to the input to the
controller and some form of digital to analog conversion at the output of the controller.

Manual Versus Automatic Systems

The process control systems we've discussed thus far in this course are automatic
control systems. In automatic systems, the system output is monitored by a process
sensor, which feeds the measurement signal back to a controller at the input of the
system. The controller allows for automatic control of the process. There are two basic
forms of automatic control for process systems: on/off control and continuous control.
We'll take a closer look at these forms of automatic control on the following pages.
Process control systems can also operate under manual control. This type of control
can be found in fully manual systems or in automatic systems that can be switched into
a manual control mode. The most basic manual control consists of an operator
manually adjusting a final control element based on the indicated value of the controlled
variable. In effect, the operator acts as the controller in the system. Systems where
changes to the controlled variable do not provide corrective action are known as open
loop systems.

2-7

On-Off Control

The most common example of an on/off control is a thermostat that controls the heating
and cooling of a home. Room temperature is measured and compared to the desired
(setpoint) temperature. For cooling operation, if the measured temperature exceeds the
setpoint, the air conditioning unit is started to reduce the room temperature. As room
temperature decreases below the setpoint, the air conditioning is stopped. In on/off
control, the control signal can be in either the on or the off state only; no intermediate
state is possible.
As can be seen in the graphic at right, the controlled variable cycles around the desired
setpoint as the control action switches on and off. For many applications, this cycling is
unacceptable; a more precise or fine control is required.

Continuous Control

As we saw in the thermostat example, on/off control results in an "all or nothing" control
action in response to an error. For finer control, it is desirable that the control signal
response be proportional to the magnitude of the error. This is the basis of proportional
control, the most common control action. The term continuous control is often used for
this type of control action, because the final control element operates continuously
within pre-defined limits.
The most common example of continuous control is cruise control on a vehicle. A cruise
controller senses the speed of the vehicle, compares this speed to a desired reference,
and then accelerates or decelerates the vehicle, as required. The cruise controller can
vary the rate of acceleration depending on how far the vehicle's speed is from the
setpoint.
The graphic at right shows the change in vehicle speed over time when the setpoint is
changed from 25 to 30 mph.

2-9

PCS Elements Review Question

Match the functions in Column 2 with the process control system elements in Column 1.

Detector

Transducer/Transmitter

Controller

Final Control Element

A. Receives output from the primary
element and converts it to a standard
electronic or pneumatic signal range

B. Corrects the process by an amount
required to return the process to
setpoint

C. Senses change in the measured
variable and provides a proportional
output

D. Compares the measured variable to
the setpoint and generates an error if
not equal

The correct matching sequence is CADB.

Control Methods Review Question

Which form of automatic control is depicted by the graphic below?

A. On-off control
B. Continuous control

The correct answer is A.
In on-off control, the controlled variable cycles around the desired setpoint as the
control action switches on and off.

2-3

Conclusion

You've completed the Elements of a Process Control System lesson. The remainder of
this course will continue to build on these basic principles.
Identify the basic elements of a process control system
Describe how the basic elements of a process control system work together to
perform their function
Describe the importance of feedback to process control systems
Compare analog and digital control systems
Describe manual and automatic control systems

3-1

3
MEASURING PROCESS VARIABLES
Introduction

In this lesson, you will learn about two elements of the process control system: primary
and secondary elements. Nuclear power plant control systems use various types of
primary and secondary elements to measure key process variables.
Identify the plant processes that are controlled by process control systems.
List the variables that are measured by process control systems.
Discriminate between primary and secondary elements.
Describe the functions, advantages, and disadvantages of instrumentation used
to measure temperature, pressure, flow and level.
Describe application considerations when selecting instrumentation for the
measurement of pressure, flow and level

Monitored Processes

Nuclear power plants have a wide variety of parameters and processes that require
monitoring. Each parameter and process is monitored through a related process
variable. As you learned in the last lesson, process control systems are designed to
maintain these parameters within a desired operating band or at a specific value.
Common nuclear plant processes that are monitored by process control systems
include reactor water level, feedwater heater tank level, storage tank temperature,
reactor steam flow, and reactor pressure.
Click the graphic below to see a depiction of water level being monitored and controlled, representing typical control of feedwater
heater level. (Note: This will not work in this Word document)

3-3

Measured Variables

Every process variable in a system does not need to be monitored in order to provide
adequate control. For example, consider your home heating system. The only variable
that needs to be monitored is the temperature. While other atmospheric variables, such
as humidity and pressure, impact temperature, they can be ignored for the purposes of
process control.
The four most commonly measured process variables are:
Temperature
Pressure
Level
Flow Rate

Primary and Secondary Elements

As you learned in the last lesson, primary and secondary elements perform the
measurement function in a process control system.
The primary element, known as a sensor or detector, senses a change in the process
variable and provides an output signal to the secondary element. The output is typically
a mechanical motion, resistance change, or a millivolt signal. Examples of primary
elements are thermocouples, bellows, floats, resistance-temperature-devices, orifice
plates, or pressure cells.
The secondary element consists of the transducer and transmitter. Often, the
transducer and transmitter are located in the same housing. These devices receive the
output from the primary element and convert it to an electronic or pneumatic signal.

3-5

Temperature Measurement

Temperature measurement cannot normally be made directly, but is instead an inferred
measurement based on the measured effects that a change in temperature has on the
properties of other substances. When solids or liquids expand or contract due to heating
or cooling, the measurement of the expansion or contraction can be converted to an
indication of temperature.
The range of temperatures encountered in a nuclear plant is quite extensive, resulting in
the need for several different types of instruments. The selection of a particular type
depends on the accuracy needed, the temperature range, economic considerations,
and the need for recorded data.
On the next page, well take a look at examples of instrumentation used to measure
temperature, such as the thermocouples pictured at right.

Thermocouples

Temperature Instrumentation

There are three primary types of instrumentation used to measure temperature.
Click each instrument type below to learn about its function, advantages, and disadvantages.

3-7

Pressure Measurement

Pressure detectors sense changes in pressure and convert the changes into
mechanical motion or electrical signals. Units of pressure are expressed in psi, inches
mercury, or inches water.
Pressure in process control systems is measured using one of three scales:
Gage pressure
Absolute pressure
Vacuum
On the next page, well take a look at examples of instrumentation used to measure
pressure, such as the pressure transmitter pictured at right.

Pressure Transmitter

Pressure Instrumentation

There are three primary types of instrumentation used to measure pressure.

3-9

Flow Measurement

Devices such as head flowmeters and the ultrasonic flowmeter have been developed to
measure the flow of fluids, and each primary element device uses specific principles to
produce the flow measurement.
Head flowmeters work on the basic principle that when fluid flows through a restriction,
its velocity increases and its pressure decreases. Although the fluid's velocity increases,
its volumetric flow rate does not change. The change in pressure (dP), however, is
proportional to the square of the volumetric flow rate.

Orifice Plate flanged into a pipe

Flow Instrumentation

There are four primary types of instrumentation used to measure flow.

3-11

Level Instrumentation

Liquid level detectors measure the height of a liquid above a reference line or the
hydrostatic head developed by the liquid. There are two primary types of
instrumentation used to measure level.

Instrument Application Considerations

There are certain special considerations that must be taken into account when selecting
measurement instrumentation.
Click each consideration below to learn more.

Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)
Some instruments are sensitive to radio frequencies. Areas surrounding this equipment
must be marked as radio free zones. Twisted-pair wire is commonly used to prevent
RFI.

Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI)
Instrument output signals use very low voltages and current, making them susceptible
to interference from operating equipment and high power lines. Shielded cable can be
used to prevent interference from affecting the signals.

Head Correction
Head correction is an offset in calibration to correct for the difference in height between
the instrument and the level reference point. Head correction is not required for
differential pressure flow signal.

Low Flow Rates
Flow meters using differential pressure transmitters require the output signal to be
processed by a square root extractor to convert the differential pressure signal to flow
rate. An inaccurate reading can result at low flow rates.

Primary Sensor Location
Flow meters are sensitive to their piping location. A long, continuous, straight run of pipe
is required ahead of the primary flow element.

Vapor Pressure
Instruments used to measure vessel level can be affected by the vapor pressure inside
the vessel. If the vessel is open to the atmosphere, level is directly proportional to
pressure. If the tank is pressurized, a reference leg is used to cancel out the effect of
tank pressure changes.

Density Changes
Density changes in a closed vessel that are caused by temperature changes must be
compensated. The typical compensation method is to use multiple level transmitters
calibrated for different operating conditions.

3-13

Pressure Measurement Review Question

What process variable is measured using a bourdon tube?

A. Flow rate
B. Level
C. Temperature
D. Pressure

Pressure can be measured by a Bourdon tube, bellows, capacitance sensor, or strain
gauge.

Flow Measurement Review Question

Which process variable measurement is measured by a venturi?

A. Temperature
B. Pressure
C. Flow
D. Level

The correct answer is C.
Flow can be measured with a venturi, orifice plate, pitot tube, or ultrasonic device.

3-15

Conclusion

You've completed the Measuring Process Variables lesson.
Knowing about the different instruments used in process control systems enables you to
understand why a specific instrument was selected for a given control system. In the
next lesson, you'll learn how these measurements are used to identify the corrections
required in a process control system.
Identify the plant processes that are controlled by process control systems.
List the variables that are measured by process control systems.
Discriminate between primary and secondary elements.
Describe the functions, advantages, and disadvantages of instrumentation used
to measure temperature, pressure, flow and level.
Describe application considerations when selecting instrumentation for the
measurement of pressure, flow and level

4-1
4
COMPARING AND COMPUTING
Introduction

In this lesson, you will learn how process measurements are compared to setpoints to
determine the output required from the control system. The concept is illustrated
through an example of pressure control in a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR).
Describe the purpose of setpoints in the operation of a process control system
Describe how process control systems compare measured variables to setpoints
Describe how error signals are used to determine an output

The Purpose of Setpoints

After you have measured a process variable, such as reactor pressure, you need to
compare it to the target value. The setpoint is the reference value to which the
measurement is compared. The difference between the measurement value and
setpoint is known as the error.
To ensure a process variable is maintained at the desired value for proper operation of
the system, a control setpoint is established as the reference value to which a
measurement is compared. The control system will try to keep the process variable at
the setpoint.
To ensure a process variable falls within the limits for safe operation of the system,
protection setpoints are established such that exceeding these limits will cause a
protective action to occur, such as a reactor trip. Control and protection functions are
performed by separate and independent instrumentation channels.

4-3

Analog and Digital Control Systems

In Lesson 2, you learned about the difference between analog and digital control
systems. These two types of systems operate differently in the way they compare
measurement values to setpoint values.

Analog Systems

Digital Systems
In an analog control system, different DC
voltages representing the measurement
and setpoint values are compared using
electronic components, such as
operational amplifiers.
In a digital control system, the
measurement and setpoint values are
compared using a numerical calculation in
the computer.

Pressure Control for a PWR

The graphic at right depicts a typical PWR pressurizer pressure control system. We will
use this example to illustrate the concepts in the remainder of this lesson.
Reactor pressure in a PWR is maintained by a vessel called the pressurizer. The
pressurizer is partially filled with water, and has a saturated steam region above the
water level. Pressure can be raised by heating the water with a set of variable output
heaters and backup (on-off) heaters. Pressure can be lowered by opening valves to
spray water through a nozzle into the steam region, condensing some of the steam.
Pressure can also be reduced by opening relief valves to vent steam from the top of the
pressurizer.
For extreme overpressure conditions, the pressurizer is equipped with direct-acting
safety valves. However, these valves are not considered part of the control system.

4-5

Pressurizer Pressure Control System

The electric heaters, spray valves, and relief valves are the final control elements of the
system. They are manipulated by the controller to raise or lower pressure as needed to
maintain pressure at the setpoint. Lets take a look at how reactor pressure is measured
and evaluated to determine if an output signal needs to be sent to the final control
elements.
Click each numbered area of the graphic below to learn more.

1. A pressure transmitter connected to the pressurizer sends a signal representing the
pressurizer pressure.

2. The setpoint is the desired value for the controlled variable.

3. An error signal is generated if the pressurizer pressure differs from the control
setpoint.

4. A controller receives and evaluates the error signal.

5. The controller then sends an output that manipulates the final control elements in an
attempt to reduce the error to zero. The controller output may depend on the magnitude
of the error, how long the error has existed, or how fast the error is changing. You will
learn more about this process in Lesson 6.

Main Control Board Input to the Control System

The graphic at right shows a component on the main control board known as a
Manual/Auto Station. This component is the interface between the operator and the
controller. It allows the operator to transfer control between automatic and manual
control, change the controller output when in manual control, and adjust the setpoint
when in automatic control. The setpoint can be adjusted by a ten-turn potentiometer on
the left.
The clock hands on the potentiometer show 7.3 turns, which corresponds to a setpoint
of 2235 psig. The meter on the right shows that the output of the controller is 40% and
indicates the signal going to the final control elements. At 40% output, the spray valves
and relief valves are closed, the backup heaters are off, and the variable heaters are at
approximately 50% output to compensate for the ambient heat loss from the
pressurizer.

4-7

Main Control Board Pressure Indication

The signal from the pressure transmitter that you learned about earlier is also displayed
on the main control board with an indicator that shows pressure between 1700 psig to
2500 psig.
The meter on the right is the pressure control signal that is used by the control system.
The meter on the left shows the output from another pressure transmitter used for a
different type of control.

Example of Pressure Control During a Plant Transient

To maintain proper heat transfer conditions, reactor pressure should be kept constant at
2235 psig. Normal plant transients, as well as equipment failures and malfunctions, can
upset reactor pressure. The control system is designed to accommodate these normal
operational transients of the plant. The graphic below illustrates the change in
pressurizer pressure that occurs during a major plant transient: an electrical load
rejection of 50% starting from 100% power.
Click each numbered area of the graphic below to learn more.

1. Initially, the plant is in steady-state operation with pressure and setpoint matched.

2. The loss of electrical load results in a difference between the power produced by the
reactor and the power removed by the secondary side of the plant. Reactor coolant
temperature increases, and thermal expansion of the coolant causes an insurge of
water into the pressurizer. This compresses the steam bubble and results in a sharp
pressure increase.

3. The initial spike in pressure is limited by automatically opening the spray valves and
turning off the heaters.

4. Later in the transient, other plant control systems act to reduce reactor coolant
temperature, causing pressure to decrease below the setpoint.

5. When pressure decreases below the setpoint, the spray valves close, and the
heaters are energized to return pressure to the setpoint.

6. Steady-state operation is once again established after about 20 minutes.

4-9

Fixed and Variable Setpoints

In the previous example, the setpoint was a fixed value. However, not all setpoints are
constant; some vary based on plant conditions. Below are examples of fixed and
variable setpoints.

Fixed Setpoints Variable Setpoints
Steam generator level might be kept at a
single value at all power levels. The
setpoint is a constant voltage generated in
the electronic circuits of the control loop.
Pressurizer level setpoint is a function of
reactor coolant temperature. A signal from
the reactor coolant temperature
instrumentation is input to a function
generator whose output becomes the
pressurizer level setpoint.

Purpose of Setpoints

A process variable is maintained at the desired value for proper operation of the system
by comparing a corresponding measurement to a previously programmed control
setpoint and generating an error if they are not equal.

True or False?

This statement is true. A control setpoint is established as the reference value to which
a measurement is compared. The control system will try to keep the process variable at
the setpoint.

4-11

Conclusion

You've completed the Comparing and Computing lesson.
In this lesson, you have learned about the concept of comparing process
measurements to setpoints. In the next lesson, you will learn how different control
algorithms respond to the error between measurement and setpoint to regulate the
process.
Describe the purpose of setpoints in the operation of a process control system
Describe how process control systems compare measured variables to setpoints
Describe how error signals are used to determine an output

5-1
5
MAKING CORRECTIONS
Introduction

In this lesson, you will learn about the elements of a process control system that make
the corrections to the process necessary to keep the measured variable within the
desired range of values. These elements are known as final control elements. You will
also learn how this equipment is used to regulate a process and how it operates.
Describe the purpose of final control elements in the operation of a process
control system.
Describe the operation of final control elements in process control systems.
Describe the functions and operational interfaces of different types of final control
elements.
Describe the special considerations to consider when selecting and implementing
valves.

Controlling Processes in a System

As you learned in Lesson 2, the final control elements in a control system perform the
correction function in a process control system.
Final control elements are the devices manipulated by the controller in an attempt to
bring the process back toward the setpoint. These corrections are made to close the
loop and bring the process back into the desired range of values.

5-3

Final Control Elements

There are many types of final control elements, but we will discuss the four most
common: pumps, heaters, dampers, and valves. These devices are normally used to
control flow, pressure, temperature, or level.

Pumps Heaters Dampers Valves

How Are Pumps Used to Control a Process?

Let's take a closer look at each of the four types of final control elements, beginning with
pumps.
Pumps are often used as part of an on/off system to control for level. For example,
when controlling sump level, the pump would turn on to pump out the sump when the
level reaches a certain height, and turn off when the level has been lowered sufficiently.
The graphic below depicts a simple sump pump. Click the graphic to see an animation of its function.

5-5

Pump Curves

One common sub-category of pumps is variable speed pumps, which are used to
control a flow rate. Some examples of this mode of control include BWR reactor feed
pumps, BWR reactor recirculation pumps, and main feedwater pumps.
A pump curve is used to predict, for a given pump, how much power is required and
how much flow is produced at a given speed. The pump curve can change if a different
pump, motor, or impeller is installed. It may therefore be necessary to adjust or replace
the controller to compensate for the change before satisfactory control can be achieved.
An example of a pump curve is shown below. This Reactor Core Isolation Cooling
(RCIC) pump is designed to operate at approximately 400 gpm flow over a wide range
of reactor pressures (head pressures). The curve is drawn for a flow rate of 416 gpm
and shows how the pump speed must change to maintain the flow as reactor pressure
changes.

How Are Heaters Used to Control a Process?

Heaters can also be used as part of an on/off system to control for temperature. For
example, heaters are often used to keep room temperature within bounds when
controlled by a thermostat.
In addition, heaters may be used in continuous control systems. For example, the
temperature and humidity control of a Standby Gas Treatment air flow or the
temperature and pressure control of a PWR pressurizer. Electric heaters in continuous
control applications are often controlled by an SCR phase controller to vary the power
and heat applied to the process.
Two other types of heaters are steam heaters and hot water heaters. In these heaters, a
valve is used to control the flow of the heating medium in a heat exchanger. We will
discuss the operation of control valves later in this module, but the principle of operation
of the heater is the same as for the electric heater.

5-7

How Are Dampers Used to Control a Process?

Dampers are most commonly used in ventilation systems. They are used to control the
flow of air in response to a change in temperature or pressure.
The most common types of dampers are parallel vane and vane-axial dampers, as
pictured below. Dampers work by varying the area available for air flow, which changes
the flow. A damper can be actuated, or moved, by compressed air cylinders, electric
actuators, or hydraulic actuators.

Parallel Vane Dampers Vane-Axial Dampers

How are Valves Used to Control a Process?

Valves are the most common type of final control element found in a power plant. They
are used to vary the flow of liquids, gases, or steam in order to change a pressure,
temperature, level, or flow.
Valves come in many sizes and types. They can have many types of actuators and
many types of connections. Examples of valves that can be used to control flows are:
Globe-style valves
Ball valves
Butterfly valves
Needle valves
Pinch valves
The most common type of valve used in process control is a globe-style valve, and the
most common type of globe-style valve is a cage-guided plug style. In this valve, the
plug fits inside an internal cage and is guided by it. Certain valves, such as gate valves,
are not suitable for use in controlling flow because they will be damaged or will damage
the piping. Valves designed to be used for continuous control applications are called
control valves.

5-9

Globe-Style Valves

Globe-style valves are particularly effective for process control because they:
Are widely available
Are relatively simple in construction
Have acceptable recovery ratios
Have a large rangeability
Have a predictable valve characteristic
Can often be set up with reduced trim (if a smaller flow is desired) without
changing the valve
Special valve constructions are available for very high pressure drops, cavitating
conditions, very tight shutoffs, and for difficult fluids.
Cavitation is a condition where some of the working fluid will vaporize at the lowest
pressure point in the valve, then re-condense when the pressure increases just
downstream. This phenomenon can cause extensive damage that looks like corrosion
or erosion and sounds like large rocks hitting the inside of the valve and/or pipe. The
valve and pipe may be very short-lived if this condition is not controlled.

Application of Globe-Style Valves

Many globe-style control valves are installed with special characterizing trim. The
internal construction is varied to produce one of three standard valve characteristics:
linear, equal percentage, or quick opening. Each standard valve characteristic has
specific uses for which it is normally specified.
In all cases, the valve characteristic should be selected to linearize the control
response, so that the controlled variable changes approximately the same amount for a
similar change in controller output throughout the range. A control valve with the wrong
flow characteristic can make a process uncontrollable.
Click each graphic below to learn more about the three types.

Linear
For a given percentage change in valve opening, the flow change, in percent of full flow,
will be the same throughout the range.
These are used for most flow-control applications and in other applications where the
differential pressure across the valve remains relatively constant.

Equal Percentage
For a given percentage change in valve opening, the flow change, in percent of existing
flow, will be the same throughout the range. This means that the change in flow will be
more rapid as the valve nears full open.
These are primarily used where the differential pressure decreases with flow. For
example, if the upstream pressure sags or the downstream backpressure increases with
flow.

Quick Opening
Quick Opening is the inverse of the Equal Percentage characteristic. The change in flow
will be much more rapid at lower valve openings than at higher valve openings.
These are primarily used where the differential pressure across the valve increases with
flow. For example, in a steam de-superheater. They are not very common in the nuclear
industry.

5-11

Selecting a Control Valve

There are several other factors to take into consideration when selecting a control valve.
The most important are:
The Cv (flow coefficient) of the valve.
The material of the valve. The material must be compatible with the fluid in the
line and be of the right hardness to survive the throttling conditions.
Flashing or cavitation potential. The tendency of the valve to flash or to
cavitate in the intended service must be evaluated. If flashing or cavitation is
expected, measures must be taken to control it, such as using anti-cavitation trim
or hardened seat materials.
The noise expected from the throttling of the valve. Noise can be damaging
to the valve, piping, or vessel, and can be a hazard to personnel. Special
constructions are available to minimize noise.
The way the valve is inserted into the line. Valves can be screwed, flanged,
socket welded, butt welded, or soldered.

Final Control Elements Review Question

What is the purpose of the final control element in the operation of a process control
system?

A. Compares the measured value to the setpoint and provides an error signal
B. Makes a change to the selected process parameter
C. Measures the output of the process
D. Communicates the error signal to the controller

The correct answer is B.
The final control element receives the output signal from the controller and corrects the
process by an amount required to return the process to setpoint.

5-13

Valves Review Question

When working with globe-style valves, in which valve characteristic will the flow change
(in percent of full flow) be the same for any percentage change in valve opening?

A. Equal Percentage
B. Quick Opening
C. Linear

For a given percentage change in linear valve opening, the flow change (in percent of
full flow) will be the same throughout the range.

Conclusion

You've completed the Making Corrections lesson.
Describe the purpose of final control elements in the operation of a process
control system.
Describe the operation of final control elements in process control systems.
Describe the functions and operational interfaces of different types of final control
elements.
valves.

6-1
6
IMPLEMENTING A CONTINUOUS CONTROL SYSTEM
Introduction

In this lesson, we will learn about the central component in the typical feedback control
system: the Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controller. In the previous lessons,
you learned about processes, setpoints, error and final control elements. The PID
controller is the device joining these elements in a continuous control scheme.
Continuous control schemes are essential in keeping a number of key plant systems
operating within a narrow band of acceptable process values. These include feedwater
control, reactor/rod control, turbine speed and load control, reactor make-up and
letdown flow control, and more.
Describe the purpose and operation of PID controllers in process control systems
Define and describe typical applications of proportional control, integral control,
and derivative control
Describe how to apply a PID controller
Describe the operation of complex control systems
Identify the factors to consider when choosing a control strategy

The PID Controller

In Lesson 4, you learned about the function of controllers in process control systems.
The heart of a typical process control system is the PID controller.
PID controllers are highly configurable devices with standard input and output signal
ranges that can be set up to implement a variety of control schemes in an equally wide
variety of physical processes. They can be pneumatic or electronic, and analog or
digital, as shown in the photos below. Regardless of the type, the PID controller
implements continuous control, as opposed to on-off control.
The PID controller acts on two inputs, the process measurement and the setpoint. From
these inputs, it produces an error and calculates an output demand signal.

6-3

Function of a PID controller

The PID controller takes its name from the operations it can perform on an error signal
to produce a demand signal.
The PID controller can perform proportional, integral, and derivative operations alone or
in combination. If used in combination, the demand signals are summed to give the total
demand output.
Click each operation type below to learn more.

Proportional
The proportional term of a controller is the error term multiplied by gain. The
proportional band is the reciprocal of gain, in percent units. A gain of two is the same as
a proportional band of 50% and a proportional band of 20% represents a gain of five.

Integral
The integral term of a controller is the error term multiplied by gain and by time, then
scaled by the integral setting. The integral term will always be increasing or decreasing
when an error exists. Another term for integral is "reset."

Derivative
The derivative term is calculated by multiplying the rate of change of the error by an
internal setting constant. The derivative term is zero except when the process is
changing.

In a direct acting controller, demand increases as the process increases. In a reverse
acting controller, demand decreases as the process increases.

What is Proportional Control?

Proportional control is the most frequently used mode of a PID controller. Setting
integral and derivative to zero produces a proportional-only controller. When integral
and/or derivative modes are used, it is almost always in conjunction with proportional
control.
Proportional-only control can produce acceptable results for many processes and is
usually free of stability problems sometimes caused by use of integral and/or derivative
control. One disadvantage of this control method is that an error will typically exist in
steady state; control wont be maintained exactly at setpoint. An example of
proportional-only control is the tank-level control system shown in the illustration below.
In this steady-state example, an error exists in order to produce the required demand
signal such that inlet and outlet rates are equal.
Click the Slow and Fast buttons to see how the results vary.

6-5

Adding Integral to the Controller

In the previous example, a fixed error existed because the proportional controller, by
definition, requires an error to produce output. To force the error to zero, the integral
term may be added to the controller. The integral term builds over time, as long as an
error exists. When the error becomes zero, the integral term holds its value. When a
system upset occurs, the proportional term provides the initial response. Over time, the
integral term dominates and the proportional term becomes zero.
Building on the previous example, we can enable the integral term, which will build in
proportion to the magnitude of the error and time, scaled by the integral setting. Initially,
only the proportional output will change. Over time, the integral output will change and
the error will return to zero, as does the proportional term.
Click the illustration below to see the results of adding integral to the controller.

Using Derivative Control

The derivative element of a PID controller produces a demand signal proportional to the
rate of change of the error. This allows the controller to respond to system upsets
before they produce an error. The sign of the derivative term causes it to oppose the
change, even if it is toward setpoint. As such, it has a stabilizing effect on control.
Derivative control is typically used in conjunction with proportional or proportional plus
integral control to aid responsiveness and stability.
Noisy signals, such as are seen in flow measurements, can make use of derivative
control counter productive. Processes that undergo sustained and relatively noise-free
changes, such as batch temperature control, can benefit from the use of derivative
control.
Click the illustration below to see the results of adding derivative to the controller.

6-7

More Complex Control Schemes

The control schemes discussed thus far have included a single process measurement,
a PID controller, and one final control element. This arrangement produces satisfactory
control in most cases, but some processes merit a more sophisticated approach. A
classic example is the control system for level control in a boiler (fossil plant), steam
generator (PWR), or reactor vessel (BWR). If the volume of the boiler is very large, a
change in steam demand must exist for some time before the effect shows up in the
level measurement as a significant error.
The solution is a scheme called 3-element control. A demand signal based on level is
produced as in a typical PID scheme, but two additional measurements are also made:
of steam flow from the boiler and feedwater flow into it. The difference in these flows is
the flow imbalance signal. This signal is used to develop an additional bias that is added
to the demand. This significantly improves the response time over a system based on
level only, since the system can react before level changes appreciably.

Choosing a Control Strategy

In choosing a control strategy, one must consider the control accuracy required and the
effect on the plant if the controlled variable goes out of bounds. Effects might range
from a minor nuisance to a plant trip.
On-Off Control
On-off control should be considered first for its simplicity. Consider if the process and
final control element can tolerate this type of control. Large motors, for example, will not,
but heaters generally will. Sometimes an appropriate setpoint deadband will minimize
excessive cycling and make on-off control acceptable even for motor-driven loads, such
as room ventilation fans.
PID Scheme
When continuous control is desirable, a PID scheme as described in this lesson should
be considered. With appropriate scaling of variables and sizing of the final control
element, accurate and stable control can be achieved.
More Complex Control
More stringent requirements may require a specialized system, such as the 3-element
feedwater control system. Another variation could be a simple PID control system with
protective overrides at high and/or low process values. Some continuous control
systems transition to a different mode or simply a different setpoint after a plant trip.
Remotely-calculated setpoints rather than setpoints selected manually are an example
of adding sophistication to a simple PID scheme. Cascade, feedforward control, and
other complex control schemes are becoming more common.
Reject To Manual
Continuous control systems may also be designed to reject to manual if parameters
are exceeded or an input is lost. An alarm alerts the operator to take manual control.

6-9

PID Review Question

When working with PID controllers, in which operation is the term calculated by
multiplying the rate of change of the error by an internal setting constant?

A. Proportional
B. Integral
C. Derivative

The derivative term is calculated by multiplying the rate of change of the error by an
internal setting constant.

Control Strategy Review Question

What control strategy would you be likely to choose if you required accurate and stable
continuous control for a large, complex system?

A. Reject to manual control
B. On-off control
C. PID control
D. Complex control

The correct answer is D.
The more stringent requirements of a larger or more complex system may require more
complex control, such as 3-element control.

6-11
Conclusion

You've completed the Implementing a Continuous Control System lesson. In this lesson,
you were introduced to the principles of operation and the capabilities of the PID
controller. You saw how it may be applied in various control schemes and how control
systems might be expanded beyond simple PID control.
In the next lesson, we will learn about systems that come into play to protect the plant
when certain parameters are exceeded, requiring a transition from normal control
systems to protective action systems.
Describe the purpose and operation of PID controllers in process control systems
Define and describe typical applications of proportional control, integral control,
and derivative control
Describe how to apply a PID controller
Describe the operation of complex control systems
Identify the factors to consider when choosing a control strategy

7-1
7
PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Introduction

In earlier lessons, you have learned how process controls are used to maintain a
process at a desired level. If events occur where the process cannot be maintained
within safe limits, protection systems trip the unstable systems to prevent or minimize
system damage.
Describe the purpose of protection systems
Describe the role of coincident logic in protection systems
Describe the methods for setpoint determination on protection systems

Protection Systems

Protection systems are used to prevent damage to systems and equipment when
process variables cannot be maintained within limits for safe and sustained operation.
There are a number of things that can cause limits to be exceeded, including:
Equipment failures
Control failures
Some operational changes
If the associated system or equipment is not tripped, damage may be incurred on
equipment and components within the system. For example, operating a system at a
pressure above its design limits could cause leaks or ruptures. Although controls are in
place to prevent this, protection systems can be used to trip the system should a high-
pressure condition occur.

Protective Setpoints
As you learned earlier, in a standard control loop, a controller is used to act on the difference
between a process variable and a setpoint to manipulate the process parameter being controlled.
In a protection circuit, a bistable is used. A bistable is an on-off device whose output depends on
the relationship between the input signal and the setpoint.
When a process is operating within safe bounds, protection bistables are in the reset state. If the
process variable exceeds the protection setpoint, the bistable trips and stays in the tripped
condition until the process variable is returned to normal.
There are four configurations for bistables, as pictured below. Click each numbered configuration to learn more.
Configuration 1 The process variable is normally less than the setpoint and the bistable trips
when the process variable is greater than the setpoint. In this configuration, the bistable is
normally energized, which is the more frequently used set-up.
Configuration 2 The process variable is normally greater than the setpoint and the bistable trips
when the process variable is less than the setpoint. In this configuration, the bistable is normally
energized, which is the more frequently used set-up.
Configuration 3 The process variable is normally less than the setpoint and the bistable trips
when the process variable is greater than the setpoint. In this configuration, the bistable is
normally de-energized.
Configuration 4
7-3
The process variable is normally greater than the setpoint and the bistable trips
when the process variable is less than the setpoint. In this configuration, the bistable is normally
de-energized.

Coincident Logic in Protection Systems

For certain major systems and equipment, failure can have large safety consequences,
major impacts on generation, and/or large equipment replacement costs. In these
cases, coincident logic is typically used.
Coincident logic requires at least two independent inputs (channels) to produce a trip
output. Many nuclear safety applications use a two-out-of-four trip logic to ensure
reliability and security. Reliability is achieved because this design supports proper
operation with one channel out of service. Security is achieved because the design
protects against false trips should one channel inadvertently fail or be improperly put in
a trip state.
Two-out-of-three or two-out-of-four schemes help ensure proper operation when one
channel fails to operate when intended (reliability), or when one channel operates when
not intended (security).

7-5

Establishing Protection Setpoints

Terminology may vary by reactor type and supplier. The discussion below illustrates
application for one reactor type.

The process of establishing protection setpoints begins with the accident analysis that is
documented in Chapter 15 of the plant's Final Safety Analysis Report. For example, the
accident analysis may assume that the reactor does not trip on high pressure until it
exceeds 2435 psig, and then go on to show that this trip setpoint protects the reactor
coolant system. The setpoints assumed in the safety analysis are called safety analysis
limit setpoints.
In practice, the plant operates with a tighter band of protection setpoints than the ones
assumed in the safety analysis. The nominal setpoint is the value that is actually set into
the plants protection circuitry. The difference between the safety analysis limit and the
nominal setpoint provides a margin of safety that accounts for instrument error and
process uncertainties.

Nominal Setpoints and Allowable Values

The required values for protection setpoints are listed in Technical Specifications. Two
numbers are given, the nominal setpoint and the allowable value. In practice, an
instrument may experience drift or may be affected by limits on the ability to adjust
settings during calibration. The allowable value allows for calibration uncertainties,
measurement and test equipment inaccuracies, and circuit drift.
For example, the Technical Specifications might list the following setpoints for reactor
trip on low reactor pressure:
Nominal Setpoint: 1870 psig
Allowable Value: 1859 psig
The pressure protection channel is calibrated every 18 months. When the calibration is
performed, the trip setpoint is adjusted to be as close to the nominal setpoint of 1870
psig as possible.
The setpoint is then checked every three months by performing a Channel Functional
test. A test signal for pressure is injected into the channel, and the low pressure trip
bistable is monitored as the test signal is decreased. If the bistable trips when the test
signal gets to 1870 psig, the channel passes the test and no further action is required.
However, the channel may have drifted slightly, and the bistable might not trip until the
signal is somewhere between 1870 psig and 1859 psig. In this case the channel is
considered to be operable, but the setpoint is adjusted back to 1870 psig to remove the
drift.

7-7

Protection Setpoint Review Question

Which setpoint is the most conservative and provides a margin of safety to account for
instrument error and process uncertainties?

A. Safety analysis limit setpoint
B. Nominal setpoint

The correct answer is B.
The safety analysis limit setpoints are documented in the plant's Final Safety Analysis
Report, but in practice, the plant operates with a tighter band of nominal protection
setpoints.

Conclusion

You've completed the Protection Systems lesson. In this lesson, you learned how
protection systems prevent or minimize system damage by tripping unstable systems
when they cannot be maintained at safe limits
Describe the purpose of protection systems
Describe the role of coincident logic in protection systems
Describe the methods for setpoint determination on protection systems

8-1
8
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DIGITAL CONTROL
SYSTEMS
Introduction

In this lesson, you will learn about digital control systems. In these systems, some or all
of the process control functions are performed by a computer or microprocessor.
Describe the basic operation of digital control systems
Identify the advantages of digital control systems over analog systems
digital control systems
Describe the application of a typical digital control system

Page: Types of Digital Control Elements

A large variety of different types of hardware can be described as digital control
elements. This equipment falls on a scale from simple to complex.
Click each of the five equipment types below to learn more.

Simple Digital Devices
The less complex digital transmitters are basically digital substitutes for analog
components that measure temperature, pressure, flow, and level. They are typically less
expensive and more accurate than the analog components they replace.

Digital Logic Devices
Digital logic devices include Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) and Micro
Controllers. These devices typically provide alarms, implement logic, and provide an
operator interface. They can have as few as eight or as many as several hundred
input/output points (I/O) and are normally programmed using ladder-logic symbols.

Digital Single-Loop Controllers
Most digital single-loop controllers implement two or more control loops in an enclosure
that is specifically designed to replace an obsolete single-loop analog controller.
Process alarms, mathematical function blocks, and complex logic can be implemented
in these controllers. They normally have digital communications capabilities, multiple
inputs and outputs, and fast update times.

Paperless Recorders
Modern paperless recorders are specifically designed to replace aging analog devices.
They fit into the same or similar panel cutouts and emulate the familiar look and feel of
the equipment being replaced, while adding the capability to perform complex logic,
mathematical calculations, and alarm functions.

Highly-Integrated Control Systems
Highly-integrated control systems typically include a variety of digital transmitters,
processors, and a sophisticated human-machine interface (HMI). The systems connect
to a network to allow remote access and monitoring. They are often redundant and
distributed in order to enhance reliability. Their thousands of I/O, combined with a large
amount of processing power, allow the implementation of sophisticated control
algorithms.

8-3

Page: Examples of Digital Control Elements

The graphics below show a few examples of some of the digital control elements you
learned about on the previous page.
Click each graphic to view a larger version.
Simple Digital Devices Digital Logic Devices

Ultrasonic Level Sensor Programmable Logic Controller

The Feedwater Control System graphic shows digital controllers on the left and an older
analog controller on the right. The Reactor Feed Control System graphic shows a
paperless recorder displaying key plant parameters. The Reactor vessel Level Control
System graphic shows an HMI for a sophisticated integrated control system.

Advantages of Digital Control Systems

Digital transmitters, converters, and recorders are often specified to directly replace
existing analog components. The most common reasons for replacement are:
Analog replacements are no longer available or have become obsolete.
Digital components are more reliable, accurate, stable, and easier to calibrate.
Digital components often perform self-diagnostics to aid in maintenance.
Digital controls can be made much more fault-tolerant than analog control
systems and can be designed to continue to operate with one or more failures.
Inventories of spares can be reduced, as a single piece of hardware can be
configured to do many different functions and replace a large number of different
devices, as pictured in the graphic at right.
Integrated digital control systems can present information depicting the state of
the plant to operators through a live graphical user interface (GUI), accept logical
commands from a touch-screen or mouse-driven interface, and make it relatively
easy to set up complex control strategies quickly and accurately.
Digital controllers are manufactured to fit in the space previously occupied by the analog
controller.

8-5

Additional Configuration Options

Digital components are usually configurable to perform a wide variety of functions
beyond those available from analog components. These include:
Implementing logical and mathematical functions (including square roots) internal
to the controller
Providing multiple control loops, as well as additional inputs and outputs for
indication, control, and alarms
Providing auto-tuning, where the controller uses the response of the process to
determine appropriate tuning values for gain, reset, and derivative to make
optimization of the process much easier
Allowing ladder logic, function block, and menu-driven configuration, which
allows set up to be done by engineers, technicians, or operators with little
additional training
A sample ladder diagram is shown in the graphic at right.

Special Considerations for Digital Control Systems

By their nature, there are some special vulnerabilities that must be considered when
specifying, designing, or using digital control systems. For safety-related systems, there
is a body of regulatory guidance related to the implementation of digital systems. Some
of the major considerations are listed below.
Click on each consideration to learn more.

Need for a Software Validation & Verification (V&V) plan
Because digital systems are driven by software, all software must be extensively tested
prior to use. It is not possible to test every aspect of every program, but this plan
provides a high degree of confidence that the software will behave as expected under
any foreseeable conditions.

Need for software configuration control
Because software for a digital control system is complex and easily changed, software
configuration control in the form of version control, safeguards against unauthorized
changes, and the correct application of software updates must be implemented.
Backups of the software must be up-to-date and secured. Documentation must match
the current software.

Need for cyber security
Increasingly, control systems are interconnected and/or connected to a network. This
provides opportunities for malicious hackers to enter the system and damage the
software, hardware, and plant. Firewalls, anti-hacking software, alarms for unauthorized
access, and other barriers are required. All digital systems must be evaluated by trained
analysts based on their safety significance and vulnerability.

Possibility of software common mode failure
Because identical units with identical operating systems and configuration software are
often used for more than one task, there is a possibility that a single type of software
malfunction could cause multiple pieces of equipment or trains to become inoperable
under some conditions. This problem is unique to digital systems and requires extensive
testing and diversity.

Obsolescence
Digital equipment becomes obsolete very quickly. An average life cycle for many pieces
of digital equipment may be as short as 2-3 years.

Susceptibility to Electromagnetic Interference and Radio Frequency Interference
(EMI/RFI)
Digital systems can be more susceptible to noise, and generate more noise, than
equivalent analog equipment. Special noise suppression techniques are often required
to mitigate EMI/RFI problems.

8-7

Implementing a Basic Digital Control Upgrade

A digital control upgrade represents a significant design effort. Due to the vulnerabilities
you learned about on the previous page, additional rigor must be applied to ensure a
trouble-free installation. There are also special regulatory requirements for software
quality assurance and for evaluating the safety aspects of digital controls in safety-
related systems.
In addition to the items listed on the prior page, areas that must be addressed for any
digital upgrade include:
The system must be correctly specified.
A formal software quality assurance (QA) plan and a formal test plan must be
submitted.
The susceptibility of the system to electrostatic discharge (ESD) must be
evaluated.
EPRI has published an extensive body of guidance for digital specifications, software,
hardware, and EMI/RFI testing.
For very small, self-contained equipment upgrades, such as a standalone transmitter,
recorder, or indicator, the additional effort could be very minimal. The equipment's lack
of digital connectivity means that it does not present a cyber-security threat. These
applications are typically determined to not be subject to the 10CFR50.59 Evaluation
process, and may be implemented without prior regulatory approval.

Implementing a Large Digital Control Upgrade

Very large digital systems typically replace many analog devices and control loops with
centralized control and display hardware/software. For these systems, the
implementation process is much more complex. In addition to the items discussed
previously, areas that must be addressed for the implementation of large digital systems
include:
A detailed hardware and software specification must be developed.
An extensive test plan and software QA plan must be written.
Cyber-security countermeasures may be required.
A full 10CFR50.59 Evaluation will be required and in some cases may require
prior regulatory approval.
Technical Specification changes and extensive changes to the SAR may be
required.
Drawing, procedure, training, and equipment database changes will be required.
As with any large design project, the implementation will be carried out by a large team
of specialized individuals, causing project management to become a critical function.
Training needs and resources for installation and start-up will need to be identified early
and the change-over carefully planned to avoid undesirable plant transients.

8-9

Digital Devices Review Question

Place the following digital equipment in order from least complex to most complex.

Paperless recorders
Simple digital devices
Digital single-loop controllers
Highly-integrated control systems
Digital logic devices

The correct sequence is 41352.

Digital-Analog Components Review Question

Which of the following are reasons why existing analog components are replaced with
digital components?

A. Desire for improved reliability and accuracy
B. Desire for improved fault tolerance
C. Analog replacements are no longer available
D. Interest in self-diagnostic capabilities

The correct answers are A, B, C, and D.
These are all reasons why existing analog components are replaced with digital
components.

8-11

Conclusion

In this lesson, you have learned about digital control systems, the different types of
digital controls, and how they are implemented. You have also been introduced to some
of the special vulnerabilities of digital control systems and ways to minimize them.
In the next lesson, you will discover how the various control systems interact with the
plant and with each other.
Describe the basic operation of digital control systems
Identify the advantages of digital control systems over analog systems
digital control systems
Describe the application of a typical digital control system

9-1
9
SYSTEM INTERACTIONS AND DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
Introduction

Welcome to the Specific Interactions and Design Considerations lesson.
Engineers involved in plant activities or changes that appear to be unrelated to control
systems need to be aware of the potential for interactions that might not be immediately
obvious. This lesson will discuss some specifics interactions of which you should be
aware.
Identify the changes to control systems that can impact other plant systems
Identify the activities that can impact control systems
Describe the types of situations in which I&C experts should be consulted

Impacts on Other Plant Systems

As you have learned, a change to any one plant system has the possibility of impacting
other areas of the plant. There are three common areas where changes to process
control systems can have an impact on other plant systems:
Over-tuning
Tuning for specific operating conditions and power levels
Modifications that will impact failure modes
On the next few pages, we'll take a closer look at the impacts of each of these three
changes.

9-3

Tuning-Related Impacts

Over-Tuning
The primary goal of process control system tuning is to provide stable control with a
rapid response to changes.
Over-tuning a system with increased gain adjustments will result in a faster response,
but the increased response time comes at the risk of instability. Too much gain in a
controller would cause excessive overshoot and result in an unstable condition.
Conversely, reducing gain to provide highly stable control under steady state conditions
may make response to transients overly sluggish.
Tuning must be accompanied by observation of the response to controlled upsets.
Optimum tuning will result in quarter-wave dampening, as pictured in the graphic at
right.

Tuning for Specific Operating Conditions
Systems that are designed to operate in more than one line-up have special tuning
considerations. Imagine what would happen if a system is optimally tuned for operation
at a lower pressure during test conditions. This may cause the system to be unstable
when used to support its design function at higher operating pressures. Some control
systems transition to a different setpoint or mode of control in the event of a plant trip.

Modification Impacts

Plant modifications to process control systems will have an impact on failure modes.
Previous modes may be eliminated while new modes may be created. Some examples
are:
Changing from analog to digital control systems can be a challenge. New failure
modes can be created when moving to the new system. Additionally, digital
equipment may be more sensitive to electrical noise and firmware bugs than the
existing analog system.
Modifications to the system being controlled will also require evaluation of the
control system. For example, replacement of a control valve with one that has
different flow characteristics over its stroke length will affect the control system.
Installation of dampeners in instrument sensing lines to minimize the effects of
pulsations can adversely affect response times. Such installations should be
evaluated under the design process.
Value accessories such as volume boosters shouldn't be added or deleted
without evaluation of the effects on control system responses.

9-5

Activities That Impact Control Systems

So far in this lesson, we've taken a look at changes to control systems that can impact
other plant activities. Now we're going to view things from the other perspective. Let's
look at some typical power plant activities and how they can impact control systems.
There are six common areas where other plant activities can have an impact on process
control systems:
EMI/RFI generators
Environmental impacts
Changes to instrument locations
Piping/tubing changes
Valve design changes
Operational changes
On the next few pages, we'll take a closer look at these six areas.

EMI/RFI Generators

As you learned earlier, Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
and Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) occur when an
electrical disturbance causes an undesired response in
other equipment. Common potential sources of EMI/RFI
include two-way radios, cordless and cellular telephones,
and welders.
The proper routing and separation of power and signal
cabling can also minimize EMI/RFI. Maintaining appropriate
distance between the EMI/RFI source and electrical control
system components is required to minimize the potential for
interference.
The proliferation of wireless devices including cell phones,
laptop computers, and PDAs has caused many plants to
implement restrictions on such devices until they have been shown to meet emission
field strength and/or operating frequency restrictions. Also, rooms containing
susceptible instrumentation cabinets or circuits may be posted as off-limits to such
devices.
Click the graphic below to review the operating experience.

A control room received numerous spurious AFIS (Automatic Feedwater Isolation System) alarms associated with 1B
Steam Generator pressure deviations. Operator Aid Computer (OAC) data indicated that the analog channel 3 input
to both digital channels and both steam headers showed a momentary dip in main steam pressure. This caused the
Statalarms and associated OAC alarms to actuate, since the pressure deviation setpoint had been exceeded.
The apparent cause of the dip in main steam pressure signals was the use of radios near the steam pressure
transmitters. The radio use created RFI, which distorted the signal from the transmitters, causing a dip in the
indicated steam pressure. The AFIS alarms were caused by the system responding to the change in the analog input
signals. These transmitters are located in a highly traveled area of the turbine building and there were numerous work
activities using radios near the equipment on that date.

9-7

Environmental Impacts

Certain changes to the environment in which the control system equipment operates
can impact performance of the system.
Click each change below to learn more.

Temperature Changes
Unexpected temperature changes can increase the uncertainty in control system
signals resulting in increased process control error. Some temperature changes can
affect the process measurement directly while others can affect the control system
components.

Pressure Changes
Unexpected pressure changes can also increase the uncertainty in control system
signals resulting in increased process control error. Like temperature changes, some
pressure changes can affect the process measurement directly while others can affect
the control system components.

Wash Downs
Wash downs of certain buildings, rooms, or equipment are fairly routine activities to
address power plant material condition concerns. However, care must be taken to
ensure any control system components subject to spray are protected from water
intrusion. Water intrusion can affect control system performance in various ways
including increased signal errors due to current leakage effects, inadvertent actuations,
or complete failure.

Steam Leaks
Steam leaks near control system components can result in temperature changes and
potential water intrusion. The effects of these environmental changes are the same as
those previously discussed.

Examples of Environmental Impacts

Listed below are two examples of the impact of environmental changes on process
control system equipment.

Temperature Changes Pressure Changes
Localized heating or cooling of a filled
reference leg on a level application
will cause increased level signal
errors due to density changes of the
fluid in the reference leg. In this case,
the temperature change directly
affects the process measurement.
If the temperature at the location of
the level transmitter were to
unexpectedly change, increased level
signal errors may also occur due to
the effect on the uncertainty of the
level transmitters signal. In this case,
the temperature change affects a
component of the control system.
Similarly, unexpected temperature
changes within electrical cabinets
housing control system components
can result in increased process
control error.
Consider a level or pressure
application using a differential
pressure transmitter where the low
pressure connection is vented to
atmosphere. If the vent is located in a
room or any enclosed space,
pressure changes in the room or
enclosed space will increase pressure
signal errors due to a direct process
measurement effect.

9-9

Changes to Instrument Locations

Moving or re-locating instruments can have an
effect on control system response due to:
Increased uncertainty in the control
system signal
Changes in the system response time
For instruments measuring level or pressure,
elevation changes can potentially introduce
errors due to pressure head effects, if not
accounted for during calibration.
Re-locating instruments that receive or transmit pneumatic signals can potentially affect
the time response of the control system.

Piping/Tubing Changes

The size and configuration of the piping and
tubing associated with a given control system
application is integral to the overall control
system response. Therefore, changes to
these parameters can potentially affect the
response of the control system.
For instance, increasing the size and length of
tubing supplying a pneumatic control signal to
the positioner of a control valve will slow down
the response time of the valve, which could
result in control stability problems. In this
case, if the tubing changes are required, adjustments to the controller tuning
parameters may be needed to ensure proper control.
Changes to piping sizes and configurations can have similar effects.

9-11

Valve Design Changes

The most common type of final control element is a valve. Most all valve operators used
in process control are pneumatically operated diaphragm or piston design. All control
valves have a gain that is specific to the valve design. This valve gain is part of the
overall loop gain.
Typically a modulating control valve receives a demand signal and positions its stem in
linear proportion to that signal. Valve gains are often non-linear with the highest gain
occurring closest to the valve seat and the lowest gain occurring with the valve near full
open. Based on these characteristics, valve design changes alone can significantly
affect control system response.

Operational Changes

Typically, control systems are designed and
tuned to provide optimum response for a given
set of operational conditions (e.g., system
pressure, temperature, flow, level, load, or
power level). Minor deviations from these
conditions are expected and have minimal
effect on control system performance. However,
large deviations can have a significant effect on
control system response.
For instance, a decision to change the flow
control setpoint on a valve control loop from
75% of the flow range to 25% of the flow range
could have a significant impact on control system response due to differences in valve
gain at the lower setpoint.
Similarly, a decision to use a level control system designed for steady state full power
operation to control level during unit start-up may require significant tuning changes to
compensate for different process dynamics present during start-up.

9-13

When to Involve I&C Experts

The tuning and modification activities discussed at the beginning of this lesson directly
affect control system performance. For these types of activities, I&C experts are
involved by default, as their involvement is required to implement the activities.
For the activities listed below, the need for
I&C expert involvement may not be
recognized, since the potential impact is
indirect and often rather subtle.
EMI/RFI Impacts
Environmental Impacts
Changes to instrument locations
Piping/Tubing Changes
Valve Design Changes
Operational Changes
In these cases, I&C experts should be consulted, and the proposed activity discussed,
in order to determine potential impacts. From this discussion, actions can be initiated as
needed to evaluate and address the proposed change.

Conclusion

You have completed the System Interactions and Design Considerations lesson.
In this lesson you've seen that activities unrelated to or marginally related to the control
system can affect its function. You've also learned to involve I&C specialists when any
possibility of these effects exists.
Identify the changes to control systems that can impact other plant systems
Identify the activities that can impact control systems
Describe the types of situations in which I&C experts should be consulted

Electric Power Research Institute
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