Renaissance 1485-1625

13. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned the period roughly from the 14
th
to the
17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of
urope! As a cultural movement, it encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular
literatures, beginning with the 14th"century of learning based on classical sources!
#riter
William Shakesea!e $baptised %& April 1'&4 ( %) April 1&1&*
+a,
was an nglish poet
and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the nglish language and the world-s
pre"eminent dramatist! .ha/espeare was born and raised in .tratford"upon"Avon! At the age of
10 he married Anne 1athaway, who bore him three children2 .usanna, and twins 1amnet and
3udith!
4etween 1'0' and 1'5% he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer! 6ew
records of .ha/espeare-s private life survive, and there has been considerable speculation about
such matters as his se7uality, religious beliefs, and whether the wor/s attributed to him were
written by others!
.ha/espeare was a respected poet and playwright in his own day, but his reputation did
not rise to its present heights until the nineteenth century! The 8omantics, in particular,
acclaimed .ha/espeare-s genius! In the twentieth century, his wor/ was repeatedly adopted and
rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance! 1is plays remain highly
popular today and are consistently performed and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political
conte7ts throughout the world!
9lays
.cholars have often noted four periods in .ha/espeare-s writing career! :ntil the
mid"1'5;s, he wrote mainly comedies influenced by 8oman and Italian models and history
plays in the popular chronicle tradition! 1is second period began in about 1'5' with the
tragedy Romeo and Juliet and ended with the tragedy of Julius Caesar in 1'55! <uring this
time, he wrote what are considered his greatest comedies and histories! 6rom about 1&;; to
about 1&;0, his =tragic period=, .ha/espeare wrote mostly tragedies, and from about 1&;0
to 1&1), mainly tragicomedies, also called romances!
.ha/espeare-s early classical and Italianate comedies, containing tight double plots
and precise comic se>uences, give way in the mid"1'5;s to the romantic atmosphere of his
greatest comedies! A Midsummer Night's Dream is a witty mi7ture of romance, fairy magic,
and comic low"life scenes! 1is characters become more comple7 and tender as he switches
deftly between comic and serious scenes, prose and poetry, and achieves the narrative
variety of his mature wor/!
,
This period begins and ends with two tragedies2 Romeo and
Juliet, the famous romantic tragedy of se7ually charged adolescence, love, and death? and
Julius Caesar@based on .ir Thomas Aorth-s 1'75 translation of 9lutarch-s Parallel Lives@
which introduced a new /ind of drama!
1
Many critics believe that .ha/espeare-s greatest tragedies represent the pea/ of his art!
The hero of the first, 1amlet, has probably been more discussed than any other .ha/espearean
character, especially for his famous solilo>uy =To be or not to be? that is the >uestion!= :nli/e the
introverted 1amlet, whose fatal flaw is hesitation! The plots of .ha/espeare-s tragedies often
hinge on such fatal errors or flaws, which overturn order and destroy the hero and those he loves!
Shakesea!e"s s#nne$s, or simply %he S#nne$s, is a collection of poems in sonnet form
written by #illiam .ha/espeare that deal with such themes as love, beauty, politics, and
mortality! They were probably written over a period of several years! All 1'4 poems appeared in
a 1&;5 collection, entitled SHAKE-SPEARES SNNE!S, comprising 1'% previously unpublished
sonnets and two $numbers 1)0 and 144* that had previously been published in a 1'55 miscellany
entitled !he Passionate Pilgrim!
Also, there is a mysterious dedication at the beginning of the te7t wherein a certain =Mr!
#!1!= is described as =the onlie begetter= of the poems by the publisher Thomas Thorpe, but it is
not /nown who this man was! The first 17 sonnets are written to a young man, urging him to
marry and have children thereby passing down his beauty to the ne7t generation! These are called
the procreation sonnets! Most of them, however, 10"1%&, are addressed to a young man
e7pressing the poet-s love for him! .onnets 1%7"1'% are written to the poet-s mistress e7pressing
his love for her! The final two sonnets,
1! 8omeo and 3uliet
8eBumat
Cpera Dncepe Dntr"o pia E publicE din Ferona unde .amson si Gregorio poartE discu ii despre ura
lor pentru familia Montague! Apoi D i face apari ia i 4envolio care DncearcE sE"i despartE, dar
lupta continuE o datE ce vine i Tybalt! To i ace tia au fost convin i sE renun e la conflict de cEtre
copiii celor douE familii! Apoi Lady Montague DntreabE de 8omeo, iar 4envolio i Montague D i
fac planuri pentru a"l face sE renun e la iubirea care"l mistuie! Hn scena a doua a actului 1, 9aris Di
spune lui Iapulet cE vrea sE se Dnsoare cu 3ulieta, dar acesta nu renun E u or! 8omeo aflE de la
servitorul lui Iapulet cE va avea loc o petrecere la palat i se hotErE te sE participe la aceasta!
3ulieta este anun atE de mama sa cE 9aris dore te sE o ia Dn cEsEtorie, dar ea refuBE! La petrecerea
organiBatE de Iapulet, 8omeo alEturi de Mercutio, 4envolio i Tybalt D i fac apari ia! 9urtJnd
DnsE mE ti, 8omeo reu e te sE vorbeascE cu aleasa inimii sale i chiar sE o sErute! <upE acest
moment, cei trei prieteni de care era Dnso it 8omeo, aflE ca acesta s"a strecurat Dn grEdina
Iapuletilor pentru a vorbi cu 3ulieta! Hn urma acesteia, 8omeo pleacE la pErintele LorenBo pentru
a"l ruga sE"i cunune pe cei doi DndrEgosti i!
Mai tJrBiu, cei patru prieteni discutE Dntre ei, dar sunt Dntrerup i de doica 3ulietei care vrea sE se
asigure cE planurile lui 8omeo sunt cJt se poate de sincere! <upE ce aflE acest lucru, ea Di spune
3ulietei, care se duce la pErintele LorenBo pentru a se spovedi! Aici, ea se DntJlne te cu alesul
inimii sale cu care se i cununE! <upa aceasta, Dntr"o pia E publicE are loc o confruntare cu spada
Dntre 8omeo i Tybalt, iar Mercutio, DncercJnd sE"i despartE, este omorJt de rivalul lui 8omeo! Hn
final, uciga ul Dl provoacE din nou la duel pe 8omeo, dar este omorJt de acesta! <espre aceastE
DntJmplare aflE prin ul i Lady Iapulet, care hotErEsc ca 8omeo sE plEteascE cu propria"i via E
pentru faptele sale! Apoi are loc o discu ie Dntre doicE i 3ulieta Dn care doica deBaprobE
atitudinea poBitivE a fetei Dn privin a Kuciga uluiL vErului ei Tybalt!
2
Hntre timp, 8omeo se ascunde Dn chilia pErintelui LorenBo, dar este urmErit de doicE pJnE acolo!
Aceasta Di dE un inel din partea 3ulietei i"i spune care Di este starea! TotodatE, Iapulet i 9aris
pun la cale cEsEtoria acestuia din urma cu 3ulieta! <upE toate acestea, 3ulieta vorbe te cu mama
sa despre planurile tatElui ei de a o cEsEtori cu 9aris! TatEl sEu aflE i se ceartE cu ea! Hntre timp,
doica DncearcE sE o convingE sE se marite cu nobilul, deoarece 8omeo va muri sigur! <upE cearta
cu pErin ii, 3ulieta se duce sE se spovedeascE pErintelui LorenBo, care o sfEtuie te sE se mErite cu
9aris miercuri, iar Dnainte de noaptea nun ii sE bea licoarea din sticlu E pe care i"o va da el, care
va da impresia ca este moartE, dar ea se va treBi dupE %4 de ore!
Hn Biua nun ii, Dn timp ce pregEtirile erau Dn toi i to i membrii familiei DmpreunE cu servitorii sunt
ocupa i, 3ulieta bea con inutul sticlei i este gEsitE de doicE Dn pat, to i membrii familiei fiind
anunta i, nunta nemaiputJnd avea loc! 8omeo, fiind anun at de 4althaBar cE iubirea lui este
moartE, cumpErE de la un farmacist o sticlE de otravE i pleacE Dntr"acolo! <upE DnmormJntarea
3ulietei Dn cavoul familiei, 8omeo se bate cu 9aris i"l omoarE! Hntre timp, pErintele LorenBo
DncearcE sE aMungE la timp pentru a"l vesti pe 8omeo cE totul este o Dnscenare, DnsE stJnd de vorbE
cu 4althaBar, aMunge prea tJrBiu i"l gEse te pe bEiat Dntins la podea, otrEvit! 3ulieta se treBe te i
vEBJndu"l pe 8omeo Dntins i nemi cat, se sinucide cu pumnalul iubitului ei! To i membrii
ambelor familii descoperE corpurile neDnsufle ite i aflE de la LorenBo tot ce s"a Dntamplat! Hn
final, cele douE familii se DmpacE aMungJnd la concluBia cE ura lor a dus la moartea lui 8omeo i
a 3ulietei! 9iesa se terminE cu o elegie pentru DndrEgosti i2 =9entru cE nu a fost niciodatE o
poveste de mai mult vaiN<ecJt cea 3ulietei i al ei 8omeo!=
Ionte7t
Ionte7t
O
The most influential writer in all of nglish literature, #illiam .ha/espeare was born in 1'&4 to
a successful middle"class glove"ma/er in .tratford"upon"Avon, ngland! .ha/espeare attended
grammar school, but his formal education proceeded no further! In 1'0% he married an older
woman, Anne 1athaway, and had three children with her! Around 1'5; he left his family behind
and traveled to London to wor/ as an actor and playwright! 9ublic and critical success >uic/ly
followed, and .ha/espeare eventually became the most popular playwright in ngland and part"
owner of the Globe Theater! 1is career bridged the reigns of liBabeth I $ruled 1''0(1&;)* and
3ames I $ruled 1&;)(1&%'*, and he was a favorite of both monarchs! Indeed, 3ames granted
.ha/espearePs company the greatest possible compliment by bestowing upon its members the
title of QingPs Men! #ealthy and renowned, .ha/espeare retired to .tratford and died in 1&1& at
the age of fifty"two! At the time of .ha/espearePs death, literary luminaries such as 4en 3onson
hailed his wor/s as timeless!
.ha/espearePs wor/s were collected and printed in various editions in the century following his
death, and by the early eighteenth century his reputation as the greatest poet ever to write in
nglish was well established! The unprecedented admiration garnered by his wor/s led to a
fierce curiosity about .ha/espearePs life, but the dearth of biographical information has left many
details of .ha/espearePs personal history shrouded in mystery! .ome people have concluded
from this fact that .ha/espearePs plays were really written by someone else@6rancis 4acon and
the arl of C7ford are the two most popular candidates@but the support for this claim is
overwhelmingly circumstantial, and the theory is not ta/en seriously by many scholars!
In the absence of credible evidence to the contrary, .ha/espeare must be viewed as the author of
the thirty"seven plays and 1'4 sonnets that bear his name! The legacy of this body of wor/ is
immense! A number of .ha/espearePs plays seem to have transcended even the category of
3
brilliance, becoming so influential as to profoundly affect the course of #estern literature and
culture ever after!
.ha/espeare did not invent the story of Romeo and Juliet! 1e did not, in fact, even introduce the
story into the nglish language! A poet named Arthur 4roo/s first brought the story of Romeus
and Juliet to an nglish"spea/ing audience in a long and plodding poem that was itself not
original, but rather an adaptation of adaptations that stretched across nearly a hundred years and
two languages! Many of the details of .ha/espearePs plot are lifted directly from 4roo/sPs poem,
including the meeting of 8omeo and 3uliet at the ball, their secret marriage, 8omeoPs fight with
Tybalt, the sleeping potion, and the timing of the loverPs eventual suicides! .uch appropriation of
other stories is characteristic of .ha/espeare, who often wrote plays based on earlier wor/s!
.ha/espearePs use of e7isting material as fodder for his plays should not, however, be ta/en as a
lac/ of originality! Instead, readers should note how .ha/espeare crafts his sources in new ways
while displaying a remar/able understanding of the literary tradition in which he is wor/ing!
.ha/espearePs version of Romeo and Juliet is no e7ception! The play distinguishes itself from its
predecessors in several important aspects2 the subtlety and originality of its characteriBation
$.ha/espeare almost wholly created Mercutio*? the intense pace of its action, which is
compressed from nine months into four frenetic days? a powerful enrichment of the storyPs
thematic aspects? and, above all, an e7traordinary use of language!
.ha/espearePs play not only bears a resemblance to the wor/s on which it is based, it is also >uite
similar in plot, theme, and dramatic ending to the story of 9yramus and Thisbe, told by the great
8oman poet Cvid in his Metamor"hoses! .ha/espeare was well aware of this similarity? he
includes a reference to Thisbe in Romeo and Juliet! .ha/espeare also includes scenes from the
story of 9yramus and Thisbe in the comically awful play"within"a"play put on by 4ottom and his
friends in A Midsummer Night#s Dream@a play .ha/espeare wrote around the same time he was
composing Romeo and Juliet! Indeed, one can loo/ at the play"within"a"play in A Midsummer
Night#s Dream as parodying the very story that .ha/espeare see/s to tell in Romeo and Juliet!
.ha/espeare wrote Romeo and Juliet in full /nowledge that the story he was telling was old,
clichRd, and an easy target for parody! In writing Romeo and Juliet, .ha/espeare, then, implicitly
set himself the tas/ of telling a love story despite the considerable forces he /new were stac/ed
against its success! Through the incomparable intensity of his language .ha/espeare succeeded
in this effort, writing a play that is universally accepted in #estern culture as the preeminent,
archetypal love story!
Romeo and Juliet is an early tragedy by #illiam .ha/espeare about two teenage =star"
cross-d lovers= whose =untimely deaths= ultimately unite their feuding households! The play has
been highly praised by literary critics for its language and dramatic effect!
"with the two main characters being widely represented as archetypal young lovers!
Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching bac/ to Ancient
Greece! Its plot is based on an Italian tale, translated into verse as Romeus and Juliet by Arthur
4roo/e in 1'&%, and retold in prose in Pala$e o% Pleasure by #illiam 9ainter in 1'0%! 4roo/e
and 9ainter were .ha/espeare-s chief sources of inspiration for Romeo and Juliet! 1e borrowed
heavily from both, but developed minor characters, particularly Mercutio and 9aris, in order to
e7pand the plot! 4elieved written between 1'51(1'5', the play was first published in a >uarto
4
version in 1'57! This te7t was of poor >uality, and later editions corrected it, bringing it more in
line with .ha/espeare-s original te7t!
.ha/espeare-s use of dramatic structure, especially his e7pansion of minor characters,use
of subplots to embellish the story, has been praised as an early sign of his dramatic s/ill! The
play ascribes different poetic forms to different characters, sometimes changing the form as the
character develops! 8omeo, for e7ample, grows more adept at the sonnet form over time!
Iharacters fre>uently compare love and death and allude to the role of fate!
.ince its publication, Romeo and Juliet has been adapted numerous times in stage, film,
musical and operatic forms! <uring the 8estoration, it was revived and heavily revised by
#illiam <avenant! Garric/-s 10th century version, which continued to be performed into the
Fictorian era, also changed several scenes, removing material then considered indecent!
9erformances in the 15th century, including Iharlotte Iushman-s, restored the original te7t, and
focused on greater realism! Gielgud-s 15)' version /ept very close to .ha/espeare-s te7t, and
used liBabethan costumes and staging to enhance the drama!
The play begins with a street brawl between two families2 the Montagues and the
Iapulets! The 9rince of Ferona, scalus, intervenes with his men and declares that the heads of
the two families will be held personally accountable for any further breach of the peace! Later,
Iount 9aris, a young nobleman, tal/s to Lord Iapulet about marrying his thirteen"year"old
daughter 3uliet! Iapulet is wary of this offer, citing the girl-s young age, but still invites him to
try to attract 3uliet-s attention during a ball that the family is to hold that night! 3uliet-s mother
tries to persuade her daughter to accept 9aris- courtship during this ball, leading 3uliet to say that
although she will ma/e an effort to love him, she will not e7press love if it is not there! In this
scene 3uliet-s nurse is introduced as a tal/ative and humorous character, who raised 3uliet from
infancy!
In the meantime, a young man named 4envolio tal/s with his cousin 8omeo, Lord
Montague-s son, over 8omeo-s recent depression! 4envolio discovers that it stems from
unre>uited love for a girl named 8osaline, one of Lord Iapulet-s nieces who has sworn herself to
chastity! :pon the insistence of 4envolio and another friend, Mercutio, 8omeo decides to attend
the mas>uerade ball at the Iapulet house in hopes of meeting 8osaline! Alongside his mas/ed
friends 8omeo attends the ball as planned, but falls in love with 3uliet $forgetting about 8osaline*
and she with him! <espite the danger brought on by their feuding families, 8omeo snea/s into
the Iapulet courtyard and overhears 3uliet on her balcony vowing her love to him in spite of her
family-s hatred of the Montagues! 8omeo soon ma/es himself /nown to her, and the two declare
their love for each other and agree to be married! #ith the help of the 6ranciscan 6riar Lawrence,
5
who hopes to reconcile the two families through their children-s union, they are married secretly
the ne7t day!
All seems well until Tybalt, 3uliet-s hot"blooded cousin, challenges 8omeo to a duel for
appearing at the Iapulets- ball in disguise! Though no one is aware of the marriage yet, 8omeo
refuses to fight Tybalt since they are now part of the same family! Mercutio is incensed by
Tybalt-s insolence, and accepts the duel on 8omeo-s behalf! In the ensuing scuffle, Mercutio is
fatally wounded when 8omeo tries to separate them! 8omeo, angered by his friend-s death,
pursues and slays Tybalt, then flees!
<espite his promise to call for the head of the wrongdoers, the 9rince merely e7iles
8omeo from Ferona, reasoning that Tybalt first /illed Mercutio, and that 8omeo merely carried
out a Must punishment of death to Tybalt, although without legal authority! 3uliet grieves at the
news, and Lord Iapulet, misinterpreting her grief, agrees to engage her to marry 9aris with the
wedding to be held in Must three days! 1e threatens to disown her if she refuses! The nurse, once
3uliet-s confidante, now tells her she should discard the e7iled 8omeo and comply! 3uliet
desperately visits 6riar Lawrence for help! 1e offers her a drug, which will put her into a death"
li/e coma for forty"two hours! .he is to ta/e it and, when discovered apparently dead, she will be
laid in the family crypt! #hile she is sleeping the 6riar will send a messenger to inform 8omeo,
so that he can reMoin her when she awa/ens!
The messenger, however, does not reach 8omeo! 8omeo then learns of 3uliet-s =death=
from his servant 4althasar! Grief"stric/en, he buys poison from an apothecary, returns to Ferona
in secret, and visits the Iapulet crypt! 1e encounters 9aris who has come to mourn 3uliet
privately! 9aris confronts 8omeo believing him to be a vandal, and in the ensuing battle 8omeo
/ills 9aris! 1e then says his final words to the comatose 3uliet and drin/s the poison to commit
suicide! 3uliet then awa/ens! 6riar Lawrence arrives and, realiBing the cause of the tragedy, begs
3uliet to leave! .he refuses, and at the side of 8omeo-s dead body, she stabs herself with her
lover-s dagger!
The feuding families and the 9rince meet at the tomb to find all three dead! In
e7planation 6riar Lawrence recounts the story of the two lovers! Montague reveals that his wife
has died of grief after hearing of her son-s e7ile! The families are reconciled by their children-s
deaths and agree to end their violent feud! The play ends with the 9rince-s brief elegy for the
lovers2 =6or never was a story of more woe N Than this of 3uliet and her 8omeo!=
It is un/nown when e7actly .ha/espeare wrote Romeo and Juliet! 3uliet-s nurse refers to
an earth>ua/e which she says occurred eleven years ago An earth>ua/e did occur in ngland in
1'0;, possibly dating that particular line to 1'51, although other earth>ua/es " both in ngland
and in Ferona " have been proposed in support of different dates! 4ut the play-s stylistic
6
similarities with A Midsummer Night's Dream and other plays conventionally dated around 1'54"
', place the writing between 1'51 and 1'5'! Cne conMecture is that .ha/espeare may have begun
a draft in 1'51, which he completed in 1'5'!
Analysis and criticism
Though critics have pic/ed apart many wea/ points in Romeo and Juliet since the play-s
first writing, it is still regarded by most as one of .ha/espeare-s better plays! Among the most
prevalent debates in the critical of the play regards .ha/espeare-s intent! #as the play intended to
be a story of two young lovers- struggle against fate and fortune, or was it a commentary on the
foolishness of unbridled passion and the ultimate tragedy to which it will inevitably leadS
9erhaps it was intended to show how two young lovers become instruments in the hands of fate
or providence in uniting two warring families! .cholars have yet to agree on what the play is
really about after centuries of analysis, though recently several have argued that it is a
combination of all three!
The earliest /nown critic of the play was .amuel 9epys, who wrote in 1&&%2 =it is a play
of itself the worst that I ever heard in my life!=
+
The nineteenth century centered on debates
regarding the moral message of the play!! Later in the twentieth century, criticism divided in the
several ways described below in the Interpretations section!
.ha/espeare shows his dramatic s/ill freely in Romeo and Juliet, providing intense
moments of shift between comedy and tragedy! 4efore Mercutio-s death in Act three, the play is
largely a comedy! After his accidental demise, the play suddenly becomes very serious and ta/es
on more of a tragic tone! .till, the fact that 8omeo is banished, rather than e7ecuted, offers a
hope that things will wor/ out! #hen 6riar Lawrence offers 3uliet a plan to reunite her with
8omeo the audience still has a reason to believe that all will end well! They are in a =breathless
state of suspense= by the opening of the last scene in the tomb2 If 8omeo is delayed long enough
for the 6riar to arrive, he and 3uliet may yet be saved!
+%',
This only ma/es it all the more tragic
when everything falls apart in the end!
+%&,
.ha/espeare also uses subplots to offer a clearer view of the actions of the main
characters, and provide an a7is around which the main plot turns! 6or e7ample, when the play
begins, 8omeo is in love with 8osaline, who has refused all of his advances! 8omeo-s infatuation
with her stands in obvious contrast to his later love for 3uliet! This provides a comparison
through which the audience can see the seriousness of 8omeo and 3uliet-s love and marriage!
9aris- love for 3uliet also sets up a contrast between 3uliet-s feelings for him and her feelings for
8omeo! The formal language she uses around 9aris, as well as the way she tal/s about him to her
Aurse, show that her feelings clearly lie with 8omeo! 4eyond this, the sub"plot of the Montague"
7
Iapulet feud overarches the whole play, providing an atmosphere of hate that is the main
contributor to the play-s tragic end!
+%&,
Lan&'a&e
.ha/espeare uses a large variety of poetic forms throughout the play! 1e begins with a
14"line prologue in the form of a .ha/espearean sonnet, spo/en by a Ihorus! Most of Romeo
and Juliet is, however, written in blan/ verse, and much of it in strict iambic pentameter, with
less rhythmic variation than in most of .ha/espeare-s later plays! In choosing forms, .ha/espeare
matches the poetry to the character who uses it! 6riar Lawrence, for e7ample, uses sermon and
sententiae forms, and the Aurse uses a uni>ue blan/ verse form that closely matches collo>uial
speech! ach of these forms is also moulded and matched to the emotion of the scene the
character occupies! 6or e7ample, when 8omeo tal/s about 8osaline earlier in the play, he uses
the 9etrarchan sonnet form! 9etrarchan sonnets were often used by men at the time to e7aggerate
the beauty of women who were impossible for them to attain, as in 8omeo-s situation with
8osaline!
Themes and motifs
%he (#!ce)'lness #) L#*e
Romeo and Juliet is the most famous love story in the nglish literary tradition! Love is naturally
the playPs dominant and most important theme! The play focuses on romantic love, specifically
the intense passion that springs up at first sight between 8omeo and 3uliet! In Romeo and Juliet&
love is a violent, ecstatic, overpowering force that supersedes all other values, loyalties, and
emotions! In the course of the play, the young lovers are driven to defy their entire social world2
families $T<eny thy father and refuse thy name,L 3uliet as/s, TCr if thou wilt not, be but sworn
my love, N And IPll no longer be a IapuletL*? friends $8omeo abandons Mercutio and 4envolio
after the feast in order to go to 3ulietPs garden*? and ruler $8omeo returns to Ferona for 3ulietPs
sa/e after being e7iled by the 9rince on pain of death in %!1!7&(70*! Love is the overriding theme
of the play, but a reader should always remember that .ha/espeare is uninterested in portraying a
prettied"up, dainty version of the emotion, the /ind that bad poets write about, and whose bad
poetry 8omeo reads while pining for 8osaline! Love in Romeo and Juliet is a brutal, powerful
emotion that captures individuals and catapults them against their world, and, at times, against
themselves!
The powerful nature of love can be seen in the way it is described, or, more accurately, the way
descriptions of it so consistently fail to capture its entirety! At times love is described in the terms
of religion, as in the fourteen lines when 8omeo and 3uliet first meet! At others it is described as
a sort of magic2 TAli/e bewitchUd by the charm of loo/sL $%!9rologue!&*! 3uliet, perhaps, most
perfectly describes her love for 8omeo by refusing to describe it2 T4ut my true love is grown to
such e7cess N I cannot sum up some of half my wealthwealth L $)!1!))()4*! Love, in other
words, resists any single metaphor because it is too powerful to be so easily contained or
understood!
Romeo and Juliet does not ma/e a specific moral statement about the relationships between love
and society, religion, and family? rather, it portrays the chaos and passion of being in love,
combining images of love, violence, death, religion, and family in an impressionistic rush
leading to the playPs tragic conclusion!
8
L#*e as a +a'se #) ,i#lence
The themes of death and violence permeate Romeo and Juliet& and they are always connected to
passion, whether that passion is love or hate! The connection between hate, violence, and death
seems obvious! 4ut the connection between love and violence re>uires further investigation!
Love, in Romeo and Juliet& is a grand passion, and as such it is blinding? it can overwhelm a
person as powerfully and completely as hate can! The passionate love between 8omeo and 3uliet
is lin/ed from the moment of its inception with death2 Tybalt notices that 8omeo has crashed the
feast and determines to /ill him Must as 8omeo catches sight of 3uliet and falls instantly in love
with her! 6rom that point on, love seems to push the lovers closer to love and violence, not
farther from it! 8omeo and 3uliet are plagued with thoughts of suicide, and a willingness to
e7perience it2 in Act ), scene ), 8omeo brandishes a /nife in 6riar LawrencePs cell and threatens
to /ill himself after he has been banished from Ferona and his love! 3uliet also pulls a /nife in
order to ta/e her own life in 6riar LawrencePs presence Must three scenes later! After Iapulet
decides that 3uliet will marry 9aris, 3uliet says, TIf all else fail, myself have power to dieL
$)!'!%4%*! 6inally, each imagines that the other loo/s dead the morning after their first, and only,
se7ual e7perience $TMethin/s I see thee,L 3uliet says, T! ! ! as one dead in the bottom of a tombL
$)!'!''('&*! This theme continues until its inevitable conclusion2 double suicide! This tragic
choice is the highest, most potent e7pression of love that 8omeo and 3uliet can ma/e! It is only
through death that they can preserve their love, and their love is so profound that they are willing
to end their lives in its defense! In the play, love emerges as an amoral thing, leading as much to
destruction as to happiness! 4ut in its e7treme passion, the love that 8omeo and 3uliet e7perience
also appears so e7>uisitely beautiful that few would want, or be able, to resist its power!
%he In-i*i-'al ,e!s's S#cie$.
Much of Romeo and Juliet involves the loversP struggles against public and social institutions
that either e7plicitly or implicitly oppose the e7istence of their love! .uch structures range from
the concrete to the abstract2 families and the placement of familial power in the father? law and
the desire for public order? religion? and the social importance placed on masculine honor! These
institutions often come into conflict with each other! The importance of honor, for e7ample, time
and again results in brawls that disturb the public peace!
Though they do not always wor/ in concert, each of these societal institutions in some way
present obstacles for 8omeo and 3uliet! The enmity between their families, coupled with the
emphasis placed on loyalty and honor to /in, combine to create a profound conflict for 8omeo
and 3uliet, who must rebel against their heritages! 6urther, the patriarchal power structure
inherent in 8enaissance families, wherein the father controls the action of all other family
members, particularly women, places 3uliet in an e7tremely vulnerable position! 1er heart, in her
familyPs mind, is not hers to give! The law and the emphasis on social civility demands terms of
conduct with which the blind passion of love cannot comply! 8eligion similarly demands
priorities that 8omeo and 3uliet cannot abide by because of the intensity of their love! Though in
most situations the lovers uphold the traditions of Ihristianity $they wait to marry before
consummating their love*, their love is so powerful that they begin to thin/ of each other in
blasphemous terms! 6or e7ample, 3uliet calls 8omeo Tthe god of my idolatry,L elevating 8omeo
to level of God $%!1!1'&*! The couplePs final act of suicide is li/ewise un"Ihristian! The
maintenance of masculine honor forces 8omeo to commit actions he would prefer to avoid! 4ut
the social emphasis placed on masculine honor is so profound that 8omeo cannot simply ignore
them!
9
It is possible to see Romeo and Juliet as a battle between the responsibilities and actions
demanded by social institutions and those demanded by the private desires of the individual!
8omeo and 3ulietPs appreciation of night, with its dar/ness and privacy, and their renunciation of
their names, with its attendant loss of obligation, ma/e sense in the conte7t of individuals who
wish to escape the public world! 4ut the lovers cannot stop the night from becoming day! And
8omeo cannot cease being a Montague simply because he wants to? the rest of the world will not
let him! The loversP suicides can be understood as the ultimate night, the ultimate privacy!
%he Ine*i$a/ili$. #) (a$e
In its first address to the audience, the Ihorus states that 8omeo and 3uliet are Tstar"crossedL@
that is to say that fate $a power often vested in the movements of the stars* controls them
$9rologue!&*! This sense of fate permeates the play, and not Must for the audience! The characters
also are >uite aware of it2 8omeo and 3uliet constantly see omens! #hen 8omeo believes that
3uliet is dead, he cries out, TThen I defy you, stars,L completing the idea that the love between
8omeo and 3uliet is in opposition to the decrees of destiny $'!1!%4*! Cf course, 8omeoPs defiance
itself plays into the hands of fate, and his determination to spend eternity with 3uliet results in
their deaths! The mechanism of fate wor/s in all of the events surrounding the lovers2 the feud
between their families $it is worth noting that this hatred is never e7plained? rather, the reader
must accept it as an undeniable aspect of the world of the play*? the horrible series of accidents
that ruin 6riar LawrencePs seemingly well"intentioned plans at the end of the play? and the tragic
timing of 8omeoPs suicide and 3ulietPs awa/ening! These events are not mere coincidences, but
rather manifestations of fate that help bring about the unavoidable outcome of the young loversP
deaths!
The concept of fate described above is the most commonly accepted interpretation! There are
other possible readings of fate in the play2 as a force determined by the powerful social
institutions that influence 8omeo and 3ulietPs choices, as well as fate as a force that emerges
from 8omeo and 3ulietPs very personalities!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and
inform the te7tPs maMor themes!
Li&h$01a!k Ima&e!.
Cne of the playPs most consistent visual motifs is the contrast between light and dar/, often in
terms of nightNday imagery! This contrast is not given a particular metaphoric meaning@light is
not always good, and dar/ is not always evil! Cn the contrary, light and dar/ are generally used
to provide a sensory contrast and to hint at opposed alternatives! Cne of the more important
instances of this motif is 8omeoPs lengthy meditation on the sun and the moon during the
balcony scene, in which 3uliet, metaphorically described as the sun, is seen as banishing the
Tenvious moonL and transforming the night into day $%!1!4&*! A similar blurring of night and day
occurs in the early morning hours after the loversP only night together! 8omeo, forced to leave
for e7ile in the morning, and 3uliet, not wanting him to leave her room, both try to pretend that it
is still night, and that the light is actually dar/ness2 TMore light and light, more dar/ and dar/ our
woesL $)!'!)&*!
2#si$e P#in$s #) ,ie3
.ha/espeare includes numerous speeches and scenes in 8omeo and 3uliet that hint at alternative
ways to evaluate the play! .ha/espeare uses two main devices in this regard2 Mercutio and
servants! Mercutio consistently s/ewers the viewpoints of all the other characters in play2 he sees
8omeoPs devotion to love as a sort of blindness that robs 8omeo from himself? similarly, he sees
10
TybaltPs devotion to honor as blind and stupid! 1is punning and the Vueen Mab speech can be
interpreted as undercutting virtually every passion evident in the play! Mercutio serves as a critic
of the delusions of righteousness and grandeur held by the characters around him!
#here Mercutio is a nobleman who openly criticiBes other nobles, the views offered by servants
in the play are less e7plicit! There is the Aurse who lost her baby and husband, the servant 9eter
who cannot read, the musicians who care about their lost wages and their lunches, and the
Apothecary who cannot afford to ma/e the moral choice, the lower classes present a second
tragic world to counter that of the nobility! The noblesP world is full of grand tragic gestures! The
servantsP world, in contrast, is characteriBed by simple needs, and early deaths brought about by
disease and poverty rather than dueling and grand passions! #here the nobility almost seem to
revel in their capacity for drama, the servantsP lives are such that they cannot afford tragedy of
the epic /ind!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
P#is#n
In his first appearance, in Act %, scene %, 6riar Lawrence remar/s that every plant, herb, and
stone has its own special properties, and that nothing e7ists in nature that cannot be put to both
good and bad uses! Thus, poison is not intrinsically evil, but is instead a natural substance made
lethal by human hands! 6riar LawrencePs words prove true over the course of the play! The
sleeping potion he gives 3uliet is concocted to cause the appearance of death, not death itself, but
through circumstances beyond the 6riarPs control, the potion does bring about a fatal result2
8omeoPs suicide! As this e7ample shows, human beings tend to cause death even without
intending to! .imilarly, 8omeo suggests that society is to blame for the apothecaryPs criminal
selling of poison, because while there are laws prohiting the Apothecary from selling poison,
there are no laws that would help the apothecary ma/e money! 9oison symboliBes human
societyPs tendency to poison good things and ma/e them fatal, Must as the pointless Iapulet"
Montague feud turns 8omeo and 3ulietPs love to poison! After all, unli/e many of the other
tragedies, this play does not have an evil villain, but rather people whose good >ualities are
turned to poison by the world in which they live!
%h'm/-/i$in&
In Act 1, scene 1, the buffoonish .amson begins a brawl between the Montagues and Iapulets by
flic/ing his thumbnail from behind his upper teeth, an insulting gesture /nown as biting the
thumb! 1e engages in this Muvenile and vulgar display because he wants to get into a fight with
the Montagues but doesnPt want to be accused of starting the fight by ma/ing an e7plicit insult!
4ecause of his timidity, he settles for being annoying rather than challenging! The thumb"biting,
as an essentially meaningless gesture, represents the foolishness of the entire IapuletNMontague
feud and the stupidity of violence in general!
4'een Ma/
In Act 1, scene 4, Mercutio delivers a daBBling speech about the fairy Vueen Mab, who rides
through the night on her tiny wagon bringing dreams to sleepers! Cne of the most noteworthy
aspects of Vueen MabPs ride is that the dreams she brings generally do not bring out the best
sides of the dreamers, but instead serve to confirm them in whatever vices they are addicted to@
for e7ample, greed, violence, or lust! Another important aspect of MercutioPs description of
Vueen Mab is that it is complete nonsense, albeit vivid and highly colorful! Aobody believes in a
fairy pulled about by Ta small grey"coated gnatL whipped with a cric/etPs bone $1!4!&'*! 6inally,
it is worth noting that the description of Mab and her carriage goes to e7travagant lengths to
11
emphasiBe how tiny and insubstantial she and her accoutrements are! Vueen Mab and her
carriage do not merely symboliBe the dreams of sleepers, they also symboliBe the power of
wa/ing fantasies, daydreams, and desires! Through the Vueen Mab imagery, Mercutio suggests
that all desires and fantasies are as nonsensical and fragile as Mab, and that they are basically
corrupting! This point of view contrasts star/ly with that of 8omeo and 3uliet, who see their love
as real and ennobling!
Ionte7t and interpretation
Ps.ch#anal.$ic
9sychoanalytic critics focus largely on 8omeo-s relationships with 8osaline and 3uliet, as
well as the looming image of inevitable death! Romeo and Juliet is not considered to be
e7tremely psychologically comple7, and sympathetic psychoanalytic readings of the play ma/e
the tragic male e7perience e>uivalent with sic/nesses! The first line of criticism argues that
8omeo is in love with 8osaline and 3uliet because she is the all"present, all"powerful mother
which fills a void! According to this theory, this void was caused by the negligence of his mother!
Another theory argues that the feud between the families provides a source of phallic e7pression
for the male Iapulets and Montagues! This sets up a system where patriarchal order is in power!
#hen the sons are married, rather than focusing on the wife, they are still owed an obligation to
their father through the feud! This conflict between obligation to the father $the family name* and
the wife $the feminine*, determines the course of the play! .ome critics argue this hatred is the
sole cause of 8omeo and 3uliet-s passion for each other! The fear of death and the /nowledge of
the danger of their relationship is in this view channelled into a romantic passion!
6eminist literary critics have pointed out 3uliet-s dependence on male characters, such as
6riar Laurence and 8omeo!
(eminis$
6eminist critics argue that the blame for the family feud lies in Ferona-s patriarchal
society! In this view, the strict, masculine code of violence imposed on 8omeo is the main force
driving the tragedy to its end! #hen Tybalt /ills Mercutio, for e7ample, 8omeo shifts into this
violent mode, regretting that 3uliet has made him so =effeminate=! In this view, the younger
males =become men= by engaging in violence on behalf of their fathers, or in the case of the
servants, their masters! The feud is also lin/ed to male virility, as the Mo/e about the maid-s heads
shows! 3uliet also submits to a female code of docility by allowing others, such as the 6riar, to
solve her problems for her! Cther critics, such as <ympna Iallaghan, loo/ at the play-s feminism
from a more historicist angle! They ta/e into account the fact that the play is written during a
time when the patriarchal order was being challenged by several forces, most notably the rise of
9uritanism! #hen 3uliet dodges her father-s attempt to force her to marry a man she has no
feeling for, she is successfully challenging the patriarchal order in a way that would not have
been possible at an earlier time!
12
5en-e! s$'-ies
Gender studies critics largely >uestion the se7uality of two characters, Mercutio and
8omeo! 6rom the perspective of this form of criticism, the difference between the two characters-
friendship and se7ual love is discussed heavily in the play! Mercutio-s friendship with 8omeo, for
e7ample, leads to several friendly conversations, including ones on the subMect of 8omeo-s
phallus! This would seem to suggest traces of homoeroticism! 8omeo, as well, admits traces of
the same in the manner of his love for 8osaline and 3uliet! 8osaline, for e7ample, is distant and
unavailable, bringing no hope of offspring! As 4envolio argues, she is best replaced by someone
who will reciprocate! .ha/espeare-s procreation sonnets describe another young man who, li/e
8omeo, is having trouble creating offspring and who is homose7ual! Gender critics believe that
.ha/espeare may have used 8osaline as a way to e7press homose7ual problems of procreation in
an acceptable way! In this view, when 3uliet says =!!!that which we call a rose +or 8osaline, N 4y
any other name would smell as sweet=, she may be raising the >uestion of whether there is any
difference between the beauty of a man and the beauty of a woman!
+
3ulius Iaesar
Ionte7t
O
Li/ely the most influential writer in all of nglish literature and certainly the most important
playwright of the nglish 8enaissance, #illiam .ha/espeare was born in 1'&4 in the town of
.tratford"upon"Avon in #arwic/shire, ngland! The son of a successful middle"class glove"
ma/er, .ha/espeare attended grammar school, but his formal education proceeded no further! In
1'0%, he married an older woman, Anne 1athaway, and had three children with her! Around
1'5;, he left his family behind and traveled to London to wor/ as an actor and playwright!
9ublic and critical acclaim >uic/ly followed, and .ha/espeare eventually became the most
popular playwright in ngland and part owner of the Globe Theater! 1is career bridged the
reigns of liBabeth I $ruled 1''0(1&;)* and 3ames I $ruled 1&;)(1&%'*? he was a favorite of both
monarchs! Indeed, Qing 3ames paid .ha/espearePs theater company the greatest possible
compliment by endowing its members with the status of /ingPs players! #ealthy and renowned,
.ha/espeare retired to .tratford, and died in 1&1& at the age of fifty"two! At the time of
.ha/espearePs death, such luminaries as 4en 3onson hailed him as the apogee of 8enaissance
theater!
.ha/espearePs wor/s were collected and printed in various editions in the century following his
death, and by the early eighteenth century his reputation as the greatest poet ever to write in
nglish was well established! The unprecedented admiration garnered by his wor/s led to a
fierce curiosity about .ha/espearePs life, but the dearth of biographical information has left many
details of .ha/espearePs personal history shrouded in mystery! .ome scholars have concluded
from this lac/ and from .ha/espearePs modest education that his plays were actually written by
someone else@6rancis 4acon and the arl of C7ford are the two most popular candidates! The
evidence for this claim, however, is overwhelmingly circumstantial, and few ta/e the theory very
seriously!
In the absence of definitive proof to the contrary, .ha/espeare must be viewed as the author of
the thirty"seven plays and 1'4 sonnets that bear his name! The legacy of this body of wor/ is
13
immense! A number of .ha/espearePs plays seem to have transcended even the category of
brilliance, becoming so influential as to affect profoundly the course of #estern literature and
culture ever after!
Julius Caesar ta/es place in ancient 8ome in 44 b!c!, when 8ome was the center of an empire
stretching from 4ritain to Aorth Africa and from 9ersia to .pain! Wet even as the empire grew
stronger, so, too, did the force of the dangers threatening its e7istence2 8ome suffered from
constant infighting between ambitious military leaders and the far wea/er senators to whom they
supposedly owed allegiance! The empire also suffered from a sharp division between citiBens,
who were represented in the senate, and the increasingly underrepresented plebeian masses! A
succession of men aspired to become the absolute ruler of 8ome, but only 3ulius Iaesar seemed
li/ely to achieve this status! Those citiBens who favored more democratic rule feared that
IaesarPs power would lead to the enslavement of 8oman citiBens by one of their own! Therefore,
a group of conspirators came together and assassinated Iaesar! The assassination, however,
failed to put an end to the power struggles dividing the empire, and civil war erupted shortly
thereafter! The plot of .ha/espearePs play includes the events leading up to the assassination of
Iaesar as well as much of the subse>uent war, in which the deaths of the leading conspirators
constituted a sort of revenge for the assassination!
.ha/espearePs contemporaries, well versed in ancient Gree/ and 8oman history, would very
li/ely have detected parallels between Julius Caesar#s portrayal of the shift from republican to
imperial 8ome and the liBabethan eraPs trend toward consolidated monarchal power! In 1'55,
when the play was first performed, Vueen liBabeth I had sat on the throne for nearly forty years,
enlarging her power at the e7pense of the aristocracy and the 1ouse of Iommons! As she was
then si7ty"si7 years old, her reign seemed li/ely to end soon, yet she lac/ed any heirs $as did
3ulius Iaesar*! Many feared that her death would plunge ngland into the /ind of chaos that had
plagued ngland during the fifteenth"century #ars of the 8oses! In an age when censorship
would have limited direct commentary on these worries, .ha/espeare could nevertheless use the
story of Iaesar to comment on the political situation of his day!
As his chief source in writing Julius Caesar& .ha/espeare probably used Thomas AorthPs
translation of 9lutarchPs Lives of the Aoble Gree/s and 8omans, written in the first century a!d!
9lutarch, who believed that history was propelled by the achievements of great men, saw the role
of the biographer as inseparable from the role of the historian! .ha/espeare followed 9lutarchPs
lead by emphasiBing how the actions of the leaders of 8oman society, rather than class conflicts
or larger political movements, determined history! 1owever, while .ha/espeare does focus on
these /ey political figures, he does not ignore that their power rests, to some degree, on the fic/le
favor of the populace!
Iontemporary accounts tell us that Julius Caesar& .ha/espearePs shortest play, was first
performed in 1'55! It was probably the first play performed in the Globe Theater, the playhouse
that was erected around that time in order to accommodate .ha/espearePs increasingly successful
theater company! 1owever, the first authoritative te7t of the play did not appear until the 1&%)
6irst 6olio edition! The elaborate stage directions suggest that this te7t was derived from the
companyPs promptboo/ rather than .ha/espearePs manuscript!
Julius Caesar is a tragedy by #illiam .ha/espeare, believed to have been written in
1'55! It portrays the conspiracy against the 8oman dictator of the same name, his assassination
and its aftermath! It is one of several 8oman plays that he wrote, based on true events from
8oman history, which also include Coriolanus and Anton' and Cleo"atra!
14
Although the title of the play is Julius Caesar, Iaesar is not the central character in its
action? he appears in only three scenes, and is /illed at the beginning of the third act! The
protagonist of the play is Marcus 4rutus, and the central psychological drama is his struggle
between the conflicting demands of honour, patriotism, and friendship!
The play reflected the general an7iety of ngland over succession of leadership! At the
time of its creation and first performance, Vueen liBabeth, a strong ruler, was elderly and had
refused to name a successor, leading to worries that a civil war similar to that of 8ome might
brea/ out after her death!
Julius Caesar was first published in the 6irst 6olio in 1&%), but a performance was
mentioned by Thomas 9latter in his diary in .eptember 1'55! The play is not mentioned in the
list of .ha/espeare-s plays published by 6rancis Meres in 1'50! 4ased on these two points, as
well as a number of contemporary allusions, and the belief that the play is similar to Hamlet in
vocabulary, and to Henr' ( and As )ou Li*e +t in metre, scholars have suggested 1'55 as a
probable date!
The te7t of Julius Caesar in the 6irst 6olio is the only authoritative te7t for the play! The
6olio te7t is notable for its >uality and consistency? scholars Mudge it to have been set into type
from a theatrical prompt"boo/!
+),
The source used by .ha/espeare was .ir Thomas Aorth-s
translation of 9lutarch-s Li%e o% ,rutus and Li%e o% Caesar!
The play contains many anachronistic elements from the liBabethan period! The
characters mention obMects such as hats and doublets $large, heavy Mac/ets* " neither of which
e7isted in ancient 8ome! Iaesar is mentioned to be wearing an liBabethan doublet instead of a
8oman toga! At one point a cloc/ is heard to stri/e and 4rutus notes it with =Iount the cloc/=!
1e*ia$i#ns )!#m Pl'$a!ch
.ha/espeare ma/es Iaesar-s triumph ta/e place on the day of Lupercalia instead
of si7 months earlier
6or greater dramatic effect he has made the Iapitol the venue of Iaesar-s death
and not Curia Pom"eriana $Theatre of 9ompey*!
Iaesar-s murder, the funeral, Antony-s oration, the reading of the will and
Cctavius- arrival all ta/e place on the same day in the play! 1owever, historically, the
assassination too/ place on March 1' $!he ides o% Mar$h*, the will was published three days
later on March 10, the funeral too/ place on March %; and Cctavius arrived only in May!
.ha/espeare ma/es the Triumvirs meet in 8ome instead of near 4olonia, so as to
avoid a third locale!
1e has combined the two 4attles of 9hillipi although there was a twenty day
interval between them!
15
.ha/espeare gives Iaesar-s last words as =Et tu& ,rute- Then fall, IaesarX= $=And
you, 4rutusS Then fall, Iaesar!=*! 9lutarch says he said nothing, pulling his toga over his
head when he saw 4rutus among the conspirators!
+',
! 1owever, .uetonius reports his last
words, spo/en in Gree/, as =./0 12 34.565= $transliterated as =Kai su& te*non-=? =Wou too,
childS= in nglish*!!
.ha/espeare deviated from these historical facts in order to curtail time and compress the
facts so that the play could be staged more easily! The tragic force is condensed into a few scenes
for heightened effect!
Iharacters
3ulius Iaesar
Cctavius Iaesar, Marcus Antonius, M! Aemilius Lepidus2 Triumvirs after the
death of 3ulius Iaesar
Iicero, 9ublius, 9opilius Lena2 .enators
Marcus 4rutus, Iassius, Iasca, Trebonius, Ligarius, <ecius 4rutus, Metellus
Iimber,Iinna2 Ionspirators against 3ulius Iaesar
6lavius and Marullus2 Tribunes
Artemidorus2 a .ophist of Inidos
A .oothsayer $Also called 6ortuneteller*
Iinna2 a poet, who is not related to the conspiracy
Lucilius, Titinius, Messala, Iato the Wounger, Folumnius2 6riends to 4rutus and
Iassius
Farro, Ilitus, Ilaudius, .trato, Lucius, <ardanius2 .ervants to 4rutus
9indarus2 .ervant to Iassius
Ialpurnia2 wife of Iaesar
9ortia2 wife of 4rutus
.ynopsis
Marcus 4rutus is Iaesar-s close friend? his ancestors were famed for driving the
tyrannical Qing Tar>uin from 8ome $described in .ha/espeare-s earlier !he Ra"e o% Lu$re$e*!
4rutus allows himself to be caMoled into Moining a group of conspiring senators because of a
growing suspicion@implanted by Iaius Iassius@that Iaesar intends to turn republican 8ome
into a monarchy under his own rule! Traditional readings of the play maintain that Iassius and
the other conspirators are motivated largely by envy and ambition, whereas 4rutus is motivated
by the demands of honour and patriotism? other commentators, such as Isaac Asimov, suggest
that the te7t shows 4rutus is no less moved by envy and flattery Cne of the central strengths of
the play is that it resists categoriBing its characters as either simple heroes or villains! The early
16
scenes deal mainly with 4rutus- arguments with Iassius and his struggle with his own
conscience! The growing tide of public support soon turns 4rutus against Iaesar $This public
support was actually fa/ed! Iassius wrote letters to 4rutus in different handwritings over the
ne7t month in order to get 4rutus to Moin the conspiracy*! A soothsayer warns Iaesar to =beware
the Ides of March,= which he ignores, culminating in his assassination at the Iapitol by the
conspirators that day!
Iaesar-s assassination is perhaps the most famous part of the play, about halfway through!
After ignoring the soothsayer as well as his wife-s own premonitions, Iaesar comes to the
.enate! The conspirators create a superficial motive for the assassination by means of a petition
brought by Metellus Iimber, pleading on behalf of his banished brother! As Iaesar, predictably,
reMects the petition, Iasca graBes Iaesar in the bac/ of his nec/, and the others follow in stabbing
him? 4rutus is last! At this point, Iaesar utters the famous line =Et tu& ,rute-= $=And you,
4rutusS=, i7e7 =Wou too, 4rutusS=*! .ha/espeare has him add, =Then fall, Iaesar,= suggesting that
Iaesar did not want to survive such treachery! The conspirators ma/e clear that they did this act
for 8ome, not for their own purposes and do not attempt to flee the scene but act victorious!
After Iaesar-s death, however, Mar/ Antony, with a subtle and elo>uent speech over
Iaesar-s corpse@the much">uoted 8riends& Romans& $ountr'men& lend me 'our ears777@deftly
turns public opinion against the assassins by manipulating the emotions of the common people,
in contrast to the rational tone of 4rutus-s speech! Antony rouses the mob to drive the
conspirators from 8ome! Amid the violence, the innocent poet, Iinna, is confused with the
conspirator Iinna and is murdered by the mob!
The beginning of Act 6our is mar/ed by the >uarrel scene, where 4rutus attac/s Iassius
for soiling the noble act of regicide by accepting bribes $=<id not great 3ulius bleed for Mustice-
sa/eS N #hat villain touch-d his body, that did stab, N And not for MusticeS=, IF!iii,15"%1*! The two
are reconciled? they prepare for war with Mar/ Antony and Iaesar-s adopted son, Cctavian
$.ha/espeare-s spelling2 Cctavius*! That night, Iaesar-s ghost appears to 4rutus with a warning
of defeat $=thou shalt see me at 9hilippi=, IF!iii,%0)*! <uring the battle, Iassius commits suicide
after seeing the death of his best friend,Titinius! After Titinius, who wasn-t really /illed, sees
Iassius- corpse, he commits suicide! 1owever, 4rutus wins the battle! 4rutus, with a heavy heart,
battles again the ne7t day! 1e loses and commits suicide! The play ends with a tribute to 4rutus
by Antony, who has remained =the noblest 8oman of them all= $F!v,&0* because he was the only
conspirator who acted for the good of 8ome! Then it is hinted that the friction between Mar/
Antony and Cctavius which will characterise another of .ha/espeare-s 8oman plays, Anton' and
Cleo"atra7
P!#$a&#nis$ -e/a$e
17
Iritics of .ha/espearePs play Julius Caesar differ greatly on their views of Iaesar and
4rutus! Many have debated whether Iaesar or 4rutus is the protagonist of the play! Intertwined
in this debate is a smattering of philosophical and psychological ideologies on republicanism and
monarchism! Cne author, 8obert I! 8eynolds, devotes attention to the names or epithets given to
both 4rutus and Iaesar in his essay TIronic pithet in 3ulius IaesarL! This author points out that
Iasca praises 4rutus at face value, but then inadvertently compares him to a disreputable Mo/e of
a man by calling him an alchemist, TCh, he sits high in all the peoplePs hearts,NAnd that which
would appear offense in usN 1is countenance, li/e richest alchemy,N #ill change to virtue and to
worthinessL $I!iii!1'0"&;*! 8eynolds also tal/s about Iaesar and his TIolossusL epithet, which he
points out has its obvious connotations of power and manliness, but also lesser /nown
connotations of an outward glorious front and inward chaos! In that essay, the conclusion as to
who is the hero or protagonist is ambiguous because of the conceit"li/e poetic >uality of the
epithets for Iaesar and 4rutus!
Myron Taylor, in his essay T.ha/espearePs 3ulius Iaesar and the Irony of 1istoryL,
compares the logic and philosophies of Iaesar and 4rutus! Iaesar is deemed an intuitive
philosopher who is always right when he goes with his gut, for instance when he says he fears
Iassius as a threat to him before he is /illed, his intuition is correct! 4rutus is portrayed as a man
similar to Iaesar, but whose passions lead him to the wrong reasoning, which he realiBes in the
end when he says in F!v!';"'1, TIaesar, now be still2N I /illPd not thee with half so good a willL !
3oseph #! 1ouppert ac/nowledges that some critics have tried to cast Iaesar as the
protagonist, but that ultimately 4rutus is the driving force in the play and is therefore the tragic
hero! 4rutus attempts to put the republic over his personal relationship with Iaesar and /ills him!
4rutus ma/es the political mista/es that bring down the republic that his ancestors created! 1e
acts on his passions, does not gather enough evidence to ma/e reasonable decisions and is
manipulated by Iassius and the other conspirators!
The general conclusion among critics is that 4rutus is in fact the protagonist of the play
3ulius Iaesar, although some have tried to prove otherwise!
(a$e *e!s's (!ee Will
Julius Caesar raises many >uestions about the force of fate in life versus the capacity for free
will! Iassius refuses to accept IaesarPs rising power and deems a belief in fate to be nothing
more than a form of passivity or cowardice! 1e says to 4rutus2 TMen at sometime were masters
of their fates! N The fault, dear 4rutus, is not in our stars, N 4ut in ourselves, that we are
underlingsL $I!ii!14;(14%*! Iassius urges a return to a more noble, self"possessed attitude toward
life, blaming his and 4rutusPs submissive stance not on a predestined plan but on their failure to
assert themselves!
:ltimately, the play seems to support a philosophy in which fate and freedom maintain a delicate
coe7istence! Thus Iaesar declares2 TIt seems to me most strange that men should fear, N .eeing
that death, a necessary end, N #ill come when it will comeL $II!ii!)'()7*! In other words, Iaesar
18
recogniBes that certain events lie beyond human control? to crouch in fear of them is to enter a
paralysis e>ual to, if not worse than, death! It is to surrender any capacity for freedom and
agency that one might actually possess! Indeed, perhaps to face death head"on, to die bravely and
honorably, is IaesarPs best course2 in the end, 4rutus interprets his and IassiusPs defeat as the
wor/ of IaesarPs ghost@not Must his apparition, but also the force of the peoplePs devotion to
him, the strong legacy of a man who refused any fear of fate and, in his disregard of fate, seems
to have transcended it!
P'/lic Sel) *e!s's P!i*a$e Sel)
Much of the playPs tragedy stems from the charactersP neglect of private feelings and loyalties in
favor of what they believe to be the public good! .imilarly, characters confuse their private
selves with their public selves, hardening and dehumaniBing themselves or transforming
themselves into ruthless political machines! 4rutus rebuffs his wife, 9ortia, when she pleads with
him to confide in her? believing himself to be acting on the peoplePs will, he forges ahead with
the murder of Iaesar, despite their close friendship! 4rutus puts aside his personal loyalties and
shuns thoughts of Iaesar the man, his friend? instead, he acts on what he believes to be the
publicPs wishes and /ills Iaesar the leader, the imminent dictator! Iassius can be seen as a man
who has gone to the e7treme in cultivating his public persona! Iaesar, describing his distrust of
Iassius, tells Antony that the problem with Iassius is his lac/ of a private life@his seeming
refusal to ac/nowledge his own sensibilities or to nurture his own spirit! .uch a man, Iaesar
fears, will let nothing interfere with his ambition! Indeed, Iassius lac/s all sense of personal
honor and shows himself to be a ruthless schemer!
:ltimately, neglecting private sentiments to follow public concerns brings Iaesar to his death!
Although Iaesar does briefly agree to stay home from the .enate in order to please Ialpurnia,
who has dreamed of his murder, he gives way to ambition when <ecius tells him that the
senators plan to offer him the crown! "IaesarPs public self again ta/es precedence! Tragically, he
no longer sees the difference between his omnipotent, immortal public image and his vulnerable
human body! 3ust preceding his death, Iaesar refuses ArtemidorusPs pleas to spea/ with him,
saying that he gives last priority to his most personal concerns! 1e thus endangers himself by
believing that the strength of his public self will protect his private self!
Misin$e!!e$a$i#ns an- Mis!ea-in&s
Much of the play deals with the charactersP failures to interpret correctly the omens that they
encounter! As Iicero says, TMen may construe things after their fashion, N Ilean from the
purpose of the things themselvesL $I!iii!)4()'*! Thus, the night preceding IaesarPs appearance at
the .enate is full of portents, but no one reads them accurately2 Iassius ta/es them to signify the
danger that IaesarPs impending coronation would bring to the state, when, if anything, they warn
of the destruction that Iassius himself threatens! There are calculated misreadings as well2
Iassius manipulates 4rutus into Moining the conspiracy by means of forged letters, /nowing that
4rutusPs trusting nature will cause him to accept the letters as authentic pleas from the 8oman
people!
The circumstances of IassiusPs death represent another instance of misinterpretation! 9indarusPs
erroneous conclusion that Titinius has been captured by the enemy, when in fact Titinius has
reunited with friendly forces, is the piece of misinformation that prompts Iassius to see/ death!
Thus, in the world of politics portrayed in Julius Caesar& the inability to read people and events
leads to downfall? conversely, the ability to do so is the /ey to survival! #ith so much ambition
and rivalry, the ability to gauge the publicPs opinion as well as the resentment or loyalty of onePs
fellow politicians can guide one to success! Antony proves masterful at recogniBing his situation,
19
and his accurate reading of the crowdPs emotions during his funeral oration for Iaesar allows
him to win the masses over to his side!
In)le6i/ili$. *e!s's +#m!#mise
4oth 4rutus and Iaesar are stubborn, rather infle7ible people who ultimately suffer fatally for it!
In the playPs aggressive political landscape, individuals succeed through adaptability, bargaining,
and compromise! 4rutusPs rigid though honorable ideals leave him open for manipulation by
Iassius! 1e believes so thoroughly in the purpose of the assassination that he does not perceive
the need for e7cessive political maneuvering to Mustify the murder! >ually resolute, Iaesar
prides himself on his steadfastness? yet this constancy helps bring about his death, as he refuses
to heed ill omens and goes willingly to the .enate, into the hands of his murderers!
Antony proves perhaps the most adaptable of all of the politicians2 while his speech to the
8oman citiBens centers on IaesarPs generosity toward each citiBen, he later searches for ways to
turn these funds into cash in order to raise an army against 4rutus and Iassius! Although he
gains power by offering to honor IaesarPs will and provide the citiBens their rightful money, it
becomes clear that ethical concerns will not prevent him from using the funds in a more
politically e7pedient manner! Antony is a successful politician@yet the >uestion of morality
remains! There seems to be no way to reconcile firm moral principles with success in politics in
.ha/espearePs rendition of ancient 8ome? thus each character struggles toward a different
solution!
Rhe$#!ic an- P#3e!
Julius Caesar gives detailed consideration to the relationship between rhetoric and power! The
ability to ma/e things happen by words alone is the most powerful type of authority! arly in the
play, it is established that Iaesar has this type of absolute authority2 T#hen Iaesar says Y<o
this,P it is performed,L says Antony, who attaches a similar weight to CctaviusPs words toward the
end of the play $I!ii!1%*! #ords also serve to move hearts and minds, as Act III evidences! Antony
cleverly convinces the conspirators of his desire to side with them2 TLet each man render me
with his bloody handL $III!i!10'*! :nder the guise of a gesture of friendship, Antony actually
mar/s the conspirators for vengeance! In the 6orum, 4rutus spea/s to the crowd and appeals to
its love of liberty in order to Mustify the /illing of Iaesar! 1e also ma/es ample reference to the
honor in which he is generally esteemed so as to validate further his e7planation of the deed!
Antony li/ewise wins the crowdPs favor, using persuasive rhetoric to whip the masses into a
frenBy so great that they donPt even realiBe the fic/leness of their favor!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform
the te7tPs maMor themes!
2mens an- P#!$en$s
Throughout the play, omens and portents manifest themselves, each serving to crystalliBe the
larger themes of fate and misinterpretation of signs! :ntil IaesarPs death, each time an omen or
nightmare is reported, the audience is reminded of IaesarPs impending demise! The audience
wonders whether these portents simply announce what is fated to occur or whether they serve as
warnings for what might occur if the characters do not ta/e active steps to change their behavior!
#hether or not individuals can affect their destinies, characters repeatedly fail to interpret the
omens correctly! In a larger sense, the omens in Julius Caesar thus imply the dangers of failing
to perceive and analyBe the details of onePs world!
Le$$e!s
20
The motif of letters represents an interesting counterpart to the force of oral rhetoric in the play!
Cral rhetoric depends upon a direct, dialogic interaction between spea/er and audience2
depending on how the listeners respond to a certain statement, the orator can alter his or her
speech and intonations accordingly! In contrast, the power of a written letter depends more fully
on the addressee? whereas an orator must read the emotions of the crowd, the act of reading is
underta/en solely by the recipient of the letter! Thus, when 4rutus receives the forged letter from
Iassius in Act II, scene i, the letter has an effect because 4rutus allows it to do so? it is he who
grants it its full power! In contrast, Iaesar refuses to read the letter that Artemidorus tries to hand
him in Act III, scene i, as he is heading to the .enate! 9redisposed to ignore personal affairs,
Iaesar denies the letter any reading at all and thus negates the potential power of the words
written inside!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
W#men an- Wi*es
#hile one could try to analyBe Ialpurnia and 9ortia as full characters in their own right, they
function primarily not as sympathetic personalities or sources of insight or poetry but rather as
symbols for the private, domestic realm! 4oth women plead with their husbands to be more
aware of their private needs and feelings $9ortia in Act II, scene i? Ialpurnia in Act III, scene ii*!
Iaesar and 4rutus rebuff the pleas of their respective wives, however? they not only prioritiBe
public matters but also actively disregard their private emotions and intuitions! As such,
Ialpurnia and 9ortia are powerless figures, willing though unable to help and comfort Iaesar
and 4rutus!
5en-e! s$'-ies a!#aches
Gender critics argue that the bonds between the men in Julius Ceasar appears to e7ceed
mere friendship, or homosociality, and cross the line into homose7uality! .ome critics, such as
4arbara 9ar/er even argue that homose7ual love among 8oman men is an implicit theme in the
play! According to this argument, 4rutus and the conspirators /ill Iaesar for the same reasons
that 4rutus and Iassius argue at the end of the play2 admiration has turned to desire for se7ual
domination!
+11,
This is based on the idea that, in .ha/espeare-s day, in an ngland ruled by
9rotestantism, Iatholic 8ome was often viewed as the =#hore of 4abylon=! Many church
leaders in 8ome were rumored to have practiced sodomy, and the area was fre>uently alluded to
in ngland as being full of homose7uals! Thus, where 4rutus says2 =4ut, woe the whileX our
fathers- minds are dead N And we a govern-d by our mothers- spirits=, Gender critics see 4rutus
e7pressing a homose7ual femininity! Iaesar, also said to be feminine, wishes only for the
company of men, and the women around him are sidelined! Men engage in more loving
conversations with the men in their lives than with their own wives! 9ar/er thus portrays the
relationship between 4rutus and the rest of the conspirators as more li/e a group marriage than
simply a friendship!
:sing phallic and yonic symbol theory, gender critics suggest that the funeral scene is
both the clima7 of the action of the play as well as the se7ual clima7! 4ehind the rhetoric of
Mar/ Antony, 9ar/er sees a se7ual rhetoric of seduction! Antony uses his funeral oration to
21
seduce the crowd from 4rutus bac/ to Iaesar! The wounds in Iaesar-s na/ed body, for 9ar/er,
represent vaginal orifices! Antony also mentions Iaesar-s will several times! It signifies both his
actual will as well as his se7ual will $chastity* that /ept him from coming at the conspirators-
re>uest! In this view, the funeral represents all the stages of se7, ending with the burning of
8ome representing orgasm! Antony thus re"energiBes the 8omans and 4rutus and Iassius have
to leave the city!
1amlet
Ionte7t
O
The most influential writer in all of nglish literature, #illiam .ha/espeare was born in 1'&4 to
a successful middle"class glove"ma/er in .tratford"upon"Avon, ngland! .ha/espeare attended
grammar school, but his formal education proceeded no further! In 1'0% he married an older
woman, Anne 1athaway, and had three children with her! Around 1'5; he left his family behind
and traveled to London to wor/ as an actor and playwright! 9ublic and critical success >uic/ly
followed, and .ha/espeare eventually became the most popular playwright in ngland and part"
owner of the Globe Theater! 1is career bridged the reigns of liBabeth I $ruled 1''0(1&;)* and
3ames I $ruled 1&;)(1&%'*, and he was a favorite of both monarchs! Indeed, 3ames granted
.ha/espearePs company the greatest possible compliment by bestowing upon its members the
title of QingPs Men! #ealthy and renowned, .ha/espeare retired to .tratford and died in 1&1& at
the age of fifty"two! At the time of .ha/espearePs death, literary luminaries such as 4en 3onson
hailed his wor/s as timeless!
.ha/espearePs wor/s were collected and printed in various editions in the century following his
death, and by the early eighteenth century his reputation as the greatest poet ever to write in
nglish was well established! The unprecedented admiration garnered by his wor/s led to a
fierce curiosity about .ha/espearePs life, but the dearth of biographical information has left many
details of .ha/espearePs personal history shrouded in mystery! .ome people have concluded
from this fact that .ha/espearePs plays were really written by someone else@6rancis 4acon and
the arl of C7ford are the two most popular candidates@but the support for this claim is
overwhelmingly circumstantial, and the theory is not ta/en seriously by many scholars!
In the absence of credible evidence to the contrary, .ha/espeare must be viewed as the author of
the thirty"seven plays and 1'4 sonnets that bear his name! The legacy of this body of wor/ is
immense! A number of .ha/espearePs plays seem to have transcended even the category of
brilliance, becoming so influential as to profoundly affect the course of #estern literature and
culture ever after!
#ritten during the first part of the seventeenth century $probably in 1&;; or 1&;1*, Hamlet was
probably first performed in 3uly 1&;%! It was first published in printed form in 1&;) and
appeared in an enlarged edition in 1&;4! As was common practice during the si7teenth and
seventeenth centuries, .ha/espeare borrowed for his plays ideas and stories from earlier literary
wor/s! 1e could have ta/en the story of 1amlet from several possible sources, including a
twelfth"century Latin history of <enmar/ compiled by .a7o Grammaticus and a prose wor/ by
the 6rench writer 6ranZois de 4elleforest, entitled Histoires !ragi9ues7
The raw material that .ha/espeare appropriated in writing 1amlet is the story of a <anish prince
whose uncle murders the princePs father, marries his mother, and claims the throne! The prince
pretends to be feeble"minded to throw his uncle off guard, then manages to /ill his uncle in
22
revenge! .ha/espeare changed the emphasis of this story entirely, ma/ing his 1amlet a
philosophically minded prince who delays ta/ing action because his /nowledge of his unclePs
crime is so uncertain! .ha/espeare went far beyond ma/ing uncertainty a personal >uir/ of
1amletPs, introducing a number of important ambiguities into the play that even the audience
cannot resolve with certainty! 6or instance, whether 1amletPs mother, Gertrude, shares in
IlaudiusPs guilt? whether 1amlet continues to love Cphelia even as he spurns her, in Act III?
whether CpheliaPs death is suicide or accident? whether the ghost offers reliable /nowledge, or
see/s to deceive and tempt 1amlet? and, perhaps most importantly, whether 1amlet would be
morally Mustified in ta/ing revenge on his uncle! .ha/espeare ma/es it clear that the sta/es riding
on some of these >uestions are enormous@the actions of these characters bring disaster upon an
entire /ingdom! At the playPs end it is not even clear whether Mustice has been achieved!
4y modifying his source materials in this way, .ha/espeare was able to ta/e an unremar/able
revenge story and ma/e it resonate with the most fundamental themes and problems of the
8enaissance! The 8enaissance is a vast cultural phenomenon that began in fifteenth"century Italy
with the recovery of classical Gree/ and Latin te7ts that had been lost to the Middle Ages! The
scholars who enthusiastically rediscovered these classical te7ts were motivated by an educational
and political ideal called $in Latin* humanitas@the idea that all of the capabilities and virtues
peculiar to human beings should be studied and developed to their furthest e7tent! 8enaissance
humanism, as this movement is now called, generated a new interest in human e7perience, and
also an enormous optimism about the potential scope of human understanding! 1amletPs famous
speech in Act II, T#hat a piece of wor/ is a manX 1ow noble in reason, how infinite in faculty, in
form and moving how e7press and admirable, in action how li/e an angel, in apprehension how
li/e a god@the beauty of the world, the paragon of animalsXL $II!ii!%5)(%57* is directly based
upon one of the maMor te7ts of the Italian humanists, 9ico della MirandolaPs ration on the
Dignit' o% Man7 6or the humanists, the purpose of cultivating reason was to lead to a better
understanding of how to act, and their fondest hope was that the coordination of action and
understanding would lead to great benefits for society as a whole!
As the 8enaissance spread to other countries in the si7teenth and seventeenth centuries, however,
a more s/eptical strain of humanism developed, stressing the limitations of human
understanding! 6or e7ample, the si7teenth"century 6rench humanist, Michel de Montaigne, was
no less interested in studying human e7periences than the earlier humanists were, but he
maintained that the world of e7perience was a world of appearances, and that human beings
could never hope to see past those appearances into the TrealitiesL that lie behind them! This is
the world in which .ha/espeare places his characters! 1amlet is faced with the difficult tas/ of
correcting an inMustice that he can never have sufficient /nowledge of@a dilemma that is by no
means uni>ue, or even uncommon! And while 1amlet is fond of pointing out >uestions that
cannot be answered because they concern supernatural and metaphysical matters, the play as a
whole chiefly demonstrates the difficulty of /nowing the truth about other people@their guilt or
innocence, their motivations, their feelings, their relative states of sanity or insanity! The world
of other people is a world of appearances, and Hamlet is, fundamentally, a play about the
difficulty of living in that world!
<upa cum se obisnuia in mod curent la acea data , .ha/espeare a prelucrat adeseori piese
scrise inainte de altii , dar dandu"le o structura noua , profunBime de gandire , o bogatie de idei si
o forma atat de inalta , incat modelele vechi au fost date uitarii!
Iu toata deBamagirea pe care o e7prima .ha/espeare in tragedi , iubirea lui de oameni si marea
23
sa incredere in virtutile morale ale omului nu il lasa sa aMunga pana in adancurile deBnadeMdii ! <e
aceea , chiar si in marile sale tragedii dreptatea invinge , omul triumfa asupra raului !
Anul 1&;1 in care 1amlet a fost scrisa , .ha/espeare a fost marcat de doua evenimente
semnificative 2 moartea tatalui sau si de inchiderea prietenului sau Lord .outhampton !
1amlet , unua din marile capodopere ale lumi toate timpurile , realiBeaBa o imagine grandioasa a
contradictiilor sociale grave ale epoci reflectate in Bguduitoarea criBa morala a printului
<anemarcei !
Acesta intors de la studii , este intampinat acasa de fapte oribile 2
Asasinarea tatalui sau pentru a i se lua tronul , infidelitatea mamei , care s"a grabit sa se
casatoreasca cu asasinul sotului ei si falsitatea viciatei curti regale , care accepta toate aceste
fapte monstruoase !
.uferinta lui 1amlet este , in primul rand suferinta umanistului care constata ca Kvremile si (au
iesit din fagasul lor firesc L si ca el nu poate face tot ce ar trebui , pentru ca nu sta in puterile unui
singur om sa restabileasca adevarul , cinstea , binele si dreptatea ! <urerea lui 1amlet este
cauBata nu atat de omorarea tatalui sau , cat de gandul ca atatea nelegiuri ar putea ramane
nepedepsite !
9entru 1amlet nimic nu e simplu , totul ridica intrebari 2 Kto be oi not to beL , de aici reBultand
faptul ca este un om indecis totul fiind o dilema pentru el!
Maretia acestui personaM consta in capacitatea sa de a aduna in sine durerile si revolta unei lumi
intregi , il luciditatea si forta cu care denunta viciile si in lupta dusa cu sine insusi pentru a gasi
calea actiunii!
1amlet este inainte de toate drama unui om care nu eBita sa confrunte propriile imperfectiuni si
care refuBa iluBiile si idealuri/e aparente !
In aceata opera sunt gasite teme foarte importante 2 relatia tata"fiu,
mama (fiu , 1amlet (prieteni, relatie de dragoste , actiune si nebunie ! 1amlet este centrul
acestor teme si aceste teme se focaliBeaBa in Murul lui !In toata literatura nu mai e7ista personaM
atat de bogat comple7 , enigmatic si transparent !
1amlet e un tanar cu sufletul generos si delicat , inclinat spre meditatie si spre cercetarile
stiintei , intelegator al lucrurilor frumoase , cu un suflet deschis prieteniei si dragostei ! 9oate ca
era prea delicat si prea sensibil , prea firav in constitutia lui psihica ? dar viata lui mergea inainte
dupa o singura lege , indreptata spre anumite scopuri , mangaiate de unele sperante ! In acest usor
si amabil fel de viata survine in primul rand moartea tatalui si , la scurta vreme recasatorrea
mamei , care pare sa fi uitat mult prea repede pe primul ei sot , cedand unei noi iubiri ! 1amlet
ramane Mignit si , in prabusirea respectului pe care il avusese pentru mama sa , i se insinueaBa o
banuiala oribila , care isi primeste in curand confirmarea prin nelinistitu spectru patern , care ii
apare , cerandu"i raBbunare! .i 1amlet va e7ecuta raBbunarea si ar gasi modul s"o e7ecute cat
24
mai repede daca , intre timp , din cauBa socului petrecut in forul sentimentelor sale nu ar fi
inceput sa moara ! .a moara fara sa isi dea seama , sa moara pe dinauntru ! Asasinarea tatalui
adulterul mamei , toat ceea ce e in contradictie cu idealul si bucuria vietii , nedreptatea tradarea ,
minciuna , ipocriBia , aviditatea de bogatie si de putere pervesitatea si , alaturi de ele ,
desertaciunea vietii monderne , moartea si necunoscutul infricosator , toate se aduna in spiritul
sau , il domina si il tiraniBeaBa si ii ridica in cale o bariera peste care sa nu poata trece ca sa
traiasca la fel ca inainte , cu pasiunea cu ardoarea dinainte! 1amlet nu mai poate iubi deoarece
dragostea este in primul rand dragoste de viata ? si de aceea intrerupe idila pe care o incepuse cu
Cfelia , cea pe care a iubit"o si pe care inca o mai iubeste , infinit de mult , dar asa cum ai iubi o
moarta , stiind ca nu mai poate apartine unui viu !
1amlet nu mai poate sa isi coordoneBe actele , se lasa furat de impreMurari , pastrand totusi
constanta atitudinea sa de dispret!<ar pentru a se raBbuna , ca si pentru a iubi , este nevoie de un
sentiment intens fata de opera pe care o infaptuiesti ! Tot ceea ce se petrece cu el ii starneste cel
mult o ciudata uimire , care il impinge la reprosuri desarte si la desarte iesiri fata de el insusi !
La urma , incheie marea lui raBbunare , dar , tot ca din intamplare , cade si el insusi victima
propriei raBbunari !Isi parasise viata la intamplare , si tot intamplari avea sa ii datoreBe si moartea
!
Asadar , ideea fundamentala din 1amlet este slabiciunea vointei , ca o cosencinta a
descumpanirii , si nicidecum ca trasatura organica , innascuta ! 9rin firea sa , 1amlet este un om
puternic 2 ironia caustica , iBbucnirilr subite , pornirille patimase in discutia cu mama sa ,
dispretul plin de mandriei si ura fatisa fata de unchiul sau sunt tot atatea doveBi de energie si
superioritate ! l ramane maret si ferm chiar in propria lui slabiciune , findca un om cu moralul
puternic chiar si in momente de decadere este superior omului slab in clipele lui de ascensiune
<upa cum ne putem da seama in cele doua opere o putere tainica guverneaBa soarta individului ,
staruie pe urmele lui si il conduce pe drumul pe care el si l"a ales spre catastrofa determinata de
ultimul punct atins de aceea linie! 9ersonaMele lui .ha/espeare sunt , la fel ca si cele ale lui
.ofocle , predestinate ! <ar in .ofocl eindividul e predestinat de la nastere ? omului nu ii ramane
decat libertatea de a muri intr"o forma mai mult sau mai putin generoasa ! In .ha/espeare
libertatea traieste 2 o Bi , poate , o ora ? dar in Biua aceea , in ora aceea omul a fost liber si arbitru
al viitorului !
<upa cum din sistemul lui .ofocle , din care reiese ideea , pot deriva calitatiile caracteristice ale
dramei sale , din sistemul lui .ha/espeare , din care reies agentii , deriva multiplele necesitati ale
dramei pe cera criticii au numit"o romantica ! Hamlet is a tragedy by #illiam .ha/espeare,
believed to have been written between 1'55 and 1&;1! The play, set in <enmar/, recounts how
9rince 1amlet e7acts revenge on his uncle Ilaudius, who has murdered 1amlet-s father, the
Qing, and then ta/en the throne and married 1amlet-s mother! The play vividly charts the course
25
of real and feigned madness@from overwhelming grief to seething rage@and e7plores themes
of treachery, revenge, incest, and moral corruption!
<espite much literary detective wor/, the e7act year of writing remains in dispute! Three
different early versions of the play have survived2 these are /nown as the 6irst Vuarto $V1*, the
.econd Vuarto $V%* and the 6irst 6olio $61*! ach has lines, and even scenes, that are missing
from the others! .ha/espeare probably based Hamlet on the legend of Amleth, preserved by
1)th"century chronicler .a7o Grammaticus in his Gesta <anorum and subse>uently retold by
1&th"century scholar 6ranZois de 4elleforest, and a supposedly lost liBabethan play /nown
today as the :r-Hamlet!
Given the play-s dramatic structure and depth of characterisation, Hamlet can be
analyBed, interpreted and argued about from many perspectives! 6or e7ample, commentators
have puBBled for centuries about 1amlet-s hesitation in /illing his uncle! .ome see it as a plot
device to prolong the action, and others see it as the result of pressure e7erted by the comple7
philosophical and ethical issues that surround cold"blooded murder, calculated revenge and
thwarted desire! More recently, psychoanalytic critics have e7amined 1amlet-s unconscious
desires, and feminist critics have re"evaluated and rehabilitated the often maligned characters of
Cphelia and Gertrude!
Hamlet is .ha/espeare-s longest play, and among the most powerful and influential
tragedies in the nglish language! It provides a storyline capable of =seemingly endless retelling
and adaptation by others=!
+1,
<uring his lifetime the play was one of his most popular wor/s,
+%,
and it still ran/s high among his most"performed, topping, for e7ample, the 8oyal .ha/espeare
Iompany-s list since 1075!
+),
It has inspired writers from Goethe and <ic/ens to 3oyce and
Murdoch, and has been described as =the world-s most filmed story after Cinderella=!
+4,
The title
role was almost certainly created for 8ichard 4urbage, the leading tragedian of .ha/espeare-s
time?
+',
in the four hundred years since, it has been played by the greatest actors, and sometimes
actresses, of each successive age!
.ynopsis
The protagonist of Hamlet is 9rince 1amlet of <enmar/, son of the recently deceased
Qing 1amlet and the nephew of Qing Ilaudius, his father-s brother and successor! After the death
of Qing 1amlet, Ilaudius hastily marries Qing 1amlet-s widow, Gertrude, 1amlet-s mother! In
the bac/ground is <enmar/-s long"standing feud with neighbouring Aorway, and an invasion led
by the Aorwegian prince, 6ortinbras, is e7pected!
The play opens on a cold night at lsinore, the <anish royal castle! The sentinels try to
persuade 1amlet-s friend 1oratio that they have seen Qing 1amlet-s ghost, when it appears
again! After hearing from 1oratio of the Ghost-s appearance, 1amlet resolves to see the Ghost
26
himself! That night, the Ghost appears to 1amlet! 1e tells 1amlet that he is the spirit of his
father, and discloses that Ilaudius murdered Qing 1amlet by pouring poison in his ears! The
Ghost demands that 1amlet avenge him? 1amlet agrees and decides to fa/e madness to avert
suspicion! 1e is, however, uncertain of the Ghost-s reliability!
4usy with affairs of state, Ilaudius and Gertrude try to avert an invasion by 9rince
6ortinbras of Aorway! 9erturbed by 1amlet-s continuing deep mourning for his father and his
increasingly erratic behaviour, they send two student friends of his@8osencrantB and
Guildenstern@to discover the cause of 1amlet-s changed behaviour! 1amlet greets his friends
warmly, but >uic/ly discerns that they have turned against him!
9olonius is Ilaudius- trusted chief counsellor? his son, Laertes, is returning to 6rance, and
his daughter, Cphelia, is courted by 1amlet! Aeither 9olonius nor Laertes thin/s 1amlet is
serious about Cphelia, and they both warn her off! .hortly afterwards, Cphelia is alarmed by
1amlet-s strange behaviour and reports to her father that 1amlet rushed into her room but stared
at her and said nothing! 9olonius assumes that the =ecstasy of love= is responsible for 1amlet-s
madness, and he informs Ilaudius and Gertrude! Later, in the so"called Aunnery .cene, 1amlet
rants at Cphelia, and insists she go =to a nunnery!=
1amlet remains unconvinced that the Ghost has told him the truth, but the arrival of a
troupe of actors at lsinore presents him with a solution! 1e will stage a play, re"enacting his
father-s murder, and determine Ilaudius- guilt or innocence by studying his reaction! The court
assembles to watch the play? 1amlet provides a running commentary throughout! <uring the
play, Ilaudius abruptly rises and leaves the room, which 1amlet sees as proof of his uncle-s
guilt! Ilaudius, fearing for his life, banishes 1amlet to ngland on a prete7t, closely watched by
8osencrantB and Guildenstern, with a letter instructing that the bearer be /illed!
Gertrude summons 1amlet to her closet to demand an e7planation! Cn his way, 1amlet
passes Ilaudius in prayer but hesitates to /ill him, reasoning that death in prayer would send him
to heaven! In the bedchamber, a row erupts between 1amlet and Gertrude! 9olonius, spying
hidden behind an arras, ma/es a noise? and 1amlet, believing it is Ilaudius, stabs wildly, /illing
9olonius! The Ghost appears, urging 1amlet to treat Gertrude gently but reminding him to /ill
Ilaudius! :nable to see or hear the Ghost herself, Gertrude ta/es 1amlet-s conversation with it
as further evidence of madness! 1amlet hides 9olonius- corpse!
<emented by grief at 9olonius- death, Cphelia wanders lsinore singing bawdy songs!
1er brother, Laertes, arrives bac/ from 6rance, enraged by his father-s death and his sister-s
madness! Ilaudius convinces Laertes that 1amlet is solely responsible? then news arrives that
1amlet is still at large! Ilaudius swiftly concocts a plot! 1e proposes a fencing match between
Laertes and 1amlet in which Laertes will fight with a poison"tipped sword, but tacitly plans to
offer 1amlet poisoned wine if that fails! Gertrude interrupts to report that Cphelia has drowned!
27
Two gravediggers discuss Cphelia-s apparent suicide, while digging her grave! 1amlet
arrives with 1oratio and banters with a gravedigger, who unearths the s/ull of a Mester from
1amlet-s childhood, Woric/! Cphelia-s funeral procession approaches, led by Laertes! 1e and
1amlet grapple, but the brawl is bro/en up!
4ac/ at lsinore, 1amlet tells 1oratio how he escaped and that 8osencrantB and
Guildenstern have been sent to their deaths! A courtier, Csric, interrupts to invite 1amlet to fence
with Laertes! #ith 6ortinbras- army closing on lsinore, the match begins! Laertes pierces
1amlet with a poisoned blade but is fatally wounded by it himself! Gertrude drin/s the poisoned
wine and dies! In his dying moments, Laertes is reconciled with 1amlet and reveals Ilaudius-
murderous plot! In his own last moments, 1amlet manages to /ill Ilaudius and names 6ortinbras
as his heir! #hen 6ortinbras arrives, 1oratio recounts the tale and 6ortinbras orders 1amlet-s
body borne off in honour!
Hamlet"li/e legends are so widely found $for e7ample in Italy, .pain, .candinavia,
4yBantium, and Arabia* that the core =hero"as"fool= theme is possibly Indo"uropean in
origin! .everal ancient written sources for Hamlet can be identified! The first is the
anonymous .candinavian Saga o% Hrol% Kra*i! In this, the murdered /ing has two sons@
1roar and 1elgi@who spend most of the story in disguise, under false names, rather than
feigning madness, in a se>uence of events that differs from .ha/espeare-s! The second is the
8oman legend of 4rutus, recorded in two separate Latin wor/s! Its hero, Lucius $=shining,
light=*, changes his name and persona to 4rutus $=dull, stupid=*, playing the role of a fool to
avoid the fate of his father and brothers, and eventually slaying his family-s /iller, Qing
Tar>uinius! A 17th"century Aordic scholar, Torfaeus, compared the Icelandic hero Amlodi
and the .panish hero 9rince Ambales $from the Am;ales Saga* to .ha/espeare-s Hamlet!
.imilarities include the prince-s feigned madness, his accidental /illing of the /ing-s
counsellor in his mother-s bedroom, and the eventual slaying of his uncle!
Many of the earlier legendary elements are interwoven in the 1)th"century (ita
Amlethi $=The Life of Amleth=* by .a7o Grammaticus, part of <esta Danorum! #ritten in
Latin, it reflects classical 8oman concepts of virtue and heroism, and was widely available
in .ha/espeare-s day! .ignificant parallels include the prince feigning madness, his mother-s
hasty marriage to the usurper, the prince /illing a hidden spy, and the prince substituting the
e7ecution of two retainers for his own! A reasonably faithful version of .a7o-s story was
translated into 6rench in 1'7; by 6ranZois de 4elleforest, in his Histoires tragi9ues!
4elleforest embellished .a7o-s te7t substantially, almost doubling its length, and introduced
the hero-s melancholy!
.ha/espeare-s main source is believed to be an earlier play@now lost@/nown
today as the :r-Hamlet! 9ossibly written by Thomas Qyd, the :r-Hamlet was in
28
performance by 1'05 and is the first version of the story /nown to incorporate a ghost!
+1&,
.ha/espeare-s company, the Ihamberlain-s Men, may have purchased that play and
performed a version for some time, which .ha/espeare rewor/ed! .ince no copy of the :r-
Hamlet has survived, however, it is impossible to compare its language and style with the
/nown wor/s of any of its putative authors! Ionse>uently, there is no direct evidence that
Qyd wrote it, nor any evidence that the play was not an early version of Hamlet by
.ha/espeare himself! This latter idea@placing Hamlet far earlier than the generally
accepted date, with a much longer period of development@has attracted some support,
though others dismiss it as speculation!
The upshot is that scholars cannot assert with any confidence how much material
.ha/espeare too/ from the :r-Hamlet, how much from 4elleforest or .a7o, and how much
from other contemporary sources $such as Qyd-s !he S"anish !raged'*! Ao clear evidence
e7ists that .ha/espeare made any direct references to .a7o-s version! 1owever, elements of
4elleforest-s version do appear in .ha/espeare-s play, though they are not in .a7o-s story!
#hether .ha/espeare too/ these from 4elleforest directly or through the :r-Hamlet
remains unclear!
Most scholars reMect the idea that Hamlet is in any way connected with
.ha/espeare-s only son, 1amnet .ha/espeare, who died in 1'5& at age eleven! Ionventional
wisdom holds that Hamlet is too obviously connected to legend, and the name 1amnet was
>uite popular at the time! 1owever, .tephen Greenblatt has argued that the coincidence of
the names and .ha/espeare-s grief for the loss of his son may lie at the heart of the tragedy!
1e notes that the name of 1amnet .adler, the .tratford neighbor after whom 1amnet was
named, was often written as 1amlet .adler and that, in the loose orthography of the time,
the names were virtually interchangeable! .ha/espeare himself spelled .adler-s first name as
=1amlett= in his will!
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
%he Im#ssi/ili$. #) +e!$ain$.
#hat separates Hamlet from other revenge plays $and maybe from every play written before it*
is that the action we e7pect to see, particularly from 1amlet himself, is continually postponed
while 1amlet tries to obtain more certain /nowledge about what he is doing! This play poses
many >uestions that other plays would simply ta/e for granted! Ian we have certain /nowledge
about ghostsS Is the ghost what it appears to be, or is it really a misleading fiendS <oes the ghost
have reliable /nowledge about its own death, or is the ghost itself deludedS Moving to more
earthly matters2 1ow can we /now for certain the facts about a crime that has no witnessesS Ian
1amlet /now the state of IlaudiusPs soul by watching his behaviorS If so, can he /now the facts
of what Ilaudius did by observing the state of his soulS Ian Ilaudius $or the audience* /now the
state of 1amletPs mind by observing his behavior and listening to his speechS Ian we /now
29
whether our actions will have the conse>uences we want them to haveS Ian we /now anything
about the afterlifeS
Many people have seen Hamlet as a play about indecisiveness, and thus about 1amletPs failure to
act appropriately! It might be more interesting to consider that the play shows us how many
uncertainties our lives are built upon, how many un/nown >uantities are ta/en for granted when
people act or when they evaluate one anotherPs actions!
%he +#mle6i$. #) Ac$i#n
<irectly related to the theme of certainty is the theme of action! 1ow is it possible to ta/e
reasonable, effective, purposeful actionS In Hamlet& the >uestion of how to act is affected not
only by rational considerations, such as the need for certainty, but also by emotional, ethical, and
psychological factors! 1amlet himself appears to distrust the idea that itPs even possible to act in
a controlled, purposeful way! #hen he does act, he prefers to do it blindly, rec/lessly, and
violently! The other characters obviously thin/ much less about TactionL in the abstract than
1amlet does, and are therefore less troubled about the possibility of acting effectively! They
simply act as they feel is appropriate! 4ut in some sense they prove that 1amlet is right, because
all of their actions miscarry! Ilaudius possesses himself of >ueen and crown through bold action,
but his conscience torments him, and he is beset by threats to his authority $and, of course, he
dies*! Laertes resolves that nothing will distract him from acting out his revenge, but he is easily
influenced and manipulated into serving IlaudiusPs ends, and his poisoned rapier is turned bac/
upon himself!
%he M.s$e!. #) 1ea$h
In the aftermath of his fatherPs murder, 1amlet is obsessed with the idea of death, and over the
course of the play he considers death from a great many perspectives! 1e ponders both the
spiritual aftermath of death, embodied in the ghost, and the physical remainders of the dead, such
as by Woric/Ps s/ull and the decaying corpses in the cemetery! Throughout, the idea of death is
closely tied to the themes of spirituality, truth, and uncertainty in that death may bring the
answers to 1amletPs deepest >uestions, ending once and for all the problem of trying to
determine truth in an ambiguous world! And, since death is both the cause and the conse>uence
of revenge, it is intimately tied to the theme of revenge and Mustice@IlaudiusPs murder of Qing
1amlet initiates 1amletPs >uest for revenge, and IlaudiusPs death is the end of that >uest!
The >uestion of his own death plagues 1amlet as well, as he repeatedly contemplates whether or
not suicide is a morally legitimate action in an unbearably painful world! 1amletPs grief and
misery is such that he fre>uently longs for death to end his suffering, but he fears that if he
commits suicide, he will be consigned to eternal suffering in hell because of the Ihristian
religionPs prohibition of suicide! In his famous TTo be or not to beL solilo>uy $III!i*, 1amlet
philosophically concludes that no one would choose to endure the pain of life if he or she were
not afraid of what will come after death, and that it is this fear which causes comple7 moral
considerations to interfere with the capacity for action!
%he 7a$i#n as a 1isease- 8#-.
verything is connected in Hamlet& including the welfare of the royal family and the health of
the state as a whole! The playPs early scenes e7plore the sense of an7iety and dread that
surrounds the transfer of power from one ruler to the ne7t! Throughout the play, characters draw
e7plicit connections between the moral legitimacy of a ruler and the health of the nation!
<enmar/ is fre>uently described as a physical body made ill by the moral corruption of Ilaudius
and Gertrude, and many observers interpret the presence of the ghost as a supernatural omen
indicating that T+s,omething is rotten in the state of <enmar/L $I!iv!&7*! The dead Qing 1amlet is
30
portrayed as a strong, forthright ruler under whose guard the state was in good health, while
Ilaudius, a wic/ed politician, has corrupted and compromised <enmar/ to satisfy his own
appetites! At the end of the play, the rise to power of the upright 6ortinbras suggests that
<enmar/ will be strengthened once again!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and
inform the te7tPs maMor themes!
Inces$ an- Inces$'#'s 1esi!e
The motif of incest runs throughout the play and is fre>uently alluded to by 1amlet and the
ghost, most obviously in conversations about Gertrude and Ilaudius, the former brother"in"law
and sister"in"law who are now married! A subtle motif of incestuous desire can be found in the
relationship of Laertes and Cphelia, as Laertes sometimes spea/s to his sister in suggestively
se7ual terms and, at her funeral, leaps into her grave to hold her in his arms! 1owever, the
strongest overtones of incestuous desire arise in the relationship of 1amlet and Gertrude, in
1amletPs fi7ation on GertrudePs se7 life with Ilaudius and his preoccupation with her in general!
Mis#&.n.
.hattered by his motherPs decision to marry Ilaudius so soon after her husbandPs death, 1amlet
becomes cynical about women in general, showing a particular obsession with what he perceives
to be a connection between female se7uality and moral corruption! This motif of misogyny, or
hatred of women, occurs sporadically throughout the play, but it is an important inhibiting factor
in 1amletPs relationships with Cphelia and Gertrude! 1e urges Cphelia to go to a nunnery rather
than e7perience the corruptions of se7uality and e7claims of Gertrude, T6railty, thy name is
womanL $I!ii!14&*!
Ea!s an- Hea!in&
Cne facet of Hamlet#s e7ploration of the difficulty of attaining true /nowledge is slipperiness of
language! #ords are used to communicate ideas, but they can also be used to distort the truth,
manipulate other people, and serve as tools in corrupt >uests for power! Ilaudius, the shrewd
politician, is the most obvious e7ample of a man who manipulates words to enhance his own
power! The sinister uses of words are represented by images of ears and hearing, from IlaudiusPs
murder of the /ing by pouring poison into his ear to 1amletPs claim to 1oratio that TI have words
to spea/ in thine ear will ma/e thee dumbL $IF!vi!%1*! The poison poured in the /ingPs ear by
Ilaudius is used by the ghost to symboliBe the corrosive effect of IlaudiusPs dishonesty on the
health of <enmar/! <eclaring that the story that he was /illed by a sna/e is a lie, he says that
Tthe whole ear of <enmar/L is T8an/ly abused! ! ! !L $I!v!)&()0*!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
9#!ick:s Sk'll
In Hamlet& physical obMects are rarely used to represent thematic ideas! Cne important e7ception
is Woric/Ps s/ull, which 1amlet discovers in the graveyard in the first scene of Act F! As 1amlet
spea/s to the s/ull and about the s/ull of the /ingPs former Mester, he fi7ates on deathPs
inevitability and the disintegration of the body! 1e urges the s/ull to Tget you to my ladyPs
chamber, and tell her, let her paint an inch thic/, to this favor she must comeL@no one can avoid
death $F!i!170(175*! 1e traces the s/ullPs mouth and says, T1ere hung those lips that I have
/issed I /now not how oft,L indicating his fascination with the physical conse>uences of death
$F!i!174(17'*! This latter idea is an important motif throughout the play, as 1amlet fre>uently
31
ma/es comments referring to every human bodyPs eventual decay, noting that 9olonius will be
eaten by worms, that even /ings are eaten by worms, and that dust from the decayed body of
Ale7ander the Great might be used to stop a hole in a beer barrel!
A Midsummer Aight-s <ream
Ionte7t
O
The most influential writer in all of nglish literature, #illiam .ha/espeare was born in 1'&4 to
a successful middle"class glove"ma/er in .tratford"upon"Avon, ngland! .ha/espeare attended
grammar school, but his formal education proceeded no further! In 1'0% he married an older
woman, Anne 1athaway, and had three children with her! Around 1'5; he left his family behind
and traveled to London to wor/ as an actor and playwright! 9ublic and critical success >uic/ly
followed, and .ha/espeare eventually became the most popular playwright in ngland and part"
owner of the Globe Theater! 1is career bridged the reigns of liBabeth I $ruled 1''0(1&;)* and
3ames I $ruled 1&;)(1&%'*, and he was a favorite of both monarchs! Indeed, 3ames granted
.ha/espearePs company the greatest possible compliment by bestowing upon its members the
title of QingPs Men! #ealthy and renowned, .ha/espeare retired to .tratford and died in 1&1& at
the age of fifty"two! At the time of .ha/espearePs death, literary luminaries such as 4en 3onson
hailed his wor/s as timeless!
.ha/espearePs wor/s were collected and printed in various editions in the century following his
death, and by the early eighteenth century his reputation as the greatest poet ever to write in
nglish was well established! The unprecedented admiration garnered by his wor/s led to a
fierce curiosity about .ha/espearePs life, but the dearth of biographical information has left many
details of .ha/espearePs personal history shrouded in mystery! .ome people have concluded
from this fact that .ha/espearePs plays were really written by someone else@6rancis 4acon and
the arl of C7ford are the two most popular candidates@but the support for this claim is
overwhelmingly circumstantial, and the theory is not ta/en seriously by many scholars!
In the absence of credible evidence to the contrary, .ha/espeare must be viewed as the author of
the thirty"seven plays and 1'4 sonnets that bear his name! The legacy of this body of wor/ is
immense! A number of .ha/espearePs plays seem to have transcended even the category of
brilliance, becoming so influential as to profoundly affect the course of #estern literature and
culture ever after!
#ritten in the mid"1'5;s, probably shortly before .ha/espeare turned to Romeo and Juliet& A
Midsummer Night#s Dream is one of his strangest and most delightful creations, and it mar/s a
departure from his earlier wor/s and from others of the nglish 8enaissance! The play
demonstrates both the e7tent of .ha/espearePs learning and the e7pansiveness of his imagination!
The range of references in the play is among its most e7traordinary attributes2 .ha/espeare draws
on sources as various as Gree/ mythology $Theseus, for instance, is loosely based on the Gree/
hero of the same name, and the play is peppered with references to Gree/ gods and goddesses*?
nglish country fairy lore $the character of 9uc/, or 8obin Goodfellow, was a popular figure in
si7teenth"century stories*? and the theatrical practices of .ha/espearePs London $the craftsmenPs
play refers to and parodies many conventions of nglish 8enaissance theater, such as men
playing the roles of women*! 6urther, many of the characters are drawn from diverse te7ts2
Titania comes from CvidPs Metamor"hoses& and Cberon may have been ta/en from the medieval
romance Huan o% ,ordeau=& translated by Lord 4erners in the mid"1');s! :nli/e the plots of
many of .ha/espearePs plays, however, the story in A Midsummer Night#s Dream seems not to
32
have been drawn from any particular source but rather to be the original product of the
playwrightPs imagination
Theseu $ducele Atenei* anun E cE peste patru Bile va avea loc cEsEtoria sa cu 1ippolyta, regina
amaBoanelor2 l ia cuno tin E de plJngerea lui geu precum cE fiica sa, 1ermia, refuBE sE se
mErite cu pretendentul ales, <emetrius, fiindcE e DndrEgostitE de Lysander pe care geus nu"l
suferE! Theseu declarE cE 1ermia trebuie sE se mErite cu <emetrius sau sE aleagE Dntre a muri sau
a se cElugEri! Lysander o DndeamnE pe 1ermia sE fugE Dn pEdure cu el, ca apoi sE aMungE la casa
mEtu ii sale i sE se cEsEtoreascE! 9rietena 1ermiei, 1elena, aflE despre aceasta i se hotErE te sE"
l Dn tiin eBe pe <emetrius pe care"l place $ i cu care s"a iubit*! Totu i, <emetrius o iube te pe
1ermia! 1elena sperE sE se DntJlneascE cu to ii Dn pEdure! Hntre timp, Gutuie, 9opone , 6luiera ,
.lEbEnoguP, 4lJnduP i 4oti or pun la cale o repreBenta ie pe care sE o preBinte la nunta lui
Theseu!
Hn pEdure, Cberon $regele BJnelor* se ceartE cu Titania $regina BJnelor* pentru cE vrea sE"l aibE
ca paM pe copilul ei orfan! Titania se opune, sus inJnd cE ea e regina! Iearta vine de fapt deoarece
Cberon o iube te pe 1ippolyta, iar Titania pe Theseu! Ia sE ob inE bEiatul, Cberon Di ordonE
spiridu ului 9uc/ $cunoscut i ca 9i igoi"4Eiat"4un* sE ob inE de la Iupidon o floare care face o
persoanE sE se DndrEgosteascE de prima persoanE care"i iese Dn cale! Cberon plEnuie te sE"i dea
Titaniei floarea, astfel DncJt ea sE se DndrEgosteascE de altcineva i sE"i dea lui copilul! Apar
<emetrius i 1elena, 1elena urmErindu"l, iar <emetrius fugind de ea! .ose te 9uc/ cu floarea i
Cberon Di porunce te sE"l atingE pe <emetrius cu ea, astfel DncJt sE se DndrEgosteascE de 1elena
Dn loc de 1ermia! Apoi, Cberon o atinge pe Titania cu floarea! Hn pEdure, Lysander i 1ermia
stau culca i i se odihnesc! 9uc/, creBJnd cE Lysander este <emetrius, Dl atinge cu floarea! Apare
1elena care"l treBe te pe Lysander i acesta se DndrEgoste te imediat de ea!
Hn pEdure, trupa de actori discutE punerea Dn scenE a piesei lor! 9uc/ apare i"i transformE capul
lui 9opone Dntr"un cap de mEgar! Actorii fug, dar Titania se treBe te i se DndrEgoste te de
9opone , poruncindu"le BJnelor din sluMba ca sE"l serveascE pe 9opone ! 9uc/ observE cE
<emetrius o urmEre te pe 1ermia, cu toate cE aceasta Dl acuBE cE l"a omorJt pe Lysander i
astfel, 9uc/ D i dE seama cE i"a dat floarea omului nepotrivit! Cberon DncearcE sE repare acest
lucru, atingJndu"l pe Lysander cu floarea, Dn a a fel DncJt acesta sE se DndrEgosteascE de 1elena i
a a se i DntJmplE! HnsE acum amJndoi o iubesc pe 1elena, Dn timp ce aceasta crede cE amJndoi
sunt fal i! .ose te 1ermia i o acuBE pe 1elena cE pune la cale o ticElo ie cu cei doi bErba i,
pentru a o a J a! Cberon, dJndu" i seama cE 9uc/ a fEcut DncurcEtura, Di porunce te sE facE o
cea E deasE pentru a"i despEr i pe cei patru i sE"i cufunde Dntr"un somn adJnc, astfel DncJt
farmecul sE se destrame!
Cberon o treBe te pe Titania i"l transformE pe 9opone Dnapoi Dn om! Apoi, Cberon i Titania se
DmpacE i se iubesc din nou unul pe celElalt! Hn pEdure, Theseu, 1ippolyta i geu apar i"i
treBesc pe cei patru! <emetrius i Lysander le mErturisesc dragostea lor pentru 1elena i,
respectiv, 1ermia! Aobilii sunt de acord sE le permitE sE se cEsEtoreascE! 9opone se treBe te i" i
aminte te de DntJmplErile nop ii!
La cinE, cu to ii ascultE scurta piesE tragicE, plicticoasE, a lui Gutuie! Hn aceastE piesE, Thisby
$MucatE de 6luiera * i 9yramus $Mucat de 9opone * D i optesc dragostea printr"o crEpEturE dintr"
un Bid $Mucat de 4oti or*! Iei doi D i dau DntJlnire la mormJntul lui Ainny, dar un leu $Mucat de
4lJnduP* o atacE pe Thisby! Fine 9yramus care"i gEse te e arfa, bEnuie te cE a fost omorJtE i se
sinucide! .ose te Thisby care"l gEse te pe 9yramus mort i se sinucide i ea! <upE piesE, la
mieBul nop ii, toatE lumea merge la culcare, apoi apar BJnele i danseaBE!
33
A Midsummer Night's Dream is a romantic comedy by #illiam .ha/espeare, written
sometime in the 1'5;s! It portrays the adventures of four young Athenian lovers and a group of
amateur actors, their interactions with the <u/e and <uchess of Athens, Theseus and 1ippolyta,
and with the fairies who inhabit a moonlit forest! The play is one of .ha/espeare-s most popular
wor/s for the stage and is widely performed across the world!
.ources
It is not /nown e7actly when A Midsummer Night's Dream was written or first
performed, but, on the basis of topical references and an allusion to .penser-s E"ithalamion, it is
usually dated 1'5' or 1'5&! .ome have theorised that the play might have been written for an
aristocratic wedding $numerous such weddings too/ place in 1'5&*, while others suggest that it
was written for the Vueen to celebrate the feast day of .t! 3ohn! Ao concrete evidence e7ists to
support either theory! In any case, it would have been performed at The Theatre and, later, The
Globe in London!
.ome features of the plot and characters can be traced to elements of earlier
mythologically"based literature? for e7ample, the story of 9yramus and Thisbe is told in Cvid-s
Metamor"hoses and the transformation of 4ottom into an ass is descended from Apuleius- !he
<olden Ass! Lysander was also an ancient Gree/ warlord while Theseus and 1ippolyta were
respectively the <u/e of Athens and Vueen of the AmaBons! In addition, .ha/espeare could have
been wor/ing on Romeo and Juliet at about the same time that he wrote A Midsummer Night's
Dream, and it is possible to see 9yramus and Thisbe as a comic rewor/ing of the tragic play! A
further, seldom noted source is !he Knight's !ale in Ihaucer-s Ianterbury Tales!
.ynopsis
The play features three interloc/ing plots, connected by a celebration of the wedding of
<u/e Theseus of Athens and the AmaBonian >ueen 1ippolyta, and set simultaneously in the
woodland, and in the realm of 6airyland, under the light of the moon!
In the opening scene, 1ermia refuses to comply with her father geus-s wish for her to
marry his chosen man, <emetrius! In response, geus >uotes before Theseus an ancient Athenian
law whereby a daughter must marry the suitor chosen by her father, or else face death! Theseus
does not want this young girl to die, and offers her another choice, lifelong chastity worshipping
<iana as a nun! $The word -nun- in this sense is an anachronism!*
1ermia and her lover Lysander decide to elope by escaping through the forest at night!
1ermia informs her best friend 1elena, but 1elena has recently been reMected by <emetrius and
decides to win bac/ his favour by revealing the plan to him! <emetrius, followed doggedly by
1elena, chases 1ermia! 1ermia and Lysander, believing themselves safely out of reach, sleep in
the woods!
34
Meanwhile, Cberon, /ing of the fairies, and his >ueen, Titania, arrive in the forest outside
Athens! Titania tells Cberon that she plans to stay there until after she has attended Theseus and
1ippolyta-s wedding! Cberon and Titania are estranged because Titania refuses to give her Indian
changeling to Cberon for use as his =/night= or =henchman,= since the child-s mother was one of
Titania-s worshippers! Cberon see/s to punish Titania-s disobedience and recruits the
mischievous 9uc/ $also called 1obgoblin and 8obin Goodfellow* to help him apply a magical
Muice from a flower called =love"in"idleness= $a!/!a! pansy*, which ma/es the victim fall in love
with the first living thing seen upon awa/ening! 1e instructs 9uc/ to retrieve the flower so that
he can ma/e Titania fall in love with some vile creature of the forest! Cberon applies the Muice to
Titania in order to distract her and force her to give up the page"boy!
1aving seen <emetrius act cruelly toward 1elena, Cberon orders 9uc/ to spread some of
the eli7ir on the eyelids of the young Athenian man! Instead, 9uc/ accidentally puts the Muice on
the eyes of Lysander, who then falls in love with 1elena! Cberon sees <emetrius still following
1ermia and is enraged! #hen <emetrius decides to go to sleep, Cberon sends 9uc/ to get 1elena
while he charms <emetrius- eyes! <ue to 9uc/-s errors, both lovers now fight over 1elena
instead of 1ermia! 1elena, however, is convinced that her two suitors are moc/ing her, as neither
loved her originally! The four pursue and >uarrel with each other most of the night, until they
become so enraged that they see/ a place to duel each other to the death to settle the >uarrel!
Cberon orders 9uc/ to /eep the lovers from catching up with one another in the forest and to re"
charm Lysander for 1ermia, to prevent them all from /illing each other!
Meanwhile, a band of lower"class labourers $=rude mechanicals=, as they are famously
described by 9uc/* have arranged to perform a crude play about 9yramus and Thisbe for
Theseus- wedding, and venture into the forest, near Titania-s bower, for their rehearsal! Aic/
4ottom, a stage"struc/ weaver, is spotted by 9uc/, who transforms his head into that of an ass
$don/ey*! Titania is awa/ened by 4ottom-s singing and immediately falls in love with him! .he
treats him li/e a nobleman and lavishes him with attention! #hile in this state of devotion, she
encounters Cberon and casually gives him the Indian boy! 1aving achieved his goals, Cberon
releases Titania and orders 9uc/ to remove the ass-s head from 4ottom! The magical
enchantment is removed from Lysander but is allowed to remain on <emetrius, so that he may
reciprocate 1elena-s love!
The fairies then disappear, and Theseus and 1ippolyta arrive on the scene, during an
early morning hunt! They wa/e the lovers and, since <emetrius doesn-t love 1ermia anymore,
Theseus over"rules geus-s demands and arranges a group wedding! The lovers decide that the
night-s events must have been a dream! After they all e7it, 4ottom awa/es, and he too decides
that he must have e7perienced a dream =past the wit of man!= In Athens, Theseus, 1ippolyta and
the lovers watch the mechanicals perform =9yramus and Thisbe!= It is ridiculous and badly
35
performed but gives everyone pleasure regardless, and afterward everyone retires to bed! 6inally,
as night falls, Cberon and Titania bless the house, its occupants, and the future children of the
newlyweds, and 9uc/ delivers a solilo>uy to the audience!
Iharacters
The men and women in the play of high social class2
Lysander, beloved of 1ermia
1ermia, beloved of Lysander, engaged to <emetrius
1elena, in love with <emetrius
<emetrius, in love with 1ermia but then falls in love with 1elena later on!
ngaged to 1ermia
geus, father of 1ermia, wants to force 1ermia to wed <emetrius
Theseus, <u/e of Athens, good friend of geus
1ippolyta, Vueen of the AmaBons and betrothed of Theseus
The lower"class citiBens in the play2
9hilostrate, Master of the 8evels for Theseus
The acting troupe $otherwise /nown as The Mechanicals*2
9eter Vuince, carpenter, who leads the troupe
Aic/ 4ottom, weaver? he plays 9yramus in the troupe-s production of
=9yramus and Thisbe,= and gets a don/ey head put on him by 9uc/ so that Titania
will magically fall in love with a monster!
6rancis 6lute, the bellows"mender who plays Thisbe!
8obin .tarveling, the tailor who plays Moonshine!
Tom .nout, the tin/er who plays the wall!
.nug, the Moiner who plays the lion!
The supernatural characters2
9uc/, a!/!a! 1obgoblin or 8obin Goodfellow? a faun, servant to Cberon
Cberon, Qing of 6airies
Titania, Vueen of 6airies
Titania-s fairy servants $her =train=*2
6irst 6airy
9easeblossom, fairy
Iobweb, fairy
Moth $sometimes rendered as -Mote-* fairy
Mustardseed, fairy
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
36
L#*e:s 1i))ic'l$.
TThe course of true love never did run smooth,L comments Lysander, articulating one of A
Midsummer Night#s DreamPs most important themes@that of the difficulty of love $I!i!1)4*!
Though most of the conflict in the play stems from the troubles of romance, and though the play
involves a number of romantic elements, it is not truly a love story? it distances the audience
from the emotions of the characters in order to po/e fun at the torments and afflictions that those
in love suffer! The tone of the play is so lighthearted that the audience never doubts that things
will end happily, and it is therefore free to enMoy the comedy without being caught up in the
tension of an uncertain outcome!
The theme of lovePs difficulty is often e7plored through the motif of love out of balance@that is,
romantic situations in which a disparity or ine>uality interferes with the harmony of a
relationship! The prime instance of this imbalance is the asymmetrical love among the four
young Athenians2 1ermia loves Lysander, Lysander loves 1ermia, 1elena loves <emetrius, and
<emetrius loves 1ermia instead of 1elena@a simple numeric imbalance in which two men love
the same woman, leaving one woman with too many suitors and one with too few! The play has
strong potential for a traditional outcome, and the plot is in many ways based on a >uest for
internal balance? that is, when the loversP tangle resolves itself into symmetrical pairings, the
traditional happy ending will have been achieved! .omewhat similarly, in the relationship
between Titania and Cberon, an imbalance arises out of the fact that CberonPs coveting of
TitaniaPs Indian boy outweighs his love for her! Later, TitaniaPs passion for the ass"headed
4ottom represents an imbalance of appearance and nature2 Titania is beautiful and graceful,
while 4ottom is clumsy and grotes>ue!
Ma&ic
The fairiesP magic, which brings about many of the most biBarre and hilarious situations in the
play, is another element central to the fantastic atmosphere of A Midsummer Night#s Dream!
.ha/espeare uses magic both to embody the almost supernatural power of love $symboliBed by
the love potion* and to create a surreal world! Although the misuse of magic causes chaos, as
when 9uc/ mista/enly applies the love potion to LysanderPs eyelids, magic ultimately resolves
the playPs tensions by restoring love to balance among the >uartet of Athenian youths!
Additionally, the ease with which 9uc/ uses magic to his own ends, as when he reshapes
4ottomPs head into that of an ass and recreates the voices of Lysander and <emetrius, stands in
contrast to the laboriousness and gracelessness of the craftsmenPs attempt to stage their play!
1!eams
As the title suggests, dreams are an important theme in A Midsummer Night#s Dream> they are
lin/ed to the biBarre, magical mishaps in the forest! 1ippolytaPs first words in the play evidence
the prevalence of dreams $T6our days will >uic/ly steep themselves in night, N 6our nights will
>uic/ly dream away the timeL*, and various characters mention dreams throughout $I!i!7(0*! The
theme of dreaming recurs predominantly when characters attempt to e7plain biBarre events in
which these characters are involved2 TI have had a dream, past the wit of man to say what N
dream it was! Man is but an ass if he go about tPe7pound this dream,L 4ottom says, unable to
fathom the magical happenings that have affected him as anything but the result of slumber!
.ha/espeare is also interested in the actual wor/ings of dreams, in how events occur without
e7planation, time loses its normal sense of flow, and the impossible occurs as a matter of course?
he see/s to recreate this environment in the play through the intervention of the fairies in the
magical forest! At the end of the play, 9uc/ e7tends the idea of dreams to the audience members
themselves, saying that, if they have been offended by the play, they should remember it as
37
nothing more than a dream! This sense of illusion and gauBy fragility is crucial to the atmosphere
of A Midsummer Night#s Dream& as it helps render the play a fantastical e7perience rather than a
heavy drama!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and
inform the te7tPs maMor themes!
+#n$!as$
The idea of contrast is the basic building bloc/ of A Midsummer Night#s Dream! The entire play
is constructed around groups of opposites and doubles! Aearly every characteristic presented in
the play has an opposite2 1elena is tall, 1ermia is short? 9uc/ plays pran/s, 4ottom is the victim
of pran/s? Titania is beautiful, 4ottom is grotes>ue! 6urther, the three main groups of characters
$who are developed from sources as varied as Gree/ mythology, nglish fol/lore, and classical
literature* are designed to contrast powerfully with one another2 the fairies are graceful and
magical, while the craftsmen are clumsy and earthy? the craftsmen are merry, while the lovers are
overly serious! Iontrast serves as the defining visual characteristic of A Midsummer Night#s
Dream& with the playPs most indelible image being that of the beautiful, delicate Titania weaving
flowers into the hair of the ass"headed 4ottom! It seems impossible to imagine two figures less
compatible with each other! The Mu7taposition of e7traordinary differences is the most important
characteristic of the playPs surreal atmosphere and is thus perhaps the playPs central motif? there
is no scene in which e7traordinary contrast is not present!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
%hese's an- Hi#l.$a
Theseus and 1ippolyta boo/end A Midsummer Night#s Dream& appearing in the daylight at both
the beginning and the end of the playPs main action! They disappear, however, for the duration of
the action, leaving in the middle of Act I, scene i and not reappearing until Act IF, as the sun is
coming up to end the magical night in the forest! .ha/espeare uses Theseus and 1ippolyta, the
ruler of Athens and his warrior bride, to represent order and stability, to contrast with the
uncertainty, instability, and dar/ness of most of the play! #hereas an important element of the
dream realm is that one is not in control of onePs environment, Theseus and 1ippolyta are always
entirely in control of theirs! Their reappearance in the daylight of Act IF to hear TheseusPs
hounds signifies the end of the dream state of the previous night and a return to rationality!
%he L#*e P#$i#n
The love potion is made from the Muice of a flower that was struc/ with one of IupidPs misfired
arrows? it is used by the fairies to wrea/ romantic havoc throughout Acts II, III, and IF! 4ecause
the meddling fairies are careless with the love potion, the situation of the young Athenian lovers
becomes increasingly chaotic and confusing $<emetrius and Lysander are magically compelled
to transfer their love from 1ermia to 1elena*, and Titania is hilariously humiliated $she is
magically compelled to fall deeply in love with the ass"headed 4ottom*! The love potion thus
becomes a symbol of the unreasoning, fic/le, erratic, and undeniably powerful nature of love,
which can lead to ine7plicable and biBarre behavior and cannot be resisted!
%he +!a)$smen:s Pla.
The play"within"a"play that ta/es up most of Act F, scene i is used to represent, in condensed
form, many of the important ideas and themes of the main plot! 4ecause the craftsmen are such
bumbling actors, their performance satiriBes the melodramatic Athenian lovers and gives the play
38
a purely Moyful, comedic ending! 9yramus and Thisbe face parental disapproval in the play"
within"a"play, Must as 1ermia and Lysander do? the theme of romantic confusion enhanced by the
dar/ness of night is rehashed, as 9yramus mista/enly believes that Thisbe has been /illed by the
lion, Must as the Athenian lovers e7perience intense misery because of the mi7"ups caused by the
fairiesP meddling! The craftsmenPs play is, therefore, a /ind of symbol for A Midsummer Night#s
Dream itself2 a story involving powerful emotions that is made hilarious by its comical
presentation!
Shakesea!e:s S#nne$s
William Shakesea!e
[
Ionte7t
O
Li)e an- %imes #) William Shakesea!e
Li/ely the most influential writer in all of nglish literature and certainly the most important
playwright of the nglish 8enaissance, #illiam .ha/espeare was born in 1'&4 in the town of
.tratford"upon"Avon in #arwic/shire, ngland! The son of a successful middle"class glove"
ma/er, .ha/espeare attended grammar school, but his formal education proceeded no further! In
1'0%, he married an older woman, Anne 1athaway, and had three children with her! Around
1'5; he left his family behind and traveled to London to wor/ as an actor and playwright! 9ublic
and critical success >uic/ly followed, and .ha/espeare eventually became the most popular
playwright in ngland and part owner of the Globe Theater! 1is career bridged the reigns of
liBabeth I $ruled 1''0"1&;)* and 3ames I $ruled 1&;)"1&%'*? he was a favorite of both
monarchs! Indeed, 3ames granted .ha/espearePs company the greatest possible compliment by
endowing them with the status of /ingPs players! #ealthy and renowned, .ha/espeare retired to
.tratford, and died in 1&1& at the age of fifty"two! At the time of .ha/espearePs death, such
luminaries as 4en 3onson hailed him as the apogee of 8enaissance theatre!
.ha/espearePs wor/s were collected and printed in various editions in the century following his
death, and by the early eighteenth century his reputation as the greatest poet ever to write in
nglish was well established! The unprecedented admiration garnered by his wor/s led to a
fierce curiosity about .ha/espearePs life? but the paucity of surviving biographical information
has left many details of .ha/espearePs personal history shrouded in mystery! .ome people have
concluded from this fact that .ha/espearePs plays in reality were written by someone else@
6rancis 4acon and the arl of C7ford are the two most popular candidates@but the evidence for
this claim is overwhelmingly circumstantial, and the theory is not ta/en seriously by many
scholars!
In the absence of definitive proof to the contrary, .ha/espeare must be viewed as the author of
the )7 plays and 1'4 sonnets that bear his name! The legacy of this body of wor/ is immense! A
number of .ha/espearePs plays seem to have transcended even the category of brilliance,
becoming so influential as to affect profoundly the course of #estern literature and culture ever
after!
%he S#nne$s
.ha/espearePs sonnets are very different from .ha/espearePs plays, but they do contain dramatic
elements and an overall sense of story! ach of the poems deals with a highly personal theme,
and each can be ta/en on its own or in relation to the poems around it! The sonnets have the feel
of autobiographical poems, but we donPt /now whether they deal with real events or not, because
no one /nows enough about .ha/espearePs life to say whether or not they deal with real events
39
and feelings, so we tend to refer to the voice of the sonnets as Tthe spea/erL@as though he were
a dramatic creation li/e 1amlet or Qing Lear!
There are certainly a number of intriguing continuities throughout the poems! The first 1%& of the
sonnets seem to be addressed to an unnamed young nobleman, whom the spea/er loves very
much? the rest of the poems $e7cept for the last two, which seem generally unconnected to the
rest of the se>uence* seem to be addressed to a mysterious woman, whom the spea/er loves,
hates, and lusts for simultaneously! The two addressees of the sonnets are usually referred to as
the Tyoung manL and the Tdar/ ladyL? in summaries of individual poems, I have also called the
young man the TbelovedL and the dar/ lady the Tlover,L especially in cases where their identity
can only be surmised! #ithin the two mini"se>uences, there are a number of other discernible
elements of TplotL2 the spea/er urges the young man to have children? he is forced to endure a
separation from him? he competes with a rival poet for the young manPs patronage and affection!
At two points in the se>uence, it seems that the young man and the dar/ lady are actually lovers
themselves@a state of affairs with which the spea/er is none too happy! 4ut while these
continuities give the poems a narrative flow and a helpful frame of reference, they have been
frustratingly hard for scholars and biographers to pin down! In .ha/espearePs life, who were the
young man and the dar/ ladyS
His$#!ical M.s$e!ies
Cf all the >uestions surrounding .ha/espearePs life, the sonnets are perhaps the most intriguing!
At the time of their publication in 1&;5 $after having been written most li/ely in the 1'5;s and
shown only to a small circle of literary admirers*, they were dedicated to a TMr! #!1,L who is
described as the Tonlie begetterL of the poems! Li/e those of the young man and the dar/ lady,
the identity of this Mr! #!1! remains an alluring mystery! 4ecause he is described as TbegettingL
the sonnets, and because the young man seems to be the spea/erPs financial patron, some people
have speculated that the young man is Mr! #!1! If his initials were reversed, he might even be
1enry #riothesley, the arl of .outhampton, who has often been lin/ed to .ha/espeare in
theories of his history! 4ut all of this is simply speculation2 ultimately, the circumstances
surrounding the sonnets, their cast of characters and their relations to .ha/espeare himself, are
destined to remain a mystery!
Shakesea!e:s S#nne$s
William Shakesea!e
[
Themes, Motifs \ .ymbols
O
%hemes
1i))e!en$ %.es #) R#man$ic L#*e
Modern readers associate the sonnet form with romantic love and with good reason2 the first
sonnets written in thirteenth" and fourteenth"century Italy celebrated the poetsP feelings for their
beloveds and their patrons! These sonnets were addressed to styliBed, lioniBed women and
dedicated to wealthy noblemen, who supported poets with money and other gifts, usually in
return for lofty praise in print! .ha/espeare dedicated his sonnets to TMr! #! 1!,L and the identity
of this man remains un/nown! 1e dedicated an earlier set of poems, (enus and Adonis and Ra"e
o% Lu$re$e, to 1enry #riothesly, earl of .outhampton, but itPs not /nown what #riothesly gave
him for this honor! In contrast to tradition, .ha/espeare addressed most of his sonnets to an
unnamed young man, possibly #riothesly! Addressing sonnets to a young man was uni>ue in
liBabethan ngland! 6urthermore, .ha/espeare used his sonnets to e7plore different types of
40
love between the young man and the spea/er, the young man and the dar/ lady, and the dar/ lady
and the spea/er! In his se>uence, the spea/er e7presses passionate concern for the young man,
praises his beauty, and articulates what we would now call homose7ual desire! The woman of
.ha/espearePs sonnets, the so"called dar/ lady, is earthy, se7ual, and faithless@characteristics in
direct opposition to lovers described in other sonnet se>uences, including Astro"hil and Stella,
by .ir 9hilip .idney, a contemporary of .ha/espeare, who were praised for their angelic
demeanor, virginity, and steadfastness! .everal sonnets also probe the nature of love, comparing
the idealiBed love found in poems with the messy, complicated love found in real life!
%he 1an&e!s #) L's$ an- L#*e
In .ha/espearePs sonnets, falling in love can have painful emotional and physical conse>uences!
.onnets 1%7(1'%, addressed to the so"called dar/ lady, e7press a more overtly erotic and
physical love than the sonnets addressed to the young man! 4ut many sonnets warn readers about
the dangers of lust and love! According to some poems, lust causes us to mista/e se7ual desire
for true love, and love itself causes us to lose our powers of perception! .everal sonnets warn
about the dangers of lust, claiming that it turns humans Tsavage, e7treme, rude, cruelL $4*, as in
.onnet 1%5! The final two sonnets of .ha/espearePs se>uence obli>uely imply that lust leads to
venereal disease! According to the conventions of romance, the se7ual act, or Tma/ing love,L
e7presses the deep feeling between two people! In his sonnets, however, .ha/espeare portrays
ma/ing love not as a romantic e7pression of sentiment but as a base physical need with the
potential for horrible conse>uences!
.everal sonnets e>uate being in love with being in a pitiful state2 as demonstrated by the poems,
love causes fear, alienation, despair, and physical discomfort, not the pleasant emotions or
euphoria we usually associate with romantic feelings! The spea/er alternates between professing
great love and professing great worry as he speculates about the young manPs misbehavior and
the dar/ ladyPs multiple se7ual partners! As the young man and the dar/ lady begin an affair, the
spea/er imagines himself caught in a love triangle, mourning the loss of his friendship with the
man and love with the woman, and he laments having fallen in love with the woman in the first
place! In .onnet 1)7, the spea/er personifies love, calls him a simpleton, and criticiBes him for
removing his powers of perception! It was love that caused the spea/er to ma/e mista/es and
poor Mudgments! lsewhere the spea/er calls love a disease as a way of demonstrating the
physical pain of emotional wounds! Throughout his sonnets, .ha/espeare clearly implies that
love hurts! Wet despite the emotional and physical pain, li/e the spea/er, we continue falling in
love! .ha/espeare shows that falling in love is an inescapable aspect of the human condition@
indeed, e7pressing love is part of what ma/es us human!
Real 8ea'$. *s. +lich;- 8ea'$.
To e7press the depth of their feelings, poets fre>uently employ hyperbolic terms to describe the
obMects of their affections! Traditionally, sonnets transform women into the most glorious
creatures to wal/ the earth, whereas patrons become the noblest and bravest men the world has
ever /nown! .ha/espeare ma/es fun of the convention by contrasting an idealiBed woman with a
real woman! In .onnet 1);, .ha/espeare directly engages@and s/ewers@clichRd concepts of
beauty! The spea/er e7plains that his lover, the dar/ lady, has wires for hair, bad breath, dull
cleavage, a heavy step, and pale lips! 1e concludes by saying that he loves her all the more
precisely because he loves her and not some idealiBed, false version! 8eal love, the sonnet
implies, begins when we accept our lovers for what they are as well as what they are not! Cther
sonnets e7plain that because anyone can use artful means to ma/e himself or herself more
41
attractive, no one is really beautiful anymore! Thus, since anyone can become beautiful, calling
someone beautiful is no longer much of a compliment!
%he Res#nsi/ili$ies #) 8ein& 8ea'$i)'l
.ha/espeare portrays beauty as conveying a great responsibility in the sonnets addressed to the
young man, .onnets 1(1%&! 1ere the spea/er urges the young man to ma/e his beauty immortal
by having children, a theme that appears repeatedly throughout the poems2 as an attractive
person, the young man has a responsibility to procreate! Later sonnets demonstrate the spea/er,
angry at being cuc/olded, lashing out at the young man and accusing him of using his beauty to
hide immoral acts! .onnet 5' compares the young manPs behavior to a Tcan/er in the fragrant
roseL $%* or a rotten spot on an otherwise beautiful flower! In other words, the young manPs
beauty allows him to get away with bad behavior, but this bad behavior will eventually distort his
beauty, much li/e a rotten spot eventually spreads! Aature gave the young man a beautiful face,
but it is the young manPs responsibility to ma/e sure that his soul is worthy of such a visage!
M#$i)s
A!$ *s. %ime
.ha/espeare, li/e many sonneteers, portrays time as an enemy of love! Time destroys love
because time causes beauty to fade, people to age, and life to end! Cne common convention of
sonnets in general is to flatter either a beloved or a patron by promising immortality through
verse! As long as readers read the poem, the obMect of the poemPs love will remain alive! In
.ha/espearePs .onnet 1', the spea/er tal/s of being Tin war with timeL $1)*2 time causes the
young manPs beauty to fade, but the spea/erPs verse shall entomb the young man and /eep him
beautiful! The spea/er begins by pleading with time in another sonnet, yet he ends by taunting
time, confidently asserting that his verse will counteract timePs ravages! 6rom our contemporary
vantage point, the spea/er was correct, and art has beaten time2 the young man remains young
since we continue to read of his youth in .ha/espearePs sonnets!
Through art, nature and beauty overcome time! .everal sonnets use the seasons to symboliBe the
passage of time and to show that everything in nature@from plants to people@is mortal! 4ut
nature creates beauty, which poets capture and render immortal in their verse! .onnet 1;&
portrays the spea/er reading poems from the past and recogniBing his belovedPs beauty portrayed
therein! The spea/er then suggests that these earlier poets were prophesiBing the future beauty of
the young man by describing the beauty of their contemporaries! In other words, past poets
described the beautiful people of their day and, li/e .ha/espearePs spea/er, perhaps urged these
beautiful people to procreate and so on, through the poetic ages, until the birth of the young man
portrayed in .ha/espearePs sonnets! In this way@that is, as beautiful people of one generation
produce more beautiful people in the subse>uent generation and as all this beauty is written
about by poets@nature, art, and beauty triumph over time!
S$#in& $he Ma!ch %#3a!- 1ea$h
Growing older and dying are inescapable aspects of the human condition, but .ha/espearePs
sonnets give suggestions for halting the progress toward death! .ha/espearePs spea/er spends a
lot of time trying to convince the young man to cheat death by having children! In .onnets 1(17,
the spea/er argues that the young man is too beautiful to die without leaving behind his replica,
and the idea that the young man has a duty to procreate becomes the dominant motif of the first
several sonnets! In .onnet ), the spea/er continues his urgent prodding and concludes, T<ie
single and thine image dies with theeL $14*! The spea/erPs words arenPt Must the flirtatious
ramblings of a smitten man2 liBabethan ngland was rife with disease, and early death was
42
common! 9roducing children guaranteed the continuation of the species! Therefore, falling in
love has a social benefit, a benefit indirectly stressed by .ha/espearePs sonnets! #e might die,
but our children@and the human race@shall live on!
%he Si&ni)icance #) Si&h$
.ha/espeare used images of eyes throughout the sonnets to emphasiBe other themes and motifs,
including children as an antidote to death, artPs struggle to overcome time, and the painfulness of
love! 6or instance, in several poems, the spea/er urges the young man to admire himself in the
mirror! Aoticing and admiring his own beauty, the spea/er argues, will encourage the young man
to father a child! Cther sonnets lin/ writing and painting with sight2 in .onnet %4, the spea/erPs
eye becomes a pen or paintbrush that captures the young manPs beauty and imprints it on the
blan/ page of the spea/erPs heart! 4ut our loving eyes can also distort our sight, causing us to
misperceive reality! In the sonnets addressed to the dar/ lady, the spea/er criticiBes his eyes for
causing him to fall in love with a beautiful but duplicitous woman! :ltimately, .ha/espeare uses
eyes to act as a warning2 while our eyes allow us to perceive beauty, they sometimes get so
captivated by beauty that they cause us to misMudge character and other attributes not visible to
the na/ed eye!
8eadersP eyes are as significant in the sonnets as the spea/erPs eyes! .ha/espeare encourages his
readers to see by providing vivid visual descriptions! Cne sonnet compares the young manPs
beauty to the glory of the rising sun, while another uses the image of clouds obscuring the sun as
a metaphor for the young manPs faithlessness and still another contrasts the beauty of a rose with
one rotten spot to warn the young man to cease his sinning ways! Cther poems describe bare
trees to symboliBe aging! The sonnets devoted to the dar/ lady emphasiBe her coloring, noting in
particular her blac/ eyes and hair, and .onnet 1); describes her by noting all the colors she does
not possess! .tressing the visual helps .ha/espeare to heighten our e7perience of the poems by
giving us the precise tools with which to imagine the metaphors, similes, and descriptions
contained therein!
S.m/#ls
(l#3e!s an- %!ees
6lowers and trees appear throughout the sonnets to illustrate the passage of time, the transience
of life, the aging process, and beauty! 8ich, lush foliage symboliBes youth, whereas barren trees
symboliBe old age and death, often in the same poem, as in .onnet 1%! Traditionally, roses
signify romantic love, a symbol .ha/espeare employs in the sonnets, discussing their
attractiveness and fragrance in relation to the young man! .ometimes .ha/espeare compares
flowers and weeds to contrast beauty and ugliness! In these comparisons, marred, rotten flowers
are worse than weeds@that is, beauty that turns rotten from bad character is worse than initial
ugliness! Giddy with love, elsewhere the spea/er compares blooming flowers to the beauty of the
young man, concluding in .onnets 50 and 55 that flowers received their bloom and smell from
him! The sheer ridiculousness of this statement@flowers smell sweet for chemical and biological
reasons@underscores the hyperbole and e7aggeration that plague typical sonnets!
S$a!s
.ha/espeare uses stars to stand in for fate, a common poetic $!#e, but also to e7plore the nature
of free will! Many sonneteers resort to employing fate, symboliBed by the stars, to prove that
their love is permanent and predestined! In contrast, .ha/espearePs spea/er claims that he relies
on his eyes, rather than on the hands of fate, to ma/e decisions! :sing his eyes, the spea/er
TreadsL that the young manPs good fortune and beauty shall pass to his children, should he have
them! <uring .ha/espearePs time, people generally believed in astrology, even as scholars were
43
ma/ing great gains in astronomy and cosmology, a metaphysical system for ordering the
universe! According to liBabethan astrology, a cosmic order determined the place of everything
in the universe, from planets and stars to people! Although humans had some free will, the
heavenly spheres, with the help of God, predetermined fate! In .ha/espearePs .onnet %', the
spea/er ac/nowledges that he has been unluc/y in the stars but luc/y in love, thereby removing
his happiness from the heavenly bodies and transposing it onto the human body of his beloved!
Wea$he! an- $he Seas#ns
.ha/espeare employed the a$he$ic )allac., or the attribution of human characteristics or
emotions to elements in nature or inanimate obMects, throughout his plays! In the sonnets, the
spea/er fre>uently employs the pathetic fallacy, associating his absence from the young man to
the freeBing days of <ecember and the promise of their reunion to a pregnant spring! #eather
and the seasons also stand in for human emotions2 the spea/er conveys his sense of foreboding
about death by li/ening himself to autumn, a time in which naturePs obMects begin to decay and
ready themselves for winter, or death! .imilarly, despite the arrival of Tproud"pied AprilL $%* in
.onnet 50, the spea/er still feels as if it were winter because he and the young man are apart! The
spea/er in .onnet 10, one of .ha/espearePs most famous poems, begins by rhetorically as/ing
the young man, T.hall I compare thee to a summerPs daySL $1*! 1e spends the remainder of the
poem e7plaining the multiple ways in which the young man is superior to a summer day,
ultimately concluding that while summer ends, the young manPs beauty lives on in the
permanence of poetry!
.onnet 10
O
.hall I compare thee to a summerPs dayS
Thou art more lovely and more temperate2
8ough winds do sha/e the darling buds of May,
And summerPs lease hath all too short a date2
.ometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
And often is his gold comple7ion dimmPd?
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
4y chance or naturePs changing course untrimmPd?
4ut thy eternal summer shall not fade
Aor lose possession of that fair thou owest?
Aor shall <eath brag thou wanderPst in his shade,
#hen in eternal lines to time thou growest2
.o long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
.o long lives this, and this gives life to thee!
S'mma!.
The spea/er opens the poem with a >uestion addressed to the beloved2 T.hall I compare thee to a
summerPs daySL The ne7t eleven lines are devoted to such a comparison! In line %, the spea/er
stipulates what mainly differentiates the young man from the summerPs day2 he is Tmore lovely
and more temperate!L .ummerPs days tend toward e7tremes2 they are sha/en by Trough windsL?
in them, the sun $Tthe eye of heavenL* often shines Ttoo hot,L or too dim! And summer is
fleeting2 its date is too short, and it leads to the withering of autumn, as Tevery fair from fair
sometime declines!L The final >uatrain of the sonnet tells how the beloved differs from the
44
summer in that respect2 his beauty will last forever $TThy eternal summer shall not fade!!!L* and
never die! In the couplet, the spea/er e7plains how the belovedPs beauty will accomplish this
feat, and not perish because it is preserved in the poem, which will last forever? it will live Tas
long as men can breathe or eyes can see!L
+#mmen$a!.
This sonnet is certainly the most famous in the se>uence of .ha/espearePs sonnets? it may be the
most famous lyric poem in nglish! Among .ha/espearePs wor/s, only lines such as TTo be or
not to beL and T8omeo, 8omeo, wherefore art thou 8omeoSL are better"/nown! This is not to say
that it is at all the best or most interesting or most beautiful of the sonnets? but the simplicity and
loveliness of its praise of the beloved has guaranteed its place!
Cn the surface, the poem is simply a statement of praise about the beauty of the beloved? summer
tends to unpleasant e7tremes of windiness and heat, but the beloved is always mild and
temperate! .ummer is incidentally personified as the Teye of heavenL with its Tgold
comple7ionL? the imagery throughout is simple and unaffected, with the Tdarling buds of MayL
giving way to the Teternal summerL, which the spea/er promises the beloved! The language, too,
is comparatively unadorned for the sonnets? it is not heavy with alliteration or assonance, and
nearly every line is its own self"contained clause@almost every line ends with some
punctuation, which effects a pause!
.onnet 10 is the first poem in the sonnets not to e7plicitly encourage the young man to have
children! The TprocreationL se>uence of the first 17 sonnets ended with the spea/erPs realiBation
that the young man might not need children to preserve his beauty? he could also live, the
spea/er writes at the end of .onnet 17, Tin my rhyme!L .onnet 10, then, is the first TrhymeL@the
spea/erPs first attempt to preserve the young manPs beauty for all time! An important theme of
the sonnet $as it is an important theme throughout much of the se>uence* is the power of the
spea/erPs poem to defy time and last forever, carrying the beauty of the beloved down to future
generations! The belovedPs Teternal summerL shall not fade precisely because it is embodied in
the sonnet2 T.o long as men can breathe or eyes can see,L the spea/er writes in the couplet, T.o
long lives this, and this gives life to thee!L
PURITANS1625-1776
14. S3i)$< =#na$han> Gullivers Travels
Ionte7t
O
3onathan .wift, son of the nglish lawyer 3onathan .wift the elder, was born in <ublin, Ireland,
on Aovember );, 1&&7! 1e grew up there in the care of his uncle before attending Trinity
Iollege at the age of fourteen, where he stayed for seven years, graduating in 1&00! In that year,
he became the secretary of .ir #illiam Temple, an nglish politician and member of the #hig
party! In 1&54, he too/ religious orders in the Ihurch of Ireland and then spent a year as a
country parson! 1e then spent further time in the service of Temple before returning to Ireland to
become the chaplain of the earl of 4er/eley! Meanwhile, he had begun to write satires on the
political and religious corruption surrounding him, wor/ing on A !ale o% a !u;& which supports
the position of the Anglican Ihurch against its critics on the left and the right, and !he ,attle o%
the ,oo*s& which argues for the supremacy of the classics against modern thought and literature!
1e also wrote a number of political pamphlets in favor of the #hig party! In 17;5 he went to
London to campaign for the Irish church but was unsuccessful! After some conflicts with the
45
#hig party, mostly because of .wiftPs strong allegiance to the church, he became a member of
the more conservative Tory party in 171;!
:nfortunately for .wift, the Tory government fell out of power in 1714 and .wift, despite his
fame for his writings, fell out of favor! .wift, who had been hoping to be assigned a position in
the Ihurch of ngland, instead returned to <ublin, where he became the dean of .t! 9atric/Ps!
<uring his brief time in ngland, .wift had become friends with writers such as Ale7ander 9ope,
and during a meeting of their literary club, the Martinus .criblerus Ilub, they decided to write
satires of modern learning! The third voyage of <ulliver#s !ravels is assembled from the wor/
.wift did during this time! 1owever, the final wor/ was not completed until 17%&, and the
narrative of the third voyage was actually the last one completed! After his return to Ireland,
.wift became a staunch supporter of the Irish against nglish attempts to wea/en their economy
and political power, writing pamphlets such as the satirical A Modest Pro"osal& in which he
suggests that the Irish problems of famine and overpopulation could be easily solved by having
the babies of poor Irish subMects sold as delicacies to feed the rich!
<ulliver#s !ravels was a controversial wor/ when it was first published in 17%&! In fact, it was
not until almost ten years after its first printing that the boo/ appeared with the entire te7t that
.wift had originally intended it to have! ver since, editors have e7cised many of the passages,
particularly the more caustic ones dealing with bodily functions! ven without those passages,
however, <ulliver#s !ravels serves as a biting satire, and .wift ensures that it is both humorous
and critical, constantly attac/ing 4ritish and uropean society through its descriptions of
imaginary countries!
Late in life, .wift seemed to many observers to become even more caustic and bitter than he had
been! Three years before his death, he was declared unable to care for himself, and guardians
were appointed! 4ased on these facts and on a comparison between .wiftPs fate and that of his
character Gulliver, some people have concluded that he gradually became insane and that his
insanity was a natural outgrowth of his indignation and outrage against human/ind! 1owever, the
truth seems to be that .wift was suddenly incapacitated by a paralytic stro/e late in life, and that
prior to this incident his mental capacities were unimpaired!
<ulliver#s !ravels is about a specific set of political conflicts, but if it were nothing more than
that it would long ago have been forgotten! The staying power of the wor/ comes from its
depiction of the human condition and its often despairing, but occasionally hopeful, s/etch of the
possibilities for humanity to rein in its baser instincts!
M#!e Hel
9lot Cverview
O
<ulliver#s !ravels recounts the story of Lemuel Gulliver, a practical"minded nglishman trained
as a surgeon who ta/es to the seas when his business fails! In a deadpan first"person narrative
that rarely shows any signs of self"reflection or deep emotional response, Gulliver narrates the
adventures that befall him on these travels!
GulliverPs adventure in Lilliput begins when he wa/es after his shipwrec/ to find himself bound
by innumerable tiny threads and addressed by tiny captors who are in awe of him but fiercely
protective of their /ingdom! They are not afraid to use violence against Gulliver, though their
arrows are little more than pinpric/s! 4ut overall, they are hospitable, ris/ing famine in their land
by feeding Gulliver, who consumes more food than a thousand Lilliputians combined could!
Gulliver is ta/en into the capitalcapital city by a vast wagon the Lilliputians have specially
built! 1e is presented to the emperor, who is entertained by Gulliver, Must as Gulliver is flattered
46
by the attention of royalty! ventually Gulliver becomes a national resource, used by the army in
its war against the people of 4lefuscu, whom the Lilliputians hate for doctrinal differences
concerning the proper way to crac/ eggs! 4ut things change when Gulliver is convicted of
treason for putting out a fire in the royal palace with his urine and is condemned to be shot in the
eyes and starved to death! Gulliver escapes to 4lefuscu, where he is able to repair a boat he finds
and set sail for ngland!
After staying in ngland with his wife and family for two months, Gulliver underta/es his ne7t
sea voyage, which ta/es him to a land of giants called 4robdingnag! 1ere, a fieldfield wor/er
discovers him! The farmer initially treats him as little more than an animal, /eeping him for
amusement! The farmer eventually sells Gulliver to the >ueen, who ma/es him a courtly
diversion and is entertained by his musical talents! .ocial life is easy for Gulliver after his
discovery by the court, but not particularly enMoyable! Gulliver is often repulsed by the
physicality of the 4robdingnagians, whose ordinary flaws are many times magnified by their
huge siBe! Thus, when a couple of courtly ladies let him play on their na/ed bodies, he is not
attracted to them but rather disgusted by their enormous s/in pores and the sound of their
torrential urination! 1e is generally startled by the ignorance of the people here@even the /ing
/nows nothing about politics! More unsettling findings in 4robdingnag come in the form of
various animals of the realm that endanger his life! ven 4robdingnagian insects leave slimy
trails on his food that ma/e eating difficult! Cn a trip to the frontier, accompanying the royal
couple, Gulliver leaves 4robdingnag when his cage is pluc/ed up by an eagle and dropped into
the sea!
Ae7t, Gulliver sets sail again and, after an attac/ by pirates, ends up in Laputa, where a floating
island inhabited by theoreticians and academics oppresses the land below, called 4alnibarbi! The
scientific research underta/en in Laputa and in 4alnibarbi seems totally inane and impractical,
and its residents too appear wholly out of touch with reality! Ta/ing a short side trip to
Glubbdubdrib, Gulliver is able to witness the conMuring up of figures from history, such as 3ulius
Iaesar and other military leaders, whom he finds much less impressive than in boo/s! After
visiting the Luggnaggians and the .truldbrugs, the latter of which are senile immortals who
prove that age does not bring wisdom, he is able to sail to 3apan and from there bac/ to ngland!
6inally, on his fourth Mourney, Gulliver sets out as captain of a ship, but after the mutiny of his
crew and a long confinement in his cabin, he arrives in an un/nown land! This land is populated
by 1ouyhnhnms, rational"thin/ing horses who rule, and by Wahoos, brutish humanli/e creatures
who serve the 1ouyhnhnms! Gulliver sets about learning their language, and when he can spea/
he narrates his voyages to them and e7plains the constitution of ngland! 1e is treated with great
courtesy and /indness by the horses and is enlightened by his many conversations with them and
by his e7posure to their noble culture! 1e wants to stay with the 1ouyhnhnms, but his bared
body reveals to the horses that he is very much li/e a Wahoo, and he is banished! Gulliver is
grief"stric/en but agrees to leave! 1e fashions a canoe and ma/es his way to a nearby island,
where he is pic/ed up by a 9ortuguese ship captain who treats him well, though Gulliver cannot
help now seeing the captain@and all humans@as shamefully Wahooli/e! Gulliver then
concludes his narrative with a claim that the lands he has visited belong by rights to ngland, as
her colonies, even though he >uestions the whole idea of colonialism!
+?l?$#!iile l'i 5'lli*e! -e =#na$han S3i)$ @!eA'ma$B
Gulliver era al treilea dintre cei cinci copii,]i trEia Dn provincia Aottingham! La paispreBece ani,
tatEl sEu Dl trimite la :niversitatea Iambridge! .tE acolo trei ani,cu folos,dar studiile erau prea
costisitoare,a]a cE a fost trimis ca ucenic la 3ac/ 4ates,chirurg celebru din Londra,unde rEmJne
47
patru ani! TatEl sEu Di trimite ceva bEnu^i,pe care Di folose]te pentru a studia naviga^ia ]i
matematica! :na din propunerile lui Gulliver era sE cElEtoreascE pe mare! Hl pErEse]te pe domnul
4ates,se Dntoarce la tatEl sEu,iar cu banii primi^i, pleacE la Leyde,unde timp de doi ani ]i ]apte
luni Dnva^E medicina!.e Dntoarce din Leyde ]i capEtE un loc de chirurg pe vasul 8Jndunica,unde
stE trei ani ]i MumEtate sub ordinele cEpitanului Abraham 9anell,comandantul vasului!La
Dntoarcere se stabile]te Dn Londra ]i se cEsEtore]te cu domni]oara Mary 4urton!Moare profesorul
sEu 4ates iar clientela sa Dncepe sE se rEreascE!6ace mai multe cElEtorii timp de ]ase ani!Hn prima
cElEtorie,Gulliver este singurul supravie^uitor al unui naufragiu pe ^Ermul unei insule,unde
constatE cE este priBonier al unei rase de oameni Dnal^i de 1' cm,locuitori ai unor insule
vecine,Liliput ]i 4lefuscu!Gulliver promite inten^ii pa]nice ]i MurE credin^E DmpEratului
liliputanilor ]i observE obiceiurile ]i moravurile locale ,total neobi]nuite pentru el!Cbiceiurile
liliputane se aseamEnE foarte mult cu cele engleBe ]i sunt preBentate pJnE la limita absurdului!.e
remarcE ]i diferen^a dintre purtarea tocurilor Dnalte ]i a tocurilor Moase!CbservE toate intrigile de
la curte,corup^ia ]i capriciile DmpEratului,care D]i spune cu mJndrie KstEpJnul
universuluiL!Gulliver Di aMutE pe liliputani sE Di DnvingE pe locuitorii din 4lefuscu,blocJndu"le
flota Dn port cu o singurE mJnE, DnsE nu este de acord ca poporul vecin sE fie adus Dn stare de
sclavie!<upE o serie de peripe^ii,Gulliver se Dntoarce acasE cu aMutorul unei ]alupe de dimensiuni
normale!
:rmeaBE cElEtoria Dn 4robdingnag,unde Gulliver gEse]te uria]i de %% m cu un mod de via^E total
diferit decJt cel al liliputanilor!Ace]tia erau mult mai ra^ionali iar monarhia de aici era o formE
de guvernEmJnt idealE, unde regele era Dn^elept ]i drept!Aveau legi care asigurau libertatea ]i
bunEstarea cetE^enilor!8egele,pa]nic din fire,nu dore]te ca Dn ^ara sa sE fie introduse praful de
pu]cE,pu]tile ]i tunurile!IJnd Di sunt descrise rEBboaiele din uropa,regele se DngroBe]te!Hn
timpul unei cElEtorii pe mare,barca lui Gulliver este luatE Dn gheare de un vultur gigant ]i apoi
abandonatE,DnsE este salvat de o corabie ]i astfel se Dntoarce din nou Dn Anglia!
IElEtoria Dn Laputa este o nouE e7perien^E pentru Gulliver!Locuitorii din Laputa se considerE
savan^i,parcE nu ar trEi pe pEmJnt,sunt arogan^i ]i Dnchipui^i,parcE ar trEi pe o insulE
BburEtoare!Autorul ne descrie ]tiin^a ruptE de realitate!Camenii de aici se ocupE cu tot felul de
lucruri inutile ]i absurde,cum ar fi2e7tragerea raBelor de soare din castrave^i,construirea caselor
DncepJnd cu acoperi]ul ]i terminJnd cu temelia!
Hn ultima cElEtorie,Gulliver aMunge pe o insulE cu o popula^ie foarte ciudatE,care se Dmparte Dn
douE categorii2o parte a popula^iei este alcEtuitE din houyhnhnms,cai DnBestra^i cu ra^iune ]i
puterea de a vorbi,iar cealaltE parte a popula^iei din fiin^e yahoo,asemenea oamenilor,dar
primitivi ]i brutali,lacomi,rEutEcio]i,invidio]i,care se ceartE ]i se bat Dntre ei pentru a strJnge cJt
mai multe pietre strElucitoare inutile,pe care le credeau pre^ioase!Iaii sunt virtuo]i ]i
Dn^elep^i,trEiesc Dntr"o comunE patriarhalE,nu pot Dn^elege ce este minciuna!
Gulliver se Dntoarce Dn Anglia,DnsE nimeni nu"i crede povestirile sale,fiind foarte rece chiar cu
nevasta ]i rudele!Camenii Di fac proces ]i Dl declarE nebun iresponsabil!ste salvat de un miel
adus din Liliput,care modificE deciBia MudecEtorilor!Hncet"Dncet,Gulliver se schimbE,devenind un
om ca to^i oamenii,de]i tot pu^in cam miBantrop!
Iharacter List
48
O
5'lli*e! " The narrator and protagonist of the story! Although Lemuel GulliverPs vivid and
detailed style of narration ma/es it clear that he is intelligent and well educated, his perceptions
are na_ve and gullible! 1e has virtually no emotional life, or at least no awareness of it, and his
comments are strictly factual! Indeed, sometimes his obsession with the facts of navigation, for
e7ample, becomes unbearable for us, as his fictional editor, 8ichard .ympson, ma/es clear when
he e7plains having had to cut out nearly half of GulliverPs verbiage! Gulliver never thin/s that
the absurdities he encounters are funny and never ma/es the satiric connections between the
lands he visits and his own home! GulliverPs na_vetR ma/es the satire possible, as we pic/ up on
things that Gulliver does not notice!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Gulliver!
%he eme!#! " The ruler of Lilliput! Li/e all Lilliputians, the emperor is fewer than si7 inches
tall! 1is power and maMesty impress Gulliver deeply, but to us he appears both laughable and
sinister! 4ecause of his tiny siBe, his belief that he can control Gulliver seems silly, but his
willingness to e7ecute his subMects for minor reasons of politics or honor gives him a frightening
aspect! 1e is proud of possessing the tallest trees and biggest palace in the /ingdom, but he is
also >uite hospitable, spending a fortune on his captivePs food! The emperor is both a satire of the
autocratic ruler and a strangely serious portrait of political power!
%he )a!me! " GulliverPs first master in 4robdingnag! The farmer spea/s to Gulliver, showing
that he is willing to believe that the relatively tiny Gulliver may be as rational as he himself is,
and treats him with gentleness! 1owever, the farmer puts Gulliver on display around
4robdingnag, which clearly shows that he would rather profitprofit from his discovery than
converse with him as an e>ual! 1is e7ploitation of Gulliver as a laborer, which nearly starves
Gulliver to death, seems less cruel than simpleminded! Generally, the farmer represents the
average 4robdingnagian of no great gifts or intelligence, wielding an e7traordinary power over
Gulliver simply by virtue of his immense siBe!
5l'm-alcli$ch " The farmerPs nine"year"old daughter, who is forty feet tall! Glumdalclitch
becomes GulliverPs friend and nursemaid, hanging him to sleep safely in her closet at night and
teaching him the 4robdingnagian language by day! .he is s/illed at sewing and ma/es Gulliver
several sets of new clothes, ta/ing delight in dressing him! #hen the >ueen discovers that no one
at court is suited to care for Gulliver, she invites Glumdalclitch to live at court as his sole
babysitter, a function she performs with great seriousness and attentiveness! To Glumdalclitch,
Gulliver is basically a living doll, symboliBing the general status Gulliver has in 4robdingnag!
%he C'een " The >ueen of 4robdingnag, who is so delighted by GulliverPs beauty and charms
that she agrees to buy him from the farmer for 1,;;; pieces of gold! Gulliver appreciates her
/indness after the hardships he suffers at the farmerPs and shows his usual fawning love for
royalty by /issing the tip of her little finger when presented before her! .he possesses, in
GulliverPs words, TinfiniteL wit and humor, though this description may entail a bit of GulliverPs
characteristic flattery of superiors! The >ueen seems genuinely considerate, as/ing Gulliver
whether he would consent to live at court instead of simply ta/ing him in as a pet and in>uiring
49
into the reasons for his cold good"byes with the farmer! .he is by no means a hero, but simply a
pleasant, powerful person!
%he kin& " The /ing of 4robdingnag, who, in contrast to the emperor of Lilliput, seems to be a
true intellectual, well versed in political science among other disciplines! #hile his wife has an
intimate, friendly relationship with the diminutive visitor, the /ingPs relation to Gulliver is
limited to serious discussions about the history and institutions of GulliverPs native land! 1e is
thus a figure of rational thought who somewhat prefigures the 1ouyhnhnms in 4oo/ IF!
L#!- M'n#-i " A lord of Lagado, capital of the underdeveloped land beneath Laputa, who hosts
Gulliver and gives him a tour of the country on GulliverPs third voyage! Munodi is a rare
e7ample of practical"minded intelligence both in Lagado, where the applied sciences are wildly
impractical, and in Laputa, where no one even considers practicality a virtue! 1e fell from grace
with the ruling elite by counseling a commonsense approach to agriculture and land management
in Lagado, an approach that was reMected even though it proved successful when applied to his
own flourishing estate! Lord Munodi serves as a reality chec/ for Gulliver on his third voyage,
an obMective"minded contrast to the theoretical delusions of the other inhabitants of Laputa and
Lagado!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Lord Munodi!
9ah##s " :n/empt humanli/e beasts who live in servitude to the 1ouyhnhnms! Wahoos seem to
belong to various ethnic groups, since there are blond Wahoos as well as dar/"haired and
redheaded ones! The men are characteriBed by their hairy bodies, and the women by their low"
hanging breasts! They are na/ed, filthy, and e7tremely primitive in their eating habits! Wahoos are
not capable of government, and thus they are /ept as servants to the 1ouyhnhnms, pulling their
carriages and performing manual tas/s! They repel Gulliver with their lascivious se7ual
appetites, especially when an eleven"year"old Wahoo girl attempts to rape Gulliver as he is
bathing na/ed! Wet despite GulliverPs revulsion for these disgusting creatures, he ends his
writings referring to himself as a Wahoo, Must as the 1ouyhnhnms do as they regretfully evict him
from their realm! Thus, TWahooL becomes another term for human, at least in the semideranged
and self"loathing mind of Gulliver at the end of his fourth Mourney!
H#'.hnhnms " 8ational horses who maintain a simple, peaceful society governed by reason
and truthfulness@they do not even have a word for TlieL in their language! 1ouyhnhnms are li/e
ordinary horses, e7cept that they are highly intelligent and deeply wise! They live in a sort of
socialist republic, with the needs of the community put before individual desires! They are the
masters of the Wahoos, the savage humanli/e creatures in 1ouyhnhnmland! In all, the
1ouyhnhnms have the greatest impact on Gulliver throughout all his four voyages! 1e is grieved
to leave them, not relieved as he is in leaving the other three lands, and bac/ in ngland he
relates better with his horses than with his human family! The 1ouyhnhnms thus are a measure of
the e7tent to which Gulliver has become a misanthrope, or Thuman"haterL? he is certainly, at the
end, a horse lover!
5'lli*e!:s H#'.hnhnm mas$e! " The 1ouyhnhnm who first discovers Gulliver and ta/es him
into his own home! #ary of GulliverPs Wahooli/e appearance at first, the master is hesitant to
50
ma/e contact with him, but GulliverPs ability to mimic the 1ouyhnhnmPs own words persuades
the master to protect Gulliver! The masterPs domestic cleanliness, propriety, and tran>uil
reasonableness of speech have an e7traordinary impact on Gulliver! It is through this horse that
Gulliver is led to reevaluate the differences between humans and beasts and to >uestion
humanityPs claims to rationality!
1#n Pe-!# -e Men-eA " The 9ortuguese captain who ta/es Gulliver bac/ to urope after he is
forced to leave the land of the 1ouyhnhnms! <on 9edro is naturally benevolent and generous,
offering the half"craBed Gulliver his own best suit of clothes to replace the tatters he is wearing!
4ut Gulliver meets his generosity with repulsion, as he cannot bear the company of Wahoos! 4y
the end of the voyage, <on 9edro has won over Gulliver to the e7tent that he is able to have a
conversation with him, but the captainPs overall Wahooli/e nature in GulliverPs eyes alienates him
from Gulliver to the very end!
8ead an in"depth analysis of <on 9edro de MendeB!
8!#/-in&na&ians " Giants whom Gulliver meets on his second voyage! 4robdingnagians are
basically a reasonable and /indly people governed by a sense of Mustice! ven the farmer who
abuses Gulliver at the beginning is gentle with him, and politely ta/es the trouble to say good"
bye to him upon leaving him! The farmerPs daughter, Glumdalclitch, gives Gulliver perhaps the
most /indhearted treatment he receives on any of his voyages! The 4robdingnagians do not
e7ploit him for personal or political reasons, as the Lilliputians do, and his life there is one of
satisfaction and >uietude! 4ut the 4robdingnagians do treat Gulliver as a plaything! #hen he
tries to spea/ seriously with the /ing of 4robdingnag about ngland, the /ing dismisses the
nglish as odious vermin, showing that deep discussion is not possible for Gulliver here!
Lilli'$ians an- 8le)'sc'-ians " Two races of miniature people whom Gulliver meets on his
first voyage! Lilliputians and 4lefuscudians are prone to conspiracies and Mealousies, and while
they treat Gulliver well enough materially, they are >uic/ to ta/e advantage of him in political
intrigues of various sorts! The two races have been in a longstanding war with each over the
interpretation of a reference in their common holy scripture to the proper way to eat eggs!
Gulliver helps the Lilliputians defeat the 4lefuscudian navy, but he eventually leaves Lilliput and
receives a warm welcome in the court of 4lefuscu, by which .wift satiriBes the arbitrariness of
international relations!
La'$ans " Absentminded intellectuals who live on the floating island of Laputa, encountered
by Gulliver on his third voyage! The Laputans are parodies of theoreticians, who have scant
regard for any practical results of their own research! They are so inwardly absorbed in their own
thoughts that they must be sha/en out of their meditations by special servants called flappers,
who sha/e rattles in their ears! <uring GulliverPs stay among them, they do not mistreat him, but
are generally unpleasant and dismiss him as intellectually deficient! They do not care about
down"to"earth things li/e the dilapidation of their own houses, but worry intensely about abstract
matters li/e the traMectories of comets and the course of the sun! They are dependent in their own
material needs on the land below them, called Lagado, above which they hover by virtue of a
magnetic field, and from which they periodically raise up food supplies! In the larger conte7t of
51
GulliverPs Mourneys, the Laputans are a parody of the e7cesses of theoretical pursuits and the
uselessness of purely abstract /nowledge!
Ma!. 8'!$#n 5'lli*e! " GulliverPs wife, whose perfunctory mention in the first paragraphs of
<ulliver#s !ravels demonstrates how unsentimental and unemotional Gulliver is! 1e ma/es no
reference to any affection for his wife, either here or later in his travels when he is far away from
her, and his detachment is so cool as to raise >uestions about his ability to form human
attachments! #hen he returns to ngland, she is merely one part of his former e7istence, and he
records no emotion even as she hugs him wildly! The most important facts about her in
GulliverPs mind are her social origin and the income she generates!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Mary 4urton Gulliver!
Richa!- S.ms#n " GulliverPs cousin, self"proclaimed intimate friend, and the editor and
publisher of <ulliver#s !ravels7 It was in 8ichard .ympsonPs name that 3onathan .wift arranged
for the publication of his narrative, thus somewhat mi7ing the fictional and actual worlds!
.ympson is the fictional author of the prefatory note to <ulliver#s !ravels& entitled TThe
9ublisher to the 8eaders!L This note Mustifies .ympsonPs elimination of nearly half of the original
manuscript material on the grounds that it was irrelevant, a statement that .wift includes so as to
allow us to doubt GulliverPs overall wisdom and ability to distinguish between important facts
and trivial details!
=ames 8a$es " An eminent London surgeon under whom Gulliver serves as an apprentice after
graduating from Iambridge! 4ates helps get Gulliver his first Mob as a shipPs surgeon and then
offers to set up a practice with him! After 4atesPs death, Gulliver has trouble maintaining the
business, a failure that casts doubt on his competence, though he himself has other e7planations
for the businessPs failure! 4ates is hardly mentioned in the travels, though he is surely at least as
responsible for GulliverPs welfare as some of the more e7otic figures Gulliver meets!
Aevertheless, Gulliver fleshes out figures such as the >ueen of 4robdingnag much more
thoroughly in his narrative, underscoring the sharp contrast between his reticence regarding
ngland and his long"windedness about foreigners!
A/!aham Pannell " The commander of the ship on which Gulliver first sails, the S?allo?7
Traveling to the Levant, or the eastern Mediterranean, and beyond, Gulliver spends three and a
half years on 9annellPs ship! Firtually nothing is mentioned about 9annell, which heightens our
sense that GulliverPs fascination with e7otic types is not matched by any interest in his fellow
countrymen!
William P!icha!- " The master of the Antelo"e& the ship on which Gulliver embar/s for the
.outh .eas at the outset of his first Mourney, in 1&55! #hen the Antelo"e sin/s, Gulliver is
washed ashore on Lilliput! Ao details are given about the personality of 9richard, and he is not
important in GulliverPs life or in the unfolding of the novelPs plot! That Gulliver ta/es pains to
name him accurately reinforces our impression that he is obsessive about facts but not always
reliable in assessing overall significance!
(limna " The Lord 1igh Treasurer of Lilliput, who conceives a Mealous hatred for Gulliver
when he starts believing that his wife is having an affair with him! 6limnap is clearly paranoid,
since the possibility of a love affair between Gulliver and a Lilliputian is wildly unli/ely!
52
6limnap is a portrait of the wea/nesses of character to which any human is prone but that
become especially dangerous in those who wield great power!
Rel-!esal " The 9rincipal .ecretary of 9rivate Affairs in Lilliput, who e7plains to Gulliver the
history of the political tensions between the two principal parties in the realm, the 1igh"1eels
and the Low"1eels! 8eldresal is more a source of much"needed information for Gulliver than a
well"developed personality, but he does display personal courage and trust in allowing Gulliver
to hold him in his palm while he tal/s politics! #ithin the convoluted conte7t of LilliputPs
factions and conspiracies, such friendliness reminds us that fond personal relations may still e7ist
even in this overheated political climate!
Sk.!esh 8#l&#lam " The 1igh Admiral of Lilliput, who is the only member of the
administration to oppose GulliverPs liberation! Gulliver imagines that ./yreshPs enmity is simply
personal, though there is no apparent reason for such hostility! Arguably, ./yreshPs hostility may
be merely a tool to divert Gulliver from the larger system of Lilliputian e7ploitation to which he
is subMected!
%!amecksan " Also /nown as the 1igh"1eels, a Lilliputian political group reminiscent of the
4ritish Tories! Tramec/san policies are said to be more agreeable to the ancient constitution of
Lilliput, and while the 1igh"1eels appear greater in number than the Low"1eels, their power is
lesser! :nli/e the /ing, the crown prince is believed to sympathiBe with the Tramec/san, wearing
one low heel and one high heel, causing him to limp slightly!
Slamecksan " The Low"1eels, a Lilliputian political group reminiscent of the 4ritish #higs!
The /ing has ordained that all governmental administrators must be selected from this party,
much to the resentment of the 1igh"1eels of the realm! Thus, while there are fewer .lamec/san
than Tramec/san in Lilliput, their political power is greater! The /ingPs own sympathies with the
.lamec/san are evident in the slightly lower heels he wears at court!
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
Mi&h$ ,e!s's Ri&h$
<ulliver#s !ravels implicitly poses the >uestion of whether physical power or moral
righteousness should be the governing factor in social life! Gulliver e7periences the advantages
of physical might both as one who has it, as a giant in Lilliput where he can defeat the
4lefuscudian navy by virtue of his immense siBe, and as one who does not have it, as a miniature
visitor to 4robdingnag where he is harassed by the hugeness of everything from insects to
household pets! 1is first encounter with another society is one of entrapment, when he is
physically tied down by the Lilliputians? later, in 4robdingnag, he is enslaved by a farmer! 1e
also observes physical force used against others, as with the 1ouyhnhnmsP chaining up of the
Wahoos!
4ut alongside the use of physical force, there are also many claims to power based on moral
correctness! The whole point of the egg controversy that has set Lilliput against 4lefuscu is not
merely a cultural difference but, instead, a religious and moral issue related to the proper
interpretation of a passage in their holy boo/! This difference of opinion seems to Mustify, in their
eyes at least, the warfare it has spar/ed! .imilarly, the use of physical force against the Wahoos is
Mustified for the 1ouyhnhnms by their sense of moral superiority2 they are cleaner, better
behaved, and more rational! 4ut overall, the novel tends to show that claims to rule on the basis
53
of moral righteousness are often Must as arbitrary as, and sometimes simply disguises for, simple
physical subMugation! The Laputans /eep the lower land of 4alnibarbi in chec/ through force
because they believe themselves to be more rational, even though we might see them as absurd
and unpleasant! .imilarly, the ruling elite of 4alnibarbi believes itself to be in the right in driving
Lord Munodi from power, although we perceive that Munodi is the rational party! Ilaims to
moral superiority are, in the end, as hard to Mustify as the random use of physical force to
dominate others!
%he In-i*i-'al ,e!s's S#cie$.
Li/e many narratives about voyages to none7istent lands, <ulliver#s !ravels e7plores the idea of
utopia@an imaginary model of the ideal community! The idea of a utopia is an ancient one,
going bac/ at least as far as the description in 9latoPs Re"u;li$ of a city"state governed by the
wise and e7pressed most famously in nglish by Thomas MorePs :to"ia7 .wift nods to both
wor/s in his own narrative, though his attitude toward utopia is much more s/eptical, and one of
the main aspects he points out about famous historical utopias is the tendency to privilege the
collective group over the individual! The children of 9latoPs Re"u;li$ are raised communally,
with no /nowledge of their biological parents, in the understanding that this system enhances
social fairness! .wift has the Lilliputians similarly raise their offspring collectively, but its results
are not e7actly utopian, since Lilliput is torn by conspiracies, Mealousies, and bac/stabbing!
The 1ouyhnhnms also practice strict family planning, dictating that the parents of two females
should e7change a child with a family of two males, so that the male"to"female ratio is perfectly
maintained! Indeed, they come closer to the utopian ideal than the Lilliputians in their wisdom
and rational simplicity! 4ut there is something unsettling about the 1ouyhnhnmsP indistinct
personalities and about how they are the only social group that Gulliver encounters who do not
have proper names! <espite minor physical differences, they are all so good and rational that
they are more or less interchangeable, without individual identities! In their absolute fusion with
their society and lac/ of individuality, they are in a sense the e7act opposite of Gulliver, who has
hardly any sense of belonging to his native society and e7ists only as an individual eternally
wandering the seas! GulliverPs intense grief when forced to leave the 1ouyhnhnms may have
something to do with his longing for union with a community in which he can lose his human
identity! In any case, such a union is impossible for him, since he is not a horse, and all the other
societies he visits ma/e him feel alienated as well!
<ulliver#s !ravels could in fact be described as one of the first novels of modern alienation,
focusing on an individualPs repeated failures to integrate into societies to which he does not
belong! ngland itself is not much of a homeland for Gulliver, and, with his surgeonPs business
unprofitable and his fatherPs estate insufficient to support him, he may be right to feel alienated
from it! 1e never spea/s fondly or nostalgically about ngland, and every time he returns home,
he is >uic/ to leave again! Gulliver never complains e7plicitly about feeling lonely, but the
embittered and antisocial misanthrope we see at the end of the novel is clearly a profoundly
isolated individual! Thus, if .wiftPs satire moc/s the e7cesses of communal life, it may also
moc/ the e7cesses of individualism in its portrait of a miserable and lonely Gulliver tal/ing to
his horses at home in ngland!
%he Limi$s #) H'man Dn-e!s$an-in&
The idea that humans are not meant to /now everything and that all understanding has a natural
limit is important in <ulliver#s !ravels7 .wift singles out theoretical /nowledge in particular for
attac/2 his portrait of the disagreeable and self"centered Laputans, who show blatant contempt
for those who are not sun/ in private theoriBing, is a clear satire against those who pride
54
themselves on /nowledge above all else! 9ractical /nowledge is also satiriBed when it does not
produce results, as in the academy of 4alnibarbi, where the e7periments for e7tracting sunbeams
from cucumbers amount to nothing! .wift insists that there is a realm of understanding into
which humans are simply not supposed to venture! Thus his depictions of rational societies, li/e
4robdingnag and 1ouyhnhnmland, emphasiBe not these peoplePs /nowledge or understanding of
abstract ideas but their ability to live their lives in a wise and steady way!
The 4robdingnagian /ing /nows shoc/ingly little about the abstractions of political science, yet
his country seems prosperous and well governed! .imilarly, the 1ouyhnhnms /now little about
arcane subMects li/e astronomy, though they /now how long a month is by observing the moon,
since that /nowledge has a practical effect on their well"being! Aspiring to higher fields of
/nowledge would be meaningless to them and would interfere with their happiness! In such
conte7ts, it appears that living a happy and well"ordered life seems to be the very thing for which
.wift thin/s /nowledge is useful!
.wift also emphasiBes the importance of self"understanding! Gulliver is initially remar/ably
lac/ing in self"reflection and self"awareness! 1e ma/es no mention of his emotions, passions,
dreams, or aspirations, and he shows no interest in describing his own psychology to us!
Accordingly, he may stri/e us as frustratingly hollow or empty, though it is li/ely that his
personal emptiness is part of the overall meaning of the novel! 4y the end, he has come close to a
/ind of twisted self"/nowledge in his deranged belief that he is a Wahoo! 1is revulsion with the
human condition, shown in his shabby treatment of the generous <on 9edro, e7tends to himself
as well, so that he ends the novel in a thinly disguised state of self"hatred! .wift may thus be
saying that self"/nowledge has its necessary limits Must as theoretical /nowledge does, and that if
we loo/ too closely at ourselves we might not be able to carry on living happily!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and
inform the te7tPs maMor themes!
E6c!emen$
#hile it may seem a trivial or laughable motif, the recurrent mention of e7crement in GulliverPs
Travels actually has a serious philosophical significance in the narrative! It symboliBes
everything that is crass and ignoble about the human body and about human e7istence in general,
and it obstructs any attempt to view humans as wholly spiritual or mentally transcendent
creatures! .ince the nlightenment culture of eighteenth"century ngland tended to view humans
optimistically as noble souls rather than vulgar bodies, .wiftPs emphasis on the common filth of
life is a slap in the face of the philosophers of his day! Thus, when Gulliver urinates to put out a
fire in Lilliput, or when 4robdingnagian flies defecate on his meals, or when the scientist in
Lagado wor/s to transform e7crement bac/ into food, we are reminded how very little human
reason has to do with everyday e7istence! .wift suggests that the human condition in general is
dirtier and lowlier than we might li/e to believe it is!
(#!ei&n Lan&'a&es
Gulliver appears to be a gifted linguist, /nowing at least the basics of several uropean
languages and even a fair amount of ancient Gree/! This /nowledge serves him well, as he is
able to disguise himself as a <utchman in order to facilitate his entry into 3apan, which at the
time only admitted the <utch! 4ut even more important, his linguistic gifts allow him to learn the
languages of the e7otic lands he visits with a daBBling speed and, thus, gain access to their
culture >uic/ly! 1e learns the languages of the Lilliputians, the 4robdingnagians, and even the
55
neighing tongue of the 1ouyhnhnms! 1e is meticulous in recording the details of language in his
narrative, often giving the original as well as the translation! Cne would e7pect that such detail
would indicate a cross"cultural sensitivity, a /ind of anthropologistPs awareness of how things
vary from culture to culture! Wet surprisingly, GulliverPs mastery of foreign languages generally
does not correspond to any real interest in cultural differences! 1e compares any of the
governments he visits to that of his native ngland, and he rarely even speculates on how or why
cultures are different at all! Thus, his facility for translation does not indicate a culturally
comparative mind, and we are perhaps meant to yearn for a narrator who is a bit less able to
remember the 4robdingnagian word for Tlar/L and better able to offer a more illuminating /ind
of cultural analysis!
+l#$hin&
Iritics have noted the e7traordinary attention that Gulliver pays to clothes throughout his
Mourneys! very time he gets a rip in his shirt or is forced to adopt some native garment to replace
one of his own, he recounts the clothing details with great precision! #e are told how his pants
are falling apart in Lilliput, so that as the army marches between his legs they get >uite an eyeful!
#e are informed about the mouse s/in he wears in 4robdingnag, and how the finest sil/s of the
land are as thic/ as blan/ets on him! In one sense, these descriptions are obviously an easy
narrative device with which .wift can chart his protagonistPs progression from one culture to
another2 the more ragged his clothes become and the stranger his new wardrobe, the farther he is
from the comforts and conventions of ngland! 1is Mourney to new lands is also thus a Mourney
into new clothes! #hen he is pic/ed up by <on 9edro after his fourth voyage and offered a new
suit of clothes, Gulliver vehemently refuses, preferring his wild animal s/ins! #e sense that
Gulliver may well never fully reintegrate into uropean society!
4ut the motif of clothing carries a deeper, more psychologically comple7 meaning as well!
GulliverPs intense interest in the state of his clothes may signal a deep"seated an7iety about his
identity, or lac/ thereof! 1e does not seem to have much selfhood2 one critic has called him an
Tabyss,L a void where an individual character should be! If clothes ma/e the man, then perhaps
GulliverPs obsession with the state of his wardrobe may suggest that he desperately needs to be
fashioned as a personality! .ignificantly, the two moments when he describes being na/ed in the
novel are two deeply troubling or humiliating e7periences2 the first when he is the boy toy of the
4robdingnagian maids who let him cavort nude on their mountainous breasts, and the second
when he is assaulted by an eleven"year"old Wahoo girl as he bathes! 4oth incidents suggest more
than mere prudery! Gulliver associates nudity with e7treme vulnerability, even when there is no
real danger present@a pre"teen girl is hardly a threat to a grown man, at least in physical terms!
The state of nudity may remind Gulliver of how none7istent he feels without the reassuring
cover of clothing!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
Lilli'$ians
The Lilliputians symboliBe human/indPs wildly e7cessive pride in its own puny e7istence! .wift
fully intends the irony of representing the tiniest race visited by Gulliver as by far the most
vainglorious and smug, both collectively and individually! There is surely no character more
odious in all of GulliverPs travels than the no7ious ./yresh! There is more bac/biting and
conspiracy in Lilliput than anywhere else, and more of the pettiness of small minds who imagine
themselves to be grand! Gulliver is a na_ve consumer of the LilliputiansP grandiose imaginings2
he is flattered by the attention of their royal family and cowed by their threats of punishment,
56
forgetting that they have no real physical power over him! Their formally worded condemnation
of Gulliver on grounds of treason is a model of pompous and self"important verbiage, but it
wor/s >uite effectively on the na_ve Gulliver!
The Lilliputians show off not only to Gulliver but to themselves as well! There is no mention of
armies proudly marching in any of the other societies Gulliver visits@only in Lilliput and
neighboring 4lefuscu are the si7"inch inhabitants possessed of the need to show off their
patriotic glories with such displays! #hen the Lilliputian emperor re>uests that Gulliver serve as
a /ind of ma/eshift Arch of Triumph for the troops to pass under, it is a pathetic reminder that
their grand parade@in full view of GulliverPs nether regions@is supremely silly, a basically
absurd way to boost the collective ego of the nation! Indeed, the war with 4lefuscu is itself an
absurdity springing from wounded vanity, since the cause is not a material concern li/e disputed
territory but, rather, the proper interpretation of scripture by the emperorPs forebears and the hurt
feelings resulting from the disagreement! All in all, the Lilliputians symboliBe misplaced human
pride, and point out GulliverPs inability to diagnose it correctly!
8!#/-in&na&ians
The 4robdingnagians symboliBe the private, personal, and physical side of humans when
e7amined up close and in great detail! The philosophical era of the nlightenment tended to
overloo/ the routines of everyday life and the sordid or tedious little facts of e7istence, but in
4robdingnag such facts become very important for Gulliver, sometimes matters of life and death!
An eighteenth"century philosopher could afford to ignore the fly buBBing around his head or the
s/in pores on his servant girl, but in his shrun/en state Gulliver is forced to pay great attention to
such things! 1e is forced ta/e the domestic sphere seriously as well! In other lands it is difficult
for Gulliver, being such an outsider, to get glimpses of family relations or private affairs, but in
4robdingnag he is treated as a doll or a plaything, and thus is made privy to the urination of
housemaids and the se7ual lives of women! The 4robdingnagians do not symboliBe a solely
negative human characteristic, as the Laputans do! They are not merely ridiculous@some aspects
of them are disgusting, li/e their gigantic stench and the e7crement left by their insects, but
others are noble, li/e the >ueenPs goodwill toward Gulliver and the /ingPs commonsense views
of politics! More than anything else, the 4robdingnagians symboliBe a dimension of human
e7istence visible at close range, under close scrutiny!
La'$ans
The Laputans represent the folly of theoretical /nowledge that has no relation to human life and
no use in the actual world! As a profound cultural conservative, .wift was a critic of the
newfangled ideas springing up around him at the dawn of the eighteenth"century nlightenment,
a period of great intellectual e7perimentation and theoriBation! 1e much preferred the traditional
/nowledge that had been tested over centuries! Laputa symboliBes the absurdity of /nowledge
that has never been tested or applied, the ludicrous side of nlightenment intellectualism! ven
down below in 4alnibarbi, where the local academy is more inclined to practical application,
/nowledge is not made socially useful as .wift demands! Indeed, theoretical /nowledge there
has proven positively disastrous, resulting in the ruin of agriculture and architecture and the
impoverishment of the population! ven up above, the pursuit of theoretical understanding has
not improved the lot of the Laputans! They have few material worries, dependent as they are
upon the 4alnibarbians below! 4ut they are tormented by worries about the traMectories of comets
and other astronomical speculations2 their theories have not made them wise, but neurotic and
disagreeable! The Laputans do not symboliBe reason itself but rather the pursuit of a form of
/nowledge that is not directly related to the improvement of human life!
57
H#'.hnhnms
The 1ouyhnhnms represent an ideal of rational e7istence, a life governed by sense and
moderation of which philosophers since 9lato have long dreamed! Indeed, there are echoes of
9latoPs Re"u;li$ in the 1ouyhnhnmsP reMection of light entertainment and vain displays of lu7ury,
their appeal to reason rather than any holy writings as the criterion for proper action, and their
communal approach to family planning! As in 9latoPs ideal community, the 1ouyhnhnms have
no need to lie nor any word for lying! They do not use force but only strong e7hortation! Their
subMugation of the Wahoos appears more necessary than cruel and perhaps the best way to deal
with an unfortunate blot on their otherwise ideal society! In these ways and others, the
1ouyhnhnms seem li/e model citiBens, and GulliverPs intense grief when he is forced to leave
them suggests that they have made an impact on him greater than that of any other society he has
visited! 1is derangement on <on 9edroPs ship, in which he snubs the generous man as a Wahoo"
li/e creature, implies that he strongly identifies with the 1ouyhnhnms!
4ut we may be less ready than Gulliver to ta/e the 1ouyhnhnms as ideals of human e7istence!
They have no names in the narrative nor any need for names, since they are virtually
interchangeable, with little individual identity! Their lives seem harmonious and happy, although
>uite lac/ing in vigor, challenge, and e7citement! Indeed, this apparent ease may be why .wift
chooses to ma/e them horses rather than human types li/e every other group in the novel! 1e
may be hinting, to those more insightful than Gulliver, that the 1ouyhnhnms should not be
considered human ideals at all! In any case, they symboliBe a standard of rational e7istence to be
either espoused or reMected by both Gulliver and us!
En&lan-
As the site of his fatherPs disappointingly Tsmall estateL and GulliverPs failing business, ngland
seems to symboliBe deficiency or insufficiency, at least in the financial sense that matters most to
Gulliver! ngland is passed over very >uic/ly in the first paragraph of Ihapter I, as if to show
that it is simply there as the starting point to be left >uic/ly behind! Gulliver seems to have very
few nationalistic or patriotic feelings about ngland, and he rarely mentions his homeland on his
travels! In this sense, <ulliver#s !ravels is >uite unli/e other travel narratives li/e the d'sse'& in
which Cdysseus misses his homeland and laments his wanderings! ngland is where GulliverPs
wife and family live, but they too are hardly mentioned! Wet .wift chooses to have Gulliver
return home after each of his four Mourneys instead of having him continue on one long trip to
four different places, so that ngland is /ept constantly in the picture and given a steady,
unspo/en importance! 4y the end of the fourth Mourney, ngland is brought more e7plicitly into
the fabric of <ulliver#s !ravels when Gulliver, in his neurotic state, starts confusing
1ouyhnhnmland with his homeland, referring to nglishmen as Wahoos! The distinction between
native and foreign thus unravels@the 1ouyhnhnms and Wahoos are not Must races populating a
faraway land but rather types that Gulliver proMects upon those around him! The possibility thus
arises that all the races Gulliver encounters could be versions of the nglish and that his travels
merely allow him to see various aspects of human nature more clearly!
5. 1aniel 1e)#e> R#/ins#n +!'s#e
Ionte7t
O
<aniel <efoe was born in 1&&;, in London, and was originally christened <aniel 6oe, changing
his name around the age of thirty"five to sound more aristocratic! Li/e his character 8obinson
Irusoe, <efoe was a third child! 1is mother and father, 3ames and Mary 6oe, were 9resbyterian
58
dissenters! 3ames 6oe was a middle"class wa7 and candle merchant! As a boy, <aniel witnessed
two of the greatest disasters of the seventeenth century2 a recurrence of the plague and the Great
6ire of London in 1&&&! These events may have shaped his fascination with catastrophes and
survival in his writing! <efoe attended a respected school in <or/ing, where he was an e7cellent
student, but as a 9resbyterian, he was forbidden to attend C7ford or Iambridge! 1e entered a
dissenting institution called MortonPs Academy and considered becoming a 9resbyterian
minister! Though he abandoned this plan, his 9rotestant values endured throughout his life
despite discrimination and persecution, and these values are e7pressed in Ro;inson Crusoe7 In
1&0), <efoe became a traveling hosiery salesman! Fisiting 1olland, 6rance, and .pain on
business, <efoe developed a taste for travel that lasted throughout his life! 1is fiction reflects
this interest? his characters Moll 6landers and 8obinson Irusoe both change their lives by
voyaging far from their native ngland!
<efoe became successful as a merchant, establishing his head>uarters in a high"class
neighborhood of London! A year after starting up his business, he married an heiress named
Mary Tuffley, who brought him the siBeable fortune of ),7;; pounds as dowry! A fervent critic of
Qing 3ames II, <efoe became affiliated with the supporterssupporters of the du/e of
Monmouth, who led a rebellion against the /ing in 1&0'! #hen the rebellion failed, <efoe was
essentially forced out of ngland, and he spent three years in urope writing tracts against 3ames
II! #hen the /ing was deposed in the Glorious 8evolution of 1&00 and replaced by #illiam of
Crange, <efoe was able to return to ngland and to his business! :nfortunately, <efoe did not
have the same financial success as previously, and by 1&5% he was ban/rupt, having accumulated
the huge sum of 17,;;; pounds in debts! Though he eventually paid off most of the total, he was
never again entirely free from debt, and the theme of financial vicissitudes@the wild ups and
downs in onePs poc/etboo/@became a prominent theme in his later novels! Ro;inson Crusoe
contains many reflections about the value of moneymoney !
Around this time, <efoe began to write, partly as a moneyma/ing venture! Cne of his first
creations was a poem written in 17;1, entitled TThe True"4orn nglishman,L which became
popular and earned <efoe some celebrity! 1e also wrote political pamphlets! Cne of these, !he
Shortest @a' ?ith Dissenters& was a satire on persecutors of dissenters and sold well among the
ruling Anglican elite until they realiBed that it was moc/ing their own practices! As a result,
<efoe was publicly pilloried@his hands and wrists loc/ed in a wooden device@in 17;), and
Mailed in Aewgate 9rison! <uring this time his business failed! 8eleased through the intervention
of 8obert 1arley, a Tory minister and .pea/er of 9arliament, <efoe wor/ed as a publicist,
political Mournalist, and pamphleteer for 1arley and other politicians! 1e also wor/ed as a spy,
reveling in aliases and disguises, reflecting his own variable identity as merchant, poet,
Mournalist, and prisoner! This theme of changeable identity would later be e7pressed in the life of
8obinson Irusoe, who becomes merchant, slave, plantation owner, and even unofficial /ing! In
his writing, <efoe often used a pseudonym simply because he enMoyed the effect! 1e was
incredibly wide"ranging and productive as a writer, turning out over ';; boo/s and pamphlets
during his life!
<efoe began writing fiction late in life, around the age of si7ty! 1e published his first novel,
Ro;inson Crusoe& in 1715, attracting a large middle"class readership! 1e followed in 17%% with
Moll 8landers& the story of a tough, streetwise heroine whose fortunes rise and fall dramatically!
4oth wor/s straddle the border between Mournalism and fiction! Ro;inson Crusoe was based on
the true story of a shipwrec/ed seaman named Ale7ander .el/ir/ and was passed off as history,
while Moll 8landers included dar/ prison scenes drawn from <efoePs own e7periences in
59
Aewgate and interviews with prisoners! 1is focus on the actual conditions of everyday life and
avoidance of the courtly and the heroic made <efoe a revolutionary in nglish literature and
helped define the new genre of the novel! .tylistically, <efoe was a great innovator! <ispensing
with the ornate style associated with the upper classes, <efoe used the simple, direct, fact"based
style of the middle classes, which became the new standard for the nglish novel! #ith Ro;inson
CrusoePs theme of solitary human e7istence, <efoe paved the way for the central modern theme
of alienation and isolation! <efoe died in London on April %4, 17)1, of a fatal TlethargyL@an
unclear diagnosis that may refer to a stro/e!
9lot Cverview
O
8obinson Irusoe is an nglishman from the town of Wor/ in the seventeenth century, the
youngest son of a merchant of German origin! ncouraged by his father to study law, Irusoe
e7presses his wish to go to sea instead! 1is family is against Irusoe going out to sea, and his
father e7plains that it is better to see/ a modest, secure life for oneself! Initially, 8obinson is
committed to obeying his father, but he eventually succumbs to temptation and embar/s on a
ship bound for London with a friend! #hen a storm causes the near deaths of Irusoe and his
friend, the friend is dissuaded from sea travel, but Irusoe still goes on to set himself up as
merchant on a ship leaving London! This trip is financially successful, and Irusoe plans another,
leaving his early profits in the care of a friendly widow! The second voyage does not prove as
fortunate2 the ship is seiBed by Moorish pirates, and Irusoe is enslaved to a potentate in the
Aorth African town of .allee! #hile on a fishing e7pedition, he and a slave boy brea/ free and
sail down the African coast! A /indly 9ortuguese captain pic/s them up, buys the slave boy from
Irusoe, and ta/es Irusoe to 4raBil! In 4raBil, Irusoe establishes himself as a plantation owner
and soon becomes successful! ager for slave labor and its economic advantages, he embar/s on
a slave"gathering e7pedition to #est Africa but ends up shipwrec/ed off of the coast of Trinidad!
Irusoe soon learns he is the sole survivor of the e7pedition and see/s shelter and food for
himself! 1e returns to the wrec/Ps remains twelve times to salvage guns, powder, food, and other
items! Cnshore, he finds goats he can graBe for meat and builds himself a shelter! 1e erects a
cross that he inscribes with the date of his arrival, .eptember 1, 1&'5, and ma/es a notch every
day in order never to lose trac/ of time! 1e also /eeps a Mournal of his household activities,
noting his attempts to ma/e candles, his luc/y discovery of sprouting grain, and his construction
of a cellar, among other events! In 3une 1&&;, he falls ill and hallucinates that an angel visits,
warning him to repent! <rin/ing tobacco"steeped rum, Irusoe e7periences a religious
illumination and realiBes that God has delivered him from his earlier sins! After recovering,
Irusoe ma/es a survey of the area and discovers he is on an island! 1e finds a pleasant valley
abounding in grapes, where he builds a shady retreat! Irusoe begins to feel more optimistic
about being on the island, describing himself as its T/ing!L 1e trains a pet parrot, ta/es a goat as
a pet, and develops s/ills in bas/et weaving, bread ma/ing, and pottery! 1e cuts down an
enormous cedar tree and builds a huge canoe from its trun/, but he discovers that he cannot
move it to the sea! After building a smaller boat, he rows around the island but nearly perishes
when swept away by a powerful current! 8eaching shore, he hears his parrot calling his name
and is than/ful for being saved once again! 1e spends several years in peace!
Cne day Irusoe is shoc/ed to discover a manPs footprint on the beach! 1e first assumes the
footprint is the devilPs, then decides it must belong to one of the cannibals said to live in the
region! Terrified, he arms himself and remains on the loo/out for cannibals! 1e also builds an
underground cellar in which to herd his goats at night and devises a way to coo/ underground!
60
Cne evening he hears gunshots, and the ne7t day he is able to see a ship wrec/ed on his coast! It
is empty when he arrives on the scene to investigate! Irusoe once again than/s 9rovidence for
having been saved! .oon afterward, Irusoe discovers that the shore has been strewn with human
carnage, apparently the remains of a cannibal feast! 1e is alarmed and continues to be vigilant!
Later Irusoe catches sight of thirty cannibals heading for shore with their victims! Cne of the
victims is /illed! Another one, waiting to be slaughtered, suddenly brea/s free and runs toward
IrusoePs dwelling! Irusoe protects him, /illing one of the pursuers and inMuring the other, whom
the victim finally /ills! #ell"armed, Irusoe defeats most of the cannibals onshore! The victim
vows total submission to Irusoe in gratitude for his liberation! Irusoe names him 6riday, to
commemorate the day on which his life was saved, and ta/es him as his servant!
6inding 6riday cheerful and intelligent, Irusoe teaches him some nglish words and some
elementary Ihristian concepts! 6riday, in turn, e7plains that the cannibals are divided into
distinct nations and that they only eat their enemies! 6riday also informs Irusoe that the
cannibals saved the men from the shipwrec/ Irusoe witnessed earlier, and that those men,
.paniards, are living nearby! 6riday e7presses a longing to return to his people, and Irusoe is
upset at the prospect of losing 6riday! Irusoe then entertains the idea of ma/ing contact with the
.paniards, and 6riday admits that he would rather die than lose Irusoe! The two build a boat to
visit the cannibalsP land together! 4efore they have a chance to leave, they are surprised by the
arrival of twenty"one cannibals in canoes! The cannibals are holding three victims, one of whom
is in uropean dress! 6riday and Irusoe /ill most of the cannibals and release the uropean, a
.paniard! 6riday is overMoyed to discover that another of the rescued victims is his father! The
four men return to IrusoePs dwelling for food and rest! Irusoe prepares to welcome them into
his community permanently! 1e sends 6ridayPs father and the .paniard out in a canoe to e7plore
the nearby land!
ight days later, the sight of an approaching nglish ship alarms 6riday! Irusoe is suspicious!
6riday and Irusoe watch as eleven men ta/e three captives onshore in a boat! Aine of the men
e7plore the land, leaving two to guard the captives! 6riday and Irusoe overpower these men and
release the captives, one of whom is the captain of the ship, which has been ta/en in a mutiny!
.houting to the remaining mutineers from different points, 6riday and Irusoe confuse and tire
the men by ma/ing them run from place to place! ventually they confront the mutineers, telling
them that all may escape with their lives e7cept the ringleader! The men surrender! Irusoe and
the captain pretend that the island is an imperial territory and that the governor has spared their
lives in order to send them all to ngland to face Mustice! Qeeping five men as hostages, Irusoe
sends the other men out to seiBe the ship! #hen the ship is brought in, Irusoe nearly faints!
Cn <ecember 15, 1&0&, Irusoe boards the ship to return to ngland! There, he finds his family is
deceased e7cept for two sisters! 1is widow friend has /ept IrusoePs moneymoney safe, and
after traveling to Lisbon, Irusoe learns from the 9ortuguese captain that his plantations in 4raBil
have been highly profitable! 1e arranges to sell his 4raBilian lands! #ary of sea travel, Irusoe
attempts to return to ngland by land but is threatened by bad weather and wild animals in
northern .pain! 6inally arriving bac/ in ngland, Irusoe receives word that the sale of his
plantations has been completed and that he has made a considerable fortune! After donating a
portion to the widow and his sisters, Irusoe is restless and considers returning to 4raBil, but he is
dissuaded by the thought that he would have to become Iatholic! 1e marries, and his wife dies!
Irusoe finally departs for the ast Indies as a tradertrader in 1&54! 1e revisits his island,
finding that the .paniards are governing it well and that it has become a prosperous colony!
61
8obinson Irusoe s"a nascut in anul 1&)%, in orasul Wor/, intr"o familie cumsecade,
avand % frati!La 15 ani, impotriva vointei parintilor si prin dorinta de aventuri, impreuna cu un
prieten, a fugit de acasa imbarcandu"se pe un vas!Aceasta nava a naufragiat langa Warsmouth,
insa echipaMul a fost salvat de o alta nava!
Iu timpul, Irusoe a uitat suferintele indurate si s"a imbarcat pe corabia unui
capitan cu care s"a inteles foarte bine si care i"a dat primele notiuni de navigatie si
matematica!Acestia au pornit spre Guineea de unde 8obinson a venit cu niste bani stransi,
hotarandu"se sa continue negustoria pe coastele Guineei!
l s"a imbarcat intr"o corabie,iar in apropiere de insulele Ianare, a fost capturat de
o nava cu pirati mauri din .allee, devenind robul lor!Iastigand incredere a facut rost de o barca
si pacalindu" pe cei doi sluMitori a"i stapanului a plecat pe mare, scapand!9e Moley l"a aruncat in
apa si a continuat spre sud navigarea pana cand au intalnit un vas portugheB, care i"a dus in
4raBila, capitanului devenindu"i foarte recunoscator!In aceasta tara,8obinson l"a vandut pe `ury
si a devenit cultivator din banii stransi!
Aoul cultiavtor avea ca vecin un om de origine engleBa,#ells, cu care s"a imprietenit!
9rin dorinta lui de imbogatire, a plecat in Guineea, in functia de capitan al vasului pt!
a cumpara negri, revenindu"i Mumatate din ei!Iorabia a fost prinsa intr"o furtuna ingroBitoare, ea
naufragi"
ind pe o insula pustie!Aoaptea aceea a fost de cosmar pt! 8obinson, deoarece nu stia daca sa se
fereasca de fiare sau salbatici!<imineta a inotat pana la corabie si si"a gasit de mancare,
pusti,imbracaminte si multe alte necesare, corabia scufundandu"se!
In !imele Aile e ins'la< a ince'$ sa isi )aca 'n E'!nal Ailnic si incee c#ns$!'i!ea
'nei l#c'in$e<
descoperind ca pe acel pamant pot creste grane!<upa ce si"a dat seama ca este norocos ca a
supravietuit,
a inceput sa fie foarte credincios, gasind in barca .fanta .criptura!8obinson a inceput sa
cerceteBe insula,
gasind un loc cu tutun, lamai, trestie de Bahar, struguri salbatici, insa nici o urma de om!In alta
parte a insulei a gasit o broasca testoasa pe care a mancat"o, alaturi de pasari marine!

Iharacter List
O
R#/ins#n +!'s#e " The novelPs protagonist and narrator! Irusoe begins the novel as a young
middle"class man in Wor/ in search of a career! 1e father recommends the law, but Irusoe yearns
for a life at sea, and his subse>uent rebellion and decision to become a merchant is the starting
point for the whole adventure that follows! 1is vague but recurring feelings of guilt over his
disobedience color the first part of the first half of the story and show us how deep IrusoePs
religious fear is! Irusoe is steady and plodding in everything he does, and his perseverance
ensures his survival through storms, enslavement, and a twenty"eight"year isolation on a desert
island!
8ead an in"depth analysis of 8obinson Irusoe!
(!i-a. " A twenty"si7"year"old Iaribbean native and cannibal who converts to 9rotestantism
under IrusoePs tutelage! 6riday becomes IrusoePs servant after Irusoe saves his life when
6riday is about to be eaten by other cannibals! 6riday never appears to resist or resent his new
servitude, and he may sincerely view it as appropriate compensation for having his life saved!
4ut whatever 6ridayPs response may be, his servitude has become a symbol of imperialist
62
oppression throughout the modern world! 6ridayPs overall charisma wor/s against the emotional
deadness that many readers find in Irusoe!
8ead an in"depth analysis of 6riday!
%he P#!$'&'ese ca$ain " The sea captain who pic/s up Irusoe and the slave boy `ury from
their boat after they escape from their Moorish captors and float down the African coast! The
9ortuguese captain ta/es Irusoe to 4raBil and thus inaugurates IrusoePs new life as plantation
owner! The 9ortuguese captain is never named@unli/e `ury, for e7ample@and his anonymity
suggests a certain uninteresting blandness in his role in the novel! 1e is polite, personable, and
e7tremely generous to Irusoe, buying the animal s/ins and the slave boy from Irusoe at well
over mar/et value! 1e is loyal as well, ta/ing care of IrusoePs 4raBilian investments even after a
twenty"eight"year absence! 1is role in IrusoePs life is crucial, since he both arranges for
IrusoePs new career as a plantation owner and helps Irusoe cashcash in on the profits later!
%he Sania!- " Cne of the men from the .panish ship that is wrec/ed off IrusoePs island, and
whose crew is rescued by the cannibals and ta/en to a neighboring island! The .paniard is
doomed to be eaten as a ritual victim of the cannibals when Irusoe saves him! In e7change, he
becomes a new TsubMectL in IrusoePs T/ingdom,L at least according to Irusoe! The .paniard is
never fleshed out much as a character in IrusoePs narrative, an e7ample of the odd impersonal
attitude often notable in Irusoe!
F'!. " A nonwhite $Arab or blac/* slave boy only briefly introduced during the period of
IrusoePs enslavement in .allee! #hen Irusoe escapes with two other slaves in a boat, he forces
one to swim to shore but /eeps `ury on board, showing a certain trust toward the boy! `ury
never betrays that trust! Aevertheless, when the 9ortuguese captain eventually pic/s them up,
Irusoe sells `ury to the captain! `uryPs sale shows us the racist double standards sometimes
apparent in IrusoePs behavior!
%he 3i-#3 " Appearing briefly, but on two separate occasions in the novel, the widow /eeps
IrusoePs %;; pounds safe in ngland throughout all his thirty"five years of Mourneying! .he
returns it loyally to Irusoe upon his return to ngland and, li/e the 9ortuguese captain and
6riday, reminds us of the goodwill and trustworthiness of which humans can be capable, whether
uropean or not!
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
%he Am/i*alence #) Mas$e!.
IrusoePs success in mastering his situation, overcoming his obstacles, and controlling his
environment shows the condition of mastery in a positive light, at least at the beginning of the
novel! Irusoe lands in an inhospitable environment and ma/es it his home! 1is taming and
domestication of wild goats and parrots with Irusoe as their master illustrates his newfound
control! Moreover, IrusoePs mastery over nature ma/es him a master of his fate and of himself!
arly in the novel, he fre>uently blames himself for disobeying his fatherPs advice or blames the
destiny that drove him to sea! 4ut in the later part of the novel, Irusoe stops viewing himself as a
passive victim and stri/es a new note of self"determination! In building a home for himself on
the island, he finds that he is master of his life@he suffers a hard fate and still finds prosperity!
4ut this theme of mastery becomes more comple7 and less positive after 6ridayPs arrival, when
the idea of mastery comes to apply more to unfair relationships between humans! In Ihapter
``III, Irusoe teaches 6riday the word T+m,asterL even before teaching him TyesL and Tno,L and
indeed he lets him T/now that was to be +IrusoePs, name!L Irusoe never entertains the idea of
considering 6riday a friend or e>ual@for some reason, superiority comes instinctively to him!
63
#e further >uestion IrusoePs right to be called T+m,asterL when he later refers to himself as
T/ingL over the natives and uropeans, who are his TsubMects!L In short, while Irusoe seems
praiseworthy in mastering his fate, the praiseworthiness of his mastery over his fellow humans is
more doubtful! <efoe e7plores the lin/ between the two in his depiction of the colonial mind!
%he 7ecessi$. #) Reen$ance
IrusoePs e7periences constitute not simply an adventure story in which thrilling things happen,
but also a moral tale illustrating the right and wrong ways to live onePs life! This moral and
religious dimension of the tale is indicated in the 9reface, which states that IrusoePs story is
being published to instruct others in GodPs wisdom, and one vital part of this wisdom is the
importance of repenting onePs sins! #hile it is important to be grateful for GodPs miracles, as
Irusoe is when his grain sprouts, it is not enough simply to e7press gratitude or even to pray to
God, as Irusoe does several times with few results! Irusoe needs repentance most, as he learns
from the fiery angelic figure that comes to him during a feverish hallucination and says, T.eeing
all these things have not brought thee to repentance, now thou shalt die!L Irusoe believes that his
maMor sin is his rebellious behavior toward his father, which he refers to as his Toriginal sin,L
a/in to Adam and vePs first disobedience of God! This biblical reference also suggests that
IrusoePs e7ile from civiliBation represents Adam and vePs e7pulsion from den!
6or Irusoe, repentance consists of ac/nowledging his wretchedness and his absolute dependence
on the Lord! This admission mar/s a turning point in IrusoePs spiritual consciousness, and is
almost a born"again e7perience for him! After repentance, he complains much less about his sad
fate and views the island more positively! Later, when Irusoe is rescued and his fortune restored,
he compares himself to 3ob, who also regained divine favor! Ironically, this view of the necessity
of repentance ends up Mustifying sin2 Irusoe may never have learned to repent if he had never
sinfully disobeyed his father in the first place! Thus, as powerful as the theme of repentance is in
the novel, it is nevertheless comple7 and ambiguous!
%he Im#!$ance #) Sel)-A3a!eness
IrusoePs arrival on the island does not ma/e him revert to a brute e7istence controlled by animal
instincts, and, unli/e animals, he remains conscious of himself at all times! Indeed, his island
e7istence actually deepens his self"awareness as he withdraws from the e7ternal social world and
turns inward! The idea that the individual must /eep a careful rec/oning of the state of his own
soul is a /ey point in the 9resbyterian doctrine that <efoe too/ seriously all his life! #e see that
in his normal day"to"day activities, Irusoe /eeps accounts of himself enthusiastically and in
various ways! 6or e7ample, it is significant that IrusoePs ma/eshift calendar does not simply
mar/ the passing of days, but instead more egocentrically mar/s the days he has spent on the
island2 it is about him, a sort of self"conscious or autobiographical calendar with him at its center!
.imilarly, Irusoe obsessively /eeps a Mournal to record his daily activities, even when they
amount to nothing more than finding a few pieces of wood on the beach or waiting inside while
it rains! Irusoe feels the importance of staying aware of his situation at all times! #e can also
sense IrusoePs impulse toward self"awareness in the fact that he teaches his parrot to say the
words, T9oor 8obin Irusoe! ! ! ! #here have you beenSL This sort of self"e7amining thought is
natural for anyone alone on a desert island, but it is given a strange intensity when we recall that
Irusoe has spent months teaching the bird to say it bac/ to him! Irusoe teaches nature itself to
voice his own self"awareness!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform
the te7tPs maMor themes!
64
+#'n$in& an- Meas'!in&
Irusoe is a careful note"ta/er whenever numbers and >uantities are involved! 1e does not simply
tell us that his hedge encloses a large space, but informs us with a surveyorPs precision that the
space is T1'; yards in length, and 1;; yards in breadth!L 1e tells us not simply that he spends a
long time ma/ing his canoe in Ihapter `FI, but that it ta/es precisely twenty days to fell the tree
and fourteen to remove the branches! It is not Must an immense tree, but is Tfive foot ten inches in
diameter at the lower part ! ! ! and four foot eleven inches diameter at the end of twenty"two
foot!L 6urthermore, time is measured with similar e7actitude, as IrusoePs Mournal shows! #e may
often wonder why Irusoe feels it useful to record that it did not rain on <ecember %&, but for
him the necessity of counting out each day is never >uestioned! All these e7amples of counting
and measuring underscore IrusoePs practical, businessli/e character and his hands"on approach
to life! 4ut <efoe sometimes hints at the futility of IrusoePs measuring@as when the carefully
measured canoe cannot reach water or when his obsessively /ept calendar is thrown off by a day
of oversleeping! <efoe may be subtly po/ing fun at the urge to >uantify, showing us that, in the
end, everything Irusoe counts never really adds up to much and does not save him from
isolation!
Ea$in&
Cne of IrusoePs first concerns after his shipwrec/ is his food supply! ven while he is still wet
from the sea in Ihapter F, he frets about not having Tanything to eat or drin/ to comfort me!L 1e
soon provides himself with food, and indeed each new edible item mar/s a new stage in his
mastery of the island, so that his food supply becomes a symbol of his survival! 1is securing of
goat meat staves off immediate starvation, and his discovery of grain is viewed as a miracle, li/e
manna from heaven! 1is cultivation of raisins, almost a lu7ury food for Irusoe, mar/s a new
comfortable period in his island e7istence! In a way, these images of eating convey IrusoePs
ability to integrate the island into his life, Must as food is integrated into the body to let the
organism grow and prosper! 4ut no sooner does Irusoe master the art of eating than he begins to
fear being eaten himself! The cannibals transform Irusoe from the consumer into a potential
obMect to be consumed! Life for Irusoe always illustrates this eat or ;e eaten philosophy, since
even bac/ in urope he is threatened by man"eating wolves! ating is an image of e7istence
itself, Must as being eaten signifies death for Irusoe!
2!-eals a$ Sea
IrusoePs encounters with water in the novel are often associated not simply with hardship, but
with a /ind of symbolic ordeal, or test of character! 6irst, the storm off the coast of Warmouth
frightens IrusoePs friend away from a life at sea, but does not deter Irusoe! Then, in his first
trading voyage, he proves himself a capable merchant, and in his second one, he shows he is able
to survive enslavement! 1is escape from his Moorish master and his successful encounter with
the Africans both occur at sea! Most significantly, Irusoe survives his shipwrec/ after a lengthy
immersion in water! 4ut the sea remains a source of danger and fear even later, when the
cannibals arrive in canoes! The .panish shipwrec/ reminds Irusoe of the destructive power of
water and of his own good fortune in surviving it! All the life"testing water imagery in the novel
has subtle associations with the rite of baptism, by which Ihristians prove their faith and enter a
new life saved by Ihrist!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
%he (##$!in$
65
IrusoePs shoc/ing discovery of a single footprint on the sand in Ihapter `FIII is one of the most
famous moments in the novel, and it symboliBes our heroPs conflicted feelings about human
companionship! Irusoe has earlier confessed how much he misses companionship, yet the
evidence of a man on his island sends him into a panic! Immediately he interprets the footprint
negatively, as the print of the devil or of an aggressor! 1e never for a moment entertains hope
that it could belong to an angel or another uropean who could rescue or befriend him! This
instinctively negative and fearful attitude toward others ma/es us consider the possibility that
Irusoe may not want to return to human society after all, and that the isolation he is e7periencing
may actually be his ideal state!
%he +!#ss
Ioncerned that he will Tlose +his, rec/oning of timeL in Ihapter FII, Irusoe mar/s the passing
of days Twith +his, /nife upon a large post, in capital letters, and ma/ing it into a great cross ! ! !
set+s, it up on the shore where +he, first landed! ! ! !L The large siBe and capital letters show us
how important this cross is to Irusoe as a time/eeping device and thus also as a way of relating
himself to the larger social world where dates and calendars still matter! 4ut the cross is also a
symbol of his own new e7istence on the island, Must as the Ihristian cross is a symbol of the
IhristianPs new life in Ihrist after baptism, an immersion in water li/e IrusoePs shipwrec/
e7perience! Wet IrusoePs large cross seems somewhat blasphemous in ma/ing no reference to
Ihrist! Instead, it is a memorial to Irusoe himself, underscoring how completely he has become
the center of his own life!
+!'s#e:s 8#3e!
Cn a scouting tour around the island, Irusoe discovers a delightful valley in which he decides to
build a country retreat or TbowerL in Ihapter `II! This bower contrasts sharply with IrusoePs
first residence, since it is built not for the practical purpose of shelter or storage, but simply for
pleasure2 Tbecause I was so enamoured of the place!L Irusoe is no longer focused solely on
survival, which by this point in the novel is more or less secure! Aow, for the first time since his
arrival, he thin/s in terms of Tpleasantness!L Thus, the bower symboliBes a radical improvement
in IrusoePs attitude toward his time on the island! Island life is no longer necessarily a disaster to
suffer through, but may be an opportunity for enMoyment@Must as, for the 9resbyterian, life may
be enMoyed only after hard wor/ has been finished and repentance achieved!
R2MA%I+ A5E 1GG6-183G
1.A's$en< =ane>
P!i-e an- P!eE'-ice
3ane Austen was born in .teventon, ngland, in 177'! Pride and PreAudi$e was published in
101), <uring AustenPs life, however, only her immediate family /new of her authorship of these
novels! Though publishing anonymously prevented her from ac>uiring an authorial reputation, it
also enabled her to preserve her privacy at a time when nglish society associated a femalePs
entrance into the public sphere with a loss of femininity! Additionally, Austen may have sought
anonymity because of the more general atmosphere of repression pervading her era!
66
As the Aapoleonic #ars threatened the safety of monarchies throughout urope, government
censorship of literature proliferated! .ocially regimented ideas of appropriate behavior for each
gender factored into AustenPs wor/ as well! #hile social advancement for young men lay in the
military, church, or law, the chief method of self"improvement for women was the ac>uisition of
wealth! #omen could only accomplish this goal through successful marriage, which e7plains the
ubi>uity of matrimony as a goal and topic of conversation in AustenPs writing! Though young
women of AustenPs day had more freedom to choose their husbands than in the early eighteenth
century, practical considerations continued to limit their options!
In general, Austen occupies a curious position between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries!
1er favorite writer, whom she often >uotes in her novels, was <r! .amuel 3ohnson, the great
model of eighteenth"century classicism and reason! AustenPs novels also display an ambiguity
about emotion and an appreciation for intelligence and natural beauty that aligns them with
8omanticism! In their awareness of the conditions of modernity and city life and the
conse>uences for family structure and individual characters, they prefigure much Fictorian
literature $as does her usage of such elements as fre>uent formal social gatherings, s/etchy
characters, and scandal*!
REHDMA%
8omanul are ca temE principalE orgoliul de clasE al domnului <arcy i preMudecata domni oarei
liBabeth 4ennet Dn confrontul acestuia! Ac iunea romanului se concentreaBE asupra
evenimentelor ce au loc Dn interiorul familiei 4ennet compusE din domnul i doamna 4ennet i
cele cinci fiice2 3ane, liBabeth, $pentru prieteni LiBBy sau liBa*, Mary, Iatherine, $numitE i
Qitty* i Lydia! Hn lipsa unui fiu care sE mo teneascE proprietatea lor din Longbourn,
1ertforshire, doamna 4ennet dore te ca cel pu in una dintre fiicele sale sE se cEsEtoreascE cJt
mai repede! <oamna 4ennet este o femeie frivolE Dn timp ce domnul 4ennet este un bErbat
inteligent, sarcastic i impreviBibil! ine mult la 3ane, dar LiBBy, inteligentE i spiritualE, este
preferata lui! IJnd domnul 4ingley, un burlac bogat DnchiriaBE o frumoasE mo ie Dn vecinEtate,
doamna 4ennet dore te ca fiicele ei sE"i fie preBentate cJt mai curJnd! .copul sEu este cEsEtoria
domnului 4ingley cu una din fiicele sale i nu vrea sE ri te ca acesta sE fie acaparat de vreo altE
fatE din vecini! <omnul 4ennet chiar dacE pare reticent Dl viBiteaBE pe domnul 4ingley , dar
domni oarele 4ennet au ocaBia sE"l cunoascE la balul dat de .ir Lucas, un vecin al familiei
4ennet! <omnul 4ingley are prileMul sE le cunoascE Dntr"un final pe gra ioasele domni oare
67
4ennet! 4ingley este Dnso it de cele douE surori, Iaroline i doamna 1urst, de so ul acesteia din
urmE i de dragul sEu prieten domnul <arcy! 4ingley e amabil, drEgu cu to i, atrage imediat
simpatia tuturor i imediat se noteaBE simpatia sa pentru 3ane, cea mai mare din surorile 4ennet!
<in contrE, <arcy rEmJne deoparte, refuBE sE danseBe cu domni oare pe care nu le cunoa te sau
sE facE noi cuno tin e! Ihiar dacE la Dnceput cei preBen i sunt impresiona i, fiind mai frumos i
mult mai bogat decJt 4ingley, din cauBa acestui comportament el devine catalogat ca omul cel
mai Dnfumurat i mJndru de pe fa a pEmJntului i, cu toatE bogE ia lui, D i atrage antipatia tuturor!
Hn timpul balului liBabeth este definitE de el ca fiind acceptabilE, dar nu DndeaMuns de frumoasE
sE"l tenteBe! liBabeth Dl aude i chiar dacE se demonstreBE ironicE $a putea foarte u or sE iert
mJndria lui, dacE n"ar fi cElcat"o Dn picioare pe a mea*, Di devine antipatic! <omnul 4ingley Dn
schimb danseaBE cu 3ane toatE seara! <iminea a urmEtoare 3ane este invitatE de domni oara
4ingley la Aetherfield, pentru a lua ceaiul! <oamna 4ennet vEBJnd cE vine ploaia, nu"i permite
lui 3ane sE ia trEsura, a a cE 3ane pleacE cElare! C prinde ploaia i se alege cu o rEcealE serioasE
a a cE e nevoitE sE rEmJnE la Aetherfield pentru cJteva Bile, e7act cum dorise doamna 4ennet!
liBabeth merge s"o viBiteBe i este invitatE sE rEmJnE pentru a avea griME de sora sa! <arcy are
ocaBia sE o cunoascE mai bine i fErE sE vrea, rEmJne fascinat de spontaneitatea i vivacitatea sa!
<omni oara 4ingley, care vrea sE"l cucereascE pe <arcy, nu este mul umitE de situa ie i abia
a teaptE ca cele douE surori sE se DntoarcE la casa lor! <upE Dntoarcerea lor, familia din
Longbourn prime te viBita domnului Iollins, veri orul fetelor i pastor anglican! #illiam Iollins
este mo tenitorul legal al domnului 4ennet i sperE sE se cEsEtoreascE cu una din surori! 9rin
acest gest, vrea sE rEscumpere familia de pierderea mo iei la moartea domnului 4ennet! C alege
pe 3ane ca viitoare so ie, dar doamna 4ennet Dl informeaBE cE aceasta se va logodi Dn curJnd, a a
cE e rJndul lui liBabeth, a doua ca vJrstE i frumuse e! .urorile 4ennet merg des Dn viBitE la
mEtu a lor din Meryton! Aici ele au prileMul sE"l cunoascE pe fermecEtorul domn #ic/ham,
Dnrolat de curJnd Dn regimentul din Meryton! 6elul sEu de a fi cordial i fascinant Dl fac sE" i
cJ tige simpatia tuturor, mai ales a domni oarelor din BonE! Lydia i Qitty Dn mod particular sunt
fermecate de #ic/ham, dar de altfel lor le plac to i ofi erii! Lydia i Qitty D i viBiteaBE des mEtu a
pentru cE acolo au prileMul sE DntJlneascE i sE flirteBe cu ofi erii! #ic/ham pare sE fie atras de
liBabeth i Dn timpul primei lor DntJlniri Di destEinuie cE"l cunoa te bine pe <arcy, deoarece au
copilErit DmpreunE la 9emberley, #ic/ham fiind fiul intendentului! .e plJnge de modul infam Dn
care a fost tratat de <arcy, acesta refuBJnd sE"i dea parohia lEsatE mo tenire de bEtrJnul domn
68
<arcy! liBabeth atrasE de #ic/ham i avJnd antipatie pentru <arcy crede tot! <omnul 4ingley
organiBeaBE balul promis! Atrac ia lui pentru 3ane este atJt de evidentE DncJt cei preBen i la bal
Dncep sE vorbeascE de cEsEtorie! La bal LiBBy are surpriBa sE fie invitatE la dans de <arcy i luatE
prin surprindere acceptE! 4ingley comunicE familiei 4ennet cE a doua Bi este nevoit sE plece
cJteva Bile la Londra pentru afaceri! <oamna 4ennet Dl invitE la prJnB la Dntoarcere! <upE cJteva
Bile surorile lui 4ingley i domnul <arcy Dl urmeaBE la Londra! 9entru a e7plica plecarea lor
nea teptatE, Iarolina 4ingley Di trimite un bilet lui 3ane unde"i e7plicE cE afacerile fratelui sEu
sunt de a a naturE cE nu se pot reBolva Dn cJteva Bile, a a cE"i mai bine sE plece dupE el la
Londra, unde vor rEmJne toatE iarna! Iaroline cu perfidie Di scrie cE Dn acest mod, 4ingley va
avea prileMul s"o revadE pe domni oara <arcy, sora mai micE a lui <arcy de care 4ingley e foarte
legat! liBabeth citind scrisoarea suspecteaBE cE re inJnd"o pe 3ane nepotrivitE pentru 4ingley,
surorile i prietenul acestuia au luat deciBia sE"l re inE la Londra ca s"o uite! 3ane cu bunEtatea ei
nu vrea sE dea creBare unei asemenea ipoteBe, luJnd apErarea celor douE, spunJnd cE dacE
4ingley ar fi cu adevErat DndrEgostit nu ar putea fi re inut de ace tia la Londra! <ar liBabeth are
pu inE Dncredere Dn caracterul slab al tJnErului i amJndouE se DntristeaBE vEBJnd cE acesta nu se
Dntoarce! Hntre timp domnul Iollins personaM ceremonios i insuportabil, continuE sE"i facE curte
lui liBabeth i o cere de so ie! Aceasta refuBE categoric, chiar dacE mama sa Di impune sE
accepte! Iollins hotErJt sE se DntoarcE acasE cu nevastE, pJnE la urmE decide sE se cEsEtoreascE
cu Iharlotte Lucas, cea mai bunE prietenE a liBei! Iharlotte are %7 de ani, nu este frumoasE i
acceptE imediat! <upE plecarea lui 4ingley, 3ane este invitatE la Londra de familia
Gardiner,respectiv unchiul i mEtu a sa! a acceptE, iar mai tJrBiu i liBabeth pleacE la 8osing,
Dn Qent Dn viBitE la familia Iollins, la invita ia Iharlotei! Lady Iatherine de 4ourgh, protectoarea
i vecina domnului Iollins, este mEtu a domnului <arcy! <e 9a ti, <arcy vine sE" i viBiteBe
mEtu a, Dnso it de simpaticul sEu veri or, colonelul 6itBwilliam! liBabeth se DntJlne te
DntJmplEtor cu <arcy de cEteva ori i Dntr"un final Dn mod cu totul nea teptat, acesta o cere Dn
cEsEtorie, nu fErE sE"i spunE cJt a luptat cu sentimentele lui din cauBa diferen ei de clasE dintre ei
i a familiei! <arcy nu se Dndoie te nici o clipE cE cererea lui Dn cEsEtorie va fi acceptatE!
liBabeth Dl refuBE categoric repro Jndu"i orgoliul i vanitatea, spunJnd cE n"ar putea niciodatE sE
se cEsEtoreascE cu cel care a provocat nefericirea surorii sale i ruina lui #ic/ham! A doua Bi
<arcy Di scrie o lungE scrisoare Dn care Di e7plicE cE a intervenit Dntre 3ane i 4ingley pentru cE
3ane cu atitudinea sa reBervatE, nu pErea DndrEgostitE de prietenul sEu 4ingley, dar obstacolul
69
esen ial fiind comportamentul familiei ei! Hn privin a lui #ic/ham, se pare cE acesta este un
trufator i un libertin i nu numai atJt, a Dncercat s"o facE pe domni oara <arcy sE fugE cu el
datoritE dotei acesteia de );!;;; de lire sterline! liBabeth descoperE cu consternare cE 3ane
irepro abilE i plinE de calitE i, a avut de suferit din cauBa vulgaritE ii mamei i surorilor! La
lumina acestor revela ii liBabeth este nevoitE sE" i reviBuiascE sentimentele fa E de <arcy! La
Dnceputul verii, liBabeth este invitatE de cEtre familia Gardyner Dntr"o cElEtorie de plEcere Dn
<erbyshire! Hn timpul cElEtoriei se aflE la un moment dat Dn vecinEtate cu 9emberley, proprietatea
domnului <arcy unde locuie te acesta! IonvinsE cE acesta este plecat, acceptE la insisten ele
mEtu ii sE viBiteBe casa! Hn timpul viBitei DnsE Dl DntJlne te pe <arcy, care se Dntorsese mai
devreme acasE! <arcy e surprins, iar liBabeth foarte MenatE! uimitE cJnd vede cE el e foarte
schimbat, pare sociabil i gentil! <arcy DncE DndrEgostit de liBabeth, vrea sE"i arate cE se poate
schimba! 9entru liBabeth Dn schimb sentimentul de admira ie se transformE Dn dragoste, chiar
dacE"i este imposibil sE" i arate sentimentele, odatE ce"l respinsese! <arcy este interesat sE"i
cunoascE pe domnul i doamna Gardiner, iar liBabeth e fericitE sE"i preBinte rude inteligente i
strElucitoare care nu au superficialitatea i frivolitatea mamei i surorilor sale! A doua Bi <arcy i"
o preBintE pe sora sa Georgiana, dorind ca cele douE tinere sE se DmprieteneascE! Georgiana e o
tJnErE timidE i gra ioasE! liBabeth are ocaBia sE"l DntJlneascE i pe 4ingley! <in pEcate prime te
o scrisoare de la 3ane cu ve ti proaste2 Lydia care era Dn vacan E la 4righton, oaspete al
colonelului 6orester i a so iei sale, fErE sE se gJndeascE la consecin e, a fugit cu #ic/ham la
Londra! 9are cE acesta nu are inten ia s"o ia Dn cEsEtorie! <atoritE ocului nu reu e te sE"i
ascundE lui <arcy vestea! La gJndul scandalului, Dn elege cE o a doua cerere Dn cEsEtorie a lui
<arcy devine ceva imposibil, realiBeaBE cE Dl iubeste! HmpreunE cu familia Gardiner pleacE Dn
grabE la Longbourn! <e aici unchiul pleacE la Londra i dupE cJteva Bile Di gEse te pe cei doi!
.itua ia scandaloasE vine mu amaliBatE cu o cEsEtorie de convenien E! <upE un timp, liBabeth
aflE mai DntJi de la Lydia, apoi de la doamna Gardiner cE <arcy a fost cel care l"a fEcut pe
#ic/ham s"o ia Dn cEsEtorie pe Lydia! MEtu a Di poveste te Dntr"o scrisoare cum <arcy a plEtit
toate datoriile la Moc ale lui #ic/ham i deasemenea l"a plEtit pentru a o lua de so ie pe Lydia!
4ingley i <arcy se Dntorc la Aetherfield cu prete7tul stagiunii de vJnEtoare! Aten iile lui 4ingley
fa E de 3ane reDncep, iar liBabeth bEnuie te cE <arcy i"a mErturisit prietenului gre eala sa cJnd l"
a DndepErtat de Aetherfield! 4ingley o cere Dn cEsEtorie pe 3ane care fericitE acceptE! liBabeth
DndrEgostitE de <arcy Dl vede grav i taciturn, departe de acel <arcy de la 9emberley! Hntr"o searE
70
sose te la Longbourn lady Iatherine de 4ourgh! 4inefEcEtoarea lui Iollins dore te sE tie dacE
liBabeth e logoditE cu <arcy, i, aflJnd cE nu, vrea ca aceasta sE"i promitE solemn cE nu se va
cEsEtori niciodatE cu el! liBabeth refuBE! <arcy pus la curent de mEtu a lui de cele DntJmplate i
sigur cE liBabeth simte ceva pentru el, tiind cE aceasta cu caracterul ei sincer, dacE ar fi fost
contrarE cEsEtoriei nu ar fi eBitat sE"i spunE mEtu ii, reDnnoie te cererea Dn cEsEtorie, iar liBabeth
fericitE acceptE! 8omanul se terminE cu cEsEtoria domnului 4ingley cu 3ane i a domnului <arcy
cu lisabeth!%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
L#*e
Pride and PreAudi$e contains one of the most cherished love stories in nglish literature2 the
courtship between <arcy and liBabeth! As in any good love story, the lovers must elude and
overcome numerous stumbling bloc/s, beginning with the tensions caused by the loversP own
personal >ualities! liBabethPs pride ma/es her misMudge <arcy on the basis of a poor first
impression, while <arcyPs preMudice against liBabethPs poor social standing blinds him, for a
time, to her many virtues!
Re'$a$i#n
Pride and PreAudi$e depicts a society in which a womanPs reputation is of the utmost importance!
A woman is e7pected to behave in certain ways! .tepping outside the social norms ma/es her
vulnerable to ostracism! This theme appears in the novel, when liBabeth wal/s to Aetherfield
and arrives with muddy s/irts, to the shoc/ of the reputation"conscious Miss 4ingley and her
friends
+lass
The theme of class is related to reputation, in that both reflect the strictly regimented nature of
life for the middle and upper classes in 8egency ngland! The lines of class are strictly drawn!
#hile the 4ennets, who are middle class, may socialiBe with the upper"class 4ingleys and
<arcys, they are clearly their social inferiors and are treated as such! Austen satiriBes this /ind of
class"consciousness, particularly in the character of Mr! Iollins, who spends most of his time
toadying to his upper"class patron, Lady Iatherine de 4ourgh!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and
inform the te7tPs maMor themes!
+#'!$shi
In a sense, Pride and PreAudi$e is the story of two courtships@those between <arcy and
liBabeth and between 4ingley and 3ane! #ithin this broad structure appear other, smaller
courtships
=#'!ne.s
Aearly every scene in Pride and PreAudi$e ta/es place indoors, and the action centers around the
4ennet home in the small village of Longbourn! Aevertheless, Mourneys@even short ones@
function repeatedly as catalysts for change in the novel!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
Pem/e!le.
71
Pride and PreAudi$e is remar/ably free of e7plicit symbolism, which perhaps has something to
do with the novelPs reliance on dialogue over description! Aevertheless, 9emberley, <arcyPs
estate, sits at the center of the novel, literally and figuratively, as a geographic symbol of the man
who owns it!
MMA
Ionte7t
O
3ane Austen, whom some critics consider nglandPs best novelist, was born in 177' in .teventon,
ngland! The seventh of eight children, Austen lived with her parents for her entire life, first in
.teventon and later in 4ath, .outhampton, and Ihawton! 1er father was the parish rector in
.teventon, and, though not wealthy, her family was well connected and well educated! Austen
briefly attended boarding school in 8eading but received the maMority of her education at home!
According to rumor, she had a brief love affair when she was twenty"five, but it did not lead to a
marriage proposal! Two years later she accepted and then >uic/ly reMected a proposal! .he
remained unmarried for the rest of her life! Austen died in 1017, at age forty"one, of AddisonPs
disease!
Austen began writing stories at a very young age and completed her first novel in her early
twenties! 1owever, she did not publish until 1011, when Sense and Sensi;ilit' appeared
anonymously, "followed by Pride and PreAudi$e $101)* and Mans%ield Par* $1014*! Emma&
which appeared in 101&, was the last novel published "during AustenPs lifetime! $Northanger
A;;e' and Persuasion appeared posthumously!*
AustenPs novels received little critical or popular recognition during her lifetime, and her identity
as a novelist was not revealed until after her death! As admired as AustenPs novels later became,
critics have had a difficult time placing them within literary history! .he is /nown for her gently
satirical portraits of village life and of the rituals of courtship and marriage, but she wrote during
the 8omantic period, when most maMor writers were concerned with a very different set of
interests and values! 8omantic poets confronted the hopes and failures of the 6rench 8evolution
and formulated new literary values centered on individual freedom, passion, and intensity! In
comparison, AustenPs detailed e7amination of the rules of decorum that govern social
relationships, and her insistence that reason and moderation are necessary chec/s on feeling,
ma/e her seem out of step with the literary times! Cne way to understand AustenPs place in
literary history is to thin/ of her as part of the earlier eighteenth century, the Age of 8eason,
when literature was associated with wit, poise, and propriety! 1er novels certainly belong to an
eighteenth"century genre, the comedy of manners, which e7amines the behavior of men and
women of a single social class!
8ather than dismiss Austen as a writer who shuns the artistic and political movements of her
time, it is perhaps more useful to thin/ of her as an early feminist! Iritics have pointed out that
the 8omantics, who were almost e7clusively male, offered a poor model of literary fulfillment
for the ambitious woman of the time! #hile male writers such as 9ercy 4ysshe .helley and Lord
4yron possessed the freedom to promote their own individuality through wide travel and se7ual
and military adventurism, women were largely denied these freedoms! 6or women, the penalty
for se7ual freedom was social ostracism, poverty, and worse! In Sense and Sensi;ilit'& Austen
describes e7plicitly the danger that cultivating emotion posed for women of her time!
In this social conte7t, AustenPs commitment to reason and moderation can be seen as feminist
and progressive rather than conservative! The intelligence and resourcefulness of her heroines
stand in constant contrast to the limits of the constricted world of courtship and marriage
72
defining their sphere of action! #hile reading Emma it is interesting to consider to what e7tent
Austen accepts or >uestions the idea that marriage represents a womanPs maturity and
fulfillment!
.ome consider Emma AustenPs best and most representative novel! It is also her longest novel,
and by many accounts, her most difficult! Long praised for its rich domestic realism, Emma also
presents puBBling >uestions2 how can a character as intelligent as mma be wrong so oftenS
#hen does Austen e7pect us to sympathiBe with mma, and when does she e7pect us to criticiBe
herS Is the ending as genuinely happy as it is presented to be, or does Austen subtly inMect a note
of subversive irony into itS That these >uestions are on some level unanswerable ensures that
Emma will be read again and again!
9lot Cverview
O
Although convinced that she herself will never marry, mma #oodhouse, a precocious twenty"
year"old resident of the village of 1ighbury, imagines herself to be naturally gifted in conMuring
love matches! After self"declared success at matchma/ing between her governess and Mr!
#eston, a village widower, mma ta/es it upon herself to find an eligible match for her new
friend, 1arriet .mith! Though 1arrietPs parentage is un/nown, mma is convinced that 1arriet
deserves to be a gentlemanPs wife and sets her friendPs sights on Mr! lton, the village vicar!
Meanwhile, mma persuades 1arriet to reMect the proposal of 8obert Martin, a well"to"do farmer
for whom 1arriet clearly has feelings!
1arriet becomes infatuated with Mr! lton under mmaPs encouragement, but mmaPs plans go
awry when lton ma/es it clear that his affection is for mma, not 1arriet! mma realiBes that
her obsession with ma/ing a match for 1arriet has blinded her to the true nature of the situation!
Mr! Qnightley, mmaPs brother"in"law and treasured friend, watches mmaPs matchma/ing
efforts with a critical eye! 1e believes that Mr! Martin is a worthy young man whom 1arriet
would be luc/y to marry! 1e and mma >uarrel over mmaPs meddling, and, as usual, Mr!
Qnightley proves to be the wiser of the pair! lton, spurned by mma and offended by her
insinuation that 1arriet is his e>ual, leaves for the town of 4ath and marries a girl there almost
immediately!
mma is left to comfort 1arriet and to wonder about the character of a new visitor e7pected in
1ighbury@Mr! #estonPs son, 6ran/ Ihurchill! 6ran/ is set to visit his father in 1ighbury after
having been raised by his aunt and uncle in London, who have ta/en him as their heir! mma
/nows nothing about 6ran/, who has long been deterred from visiting his father by his auntPs
illnesses and complaints! Mr! Qnightley is immediately suspicious of the young man, especially
after 6ran/ rushes bac/ to London merely to have his hair cut! mma, however, finds 6ran/
delightful and notices that his charms are directed mainly toward her! Though she plans to
discourage these charms, she finds herself flattered and engaged in a flirtation with the young
man! mma greets 3ane 6airfa7, another addition to the 1ighbury set, with less enthusiasm! 3ane
is beautiful and accomplished, but mma disli/es her because of her reserve and, the narrator
insinuates, because she is Mealous of 3ane!
.uspicion, intrigue, and misunderstandings ensue! Mr! Qnightley defends 3ane, saying that she
deserves compassion because, unli/e mma, she has no independent fortune and must soon
leave home to wor/ as a governess! Mrs! #eston suspects that the warmth of Mr! QnightleyPs
defense comes from romantic feelings, an implication mma resists! veryone assumes that
6ran/ and mma are forming an attachment, though mma soon dismisses 6ran/ as a potential
suitor and imagines him as a match for 1arriet! At a village ball, Qnightley earns mmaPs
73
approval by offering to dance with 1arriet, who has Must been humiliated by Mr! lton and his
new wife! The ne7t day, 6ran/ saves 1arriet from Gypsy beggars! #hen 1arriet tells mma that
she has fallen in love with a man above her social station, mma believes that she means 6ran/!
Qnightley begins to suspect that 6ran/ and 3ane have a secret understanding, and he attempts to
warn mma! mma laughs at QnightleyPs suggestion and loses QnightleyPs approval when she
flirts with 6ran/ and insults Miss 4ates, a /indhearted spinster and 3anePs aunt, at a picnic! #hen
Qnightley reprimands mma, she weeps!
Aews comes that 6ran/Ps aunt has died, and this event paves the way for an une7pected
revelation that slowly solves the mysteries! 6ran/ and 3ane have been secretly engaged? his
attentions to mma have been a screen to hide his true preference! #ith his auntPs death and his
unclePs approval, 6ran/ can now marry 3ane, the woman he loves! mma worries that 1arriet
will be crushed, but she soon discovers that it is Qnightley, not 6ran/, who is the obMect of
1arrietPs affection! 1arriet believes that Qnightley shares her feelings! mma finds herself upset
by 1arrietPs revelation, and her distress forces her to realiBe that she is in love with Qnightley!
mma e7pects Qnightley to tell her he loves 1arriet, but, to her delight, Qnightley declares his
love for mma! 1arriet is soon comforted by a second proposal from 8obert Martin, which she
accepts! The novel ends with the marriage of 1arriet and Mr! Martin and that of mma and Mr!
Qnightley, resolving the >uestion of who loves whom after all!
Iharacter List
O
Emma W##-h#'se " The protagonist of the novel! In the well"/nown first sentence of the
novel, the narrator describes mma as Thandsome, clever, and rich, with a comfortable home and
happy disposition!L In some ways, the twenty"year"old mma is mature for her age! 4ecause her
mother is dead and her older sister married, she is already the head of her fatherPs household! .he
cares for her father and oversees the social goings"on in the village of 1ighbury! mmaPs
misplaced confidence in her abilities as a matchma/er and her prudish fear of love constitute the
central focus of the novel, which traces mmaPs mista/es and growing self"understanding!
8ead an in"depth analysis of mma #oodhouse!
M!. 5e#!&e Kni&h$le. " mmaPs brother"in"law and the #oodhousesP trusted friend and
advisor! Qnightley is a respected landowner in his late thirties! 1e lives at <onwell Abbey and
leases property to the Martins, a family of wealthy farmers whom he li/es and counsels!
Qnightley is the only character who is openly critical of mma, pointing out her flaws and
foibles with fran/ness, out of genuine concern and care for her! In this respect, he acts as a stand"
in for AustenPs and the readerPs Mudgments of mma!
M!. W##-h#'se " mmaPs father and the patriarch of 1artfield, the #oodhouse estate! Though
Mr! #oodhouse is nervous, frail, and prone to hypochondria, he is also /nown for his
friendliness and his attachment to his daughter! 1e is very resistant to change, to the point that he
is unhappy to see his daughters or mmaPs governess marry! In this sense, he impedes mmaPs
growth and acceptance of her adult destiny! 1e is often foolish and clearly not mmaPs
intellectual e>ual, but she comforts and entertains him with insight and affection!
Ha!!ie$ Smi$h " A pretty but unremar/able seventeen"year"old woman of uncertain parentage,
who lives at the local boarding school! 1arriet becomes mmaPs protRgR and the obMect of her
matchma/ing schemes!
74
(!ank +h'!chill " Mr! #estonPs son and Mrs! #estonPs stepson! 6ran/ Ihurchill lives at
nscombe with his aunt and uncle, Mr! and Mrs! Ihurchill! 1e is considered a potential suitor for
mma, but she learns that though 6ran/ is attractive, charming, and clever, he is also
irresponsible, deceitful, rash, and ultimately unsuited to her!
8ead an in"depth analysis of 6ran/ Ihurchill!
=ane (ai!)a6 " Miss 4atesPs niece, whose arrival in 1ighbury irritates mma! 3ane rivals mma
in accomplishment and beauty? she possesses a /ind heart and a reserved temperament! 4ecause
3ane lac/s mmaPs fortune, she must consider employment as a governess, but her marriage to
6ran/ Ihurchill saves her from that fate!
8ead an in"depth analysis of 3ane 6airfa7!
M!s. Wes$#n " 6ormerly Miss Taylor, mmaPs beloved governess and companion! Qnown for
her /ind temperament and her devotion to mma, Mrs! #eston lives at 8andalls with her
husband, 6ran/ IhurchillPs father!
M!. Wes$#n " The widower and proprietor of 8andalls, who has Must married Miss Taylor when
the novel begins! Mr! #eston has a son, 6ran/, from his first marriage to Miss Ihurchill $6ran/
was raised by Miss IhurchillPs sister and brother"in"law*! Mr! #eston is warm, sociable, and
perpetually optimistic!
M!. El$#n " The village vicar, a handsome and agreeable man considered a welcome addition to
any social gathering! #hen he reveals his indifference to 1arriet and his desire to marry mma,
only to ta/e a bride at 4ath shortly thereafter, he comes to seem proud, conceited, and
superficial!
M!. R#/e!$ Ma!$in " A twenty"four"year"old farmer! Mr! Martin is industrious and good"
hearted, though he lac/s the refinements of a gentleman! 1e lives at Abbey"Mill 6arm, a property
owned by Qnightley, with his mother and sisters!
Miss 8a$es " 6riend of Mr! #oodhouse and aunt of 3ane 6airfa7, Miss 4ates is a middle"aged
spinster without beauty or cleverness but with universal goodwill and a gentle temperament!
mmaPs impatient treatment of her reveals the less attractive parts of mmaPs character!
Isa/ella Kni&h$le. " mmaPs older sister, who lives in London with her husband, Mr! 3ohn
Qnightley, and their five children! Isabella is pretty, amiable, and completely devoted to her
family, but slow and diffident compared to mma! 1er domesticity provides a contrast to the
independent celibacy mma imagines for herself!
M!. =#hn Kni&h$le. " mmaPs brother"in"law, and Mr! George QnightleyPs brother! As a lawyer,
3ohn Qnightley is clear"minded but somewhat sharp in temper, and mma and her father are
sometimes displeased with his severity!
M!s. El$#n " 6ormerly Augusta 1aw/ins, Mrs! lton hails from 4ristol and meets Mr! lton in
4ath! .he is somewhat attractive and accomplished? she has some fortune and a well"married
sister, but her vanity, superficiality, and vulgar overfamiliarity offset her admirable >ualities!
M!s. +h'!chill " Mr! #estonPs ailing former sister"in"law and 6ran/ IhurchillPs aunt and
guardian! .he is /nown to be capricious, ill"tempered, and e7tremely possessive of 6ran/! 6ran/
is able to marry 3ane 6airfa7, as he desires, only after Mrs! IhurchillPs death!
75
+#l#nel +am/ell " A friend of 3ane 6airfa7Ps father who lives in London and who ta/es charge
of orphaned 3ane when she is eight years old! Iolonel Iampbell feels great affection for 3ane but
is unable to provide her with an inheritance!
M!s. 1i6#n " The IampbellsP daughter and 3anePs friend! Mrs! <i7on lac/s beauty and lives
with her husband in Ireland!
M!. 1i6#n " 1usband to the IampbellsP daughter! mma suspects that Mr! <i7on had a romance
with 3ane 6airfa7 before his marriage!
M!s. 5#--a!- " Mistress of the local boarding school! Mrs! Goddard introduces 1arriet .mith
to the #oodhouses!
M!s. 8a$es " Mother to Miss 4ates and friend of Mr! #oodhouse! An elderly woman, Mrs!
4ates is >uiet, amiable, and somewhat deaf!
M!. Pe!!. " An apothecary and associate of mmaPs father! Mr! 9erry is highly esteemed by Mr!
#oodhouse for his medical advice even though he is not a proper physician, and Mr! #oodhouse
argues with his daughter Isabella over 9erryPs recommendations!
EliAa/e$h Ma!$in " Mr! MartinPs /ind sister, with whom 1arriet was good friends before
meeting mma and turning down Mr! MartinPs marriage proposal! 1arrietPs feelings of guilt and
her desire to re/indle her relationship with liBabeth pose a dilemma for mma, who finds the
Martins pleasant, worthy people, but worries that 1arriet may be tempted to accept Mr! MartinPs
offer if she again grows close with the family!
M!. an- M!s. +#le " Tradespeople and longtime residents of 1ighbury whose good fortune of
the past several years has led them to adopt a lu7urious lifestyle that is only a notch below that of
the #oodhouses! Cffended by their attempt to transcend their Tonly moderately genteelL social
status, mma has long been preparing to turn down any dinner invitation from the Ioles in order
to teach them their folly in thin/ing they can interact socially with the li/es of her family! Li/e
the Martins, the Ioles are the means through which mma demonstrates her class"consciousness!
8omanul lui 3ane Austen, Emma& a fost publicat pentru prima oarE Dn 101&! Tradus mai
tJrBiu de Anca 8o]u, el a apErut Dn 8omJnia Dn 1555, la ditura 8AC! 3ane Austen s"a nEscut Dn
177' ]i a murit Dn 1017! La douEBeci de ani, Austen a produs primul roman, de]i scria DncE din
adolescen^E! Hn timpul vie^ii, a publicat MBndrie Ci "reAude$atD& RaEiune Ci simEire& Emma ]i
Par$ul Mans%ield7 <upE moarte, 1enry Austen, fratele ]i editorul ei a mai publicat romanele
Persuasiune ]i Northanger A;;e'! La data mor^ii, scriitoarea concepea un nou roman2 Sandition&
din care s"a pEstrat un singur fragment7
HntJlnirea mea cu cartea aceasta nu a avut nimic spectaculos! IJnd am fost DntrebatE ce
carte a] dori!!!
dintr"un anticariat, ]tiam rEspunsul ]i o orE mai tJrBiu o citeam Dn fotoliu, stJnd confortabil!
mma #oodhouse este fiica unui bEtrJn care urE]te cEsEtoriile! HnvE^Jnd de la el, mma
hotErE]te cE nu va pleca niciodatE de lJngE tatEl sEu ]i nu se va cEsEtori! Totu]i, asta nu o opre]te
76
sE planifice nun^ile altora! IJnd domni]oara Taylor devine doamna #eston, mma D]i Dnsu]e]te
meritul pentru fericita iubire! Hn lipsE de o prietenE cEreia sE"i DmpErtE]eascE toate secretele, o ia
Ksub aripa eiL protectoare pe 1arriet .mith! 9Erin^ii fetei nefiind cunoscu^i, 1arriet este umilE ]i
fErE preten^ii! IJnd este cerutE Dn cEsEtorie de dl! 8obert Martin, un fermier oarecare, mma o
DncuraMeaBE sE refuBe! Hntre timp, ea Di pregEte]te cEsEtoria cu nobilul domn lton! <in pEcate, nu
1arriet este obiectul aten^iilor lui, ci chiar mma! 8espins ]i umilit, dl! lton pleacE din
1ighbury, dar va reveni cEsEtorit cu o doamnE cu care mma se va Dmprieteni! Hntre timp
KsocietateaL din micul sat a]teaptE un oaspete distins2 6ran/ Ihurchill, fiul domnului #eston!
mma se grEbe]te DncE o datE sE interpreteBe gre]it rela^ia dintre 1arriet ]i 6ran/, drept rela^ie de
dragoste! Iel mai tare o tulburE faptul cE D]i dE seama cE este chiar ea DndrEgostitE, ]i DncE de
vechiul ei prieten, dl! Qnightley! Apare pericolul destrEmErii rela^iei cu Qnightley, dar, cJnd ]i el
Di mErturise]te cE o iube]te, fericirea mmei nu mai cunoa]te margini! Ia sE fie totul perfect,
cEsEtoria lor este completatE ca Dn basme de cEsEtoria lui 1arriet cu 8obert Martin!
.e pare cE 3ane Austen era foarte apropiatE de sora ei! AvJnd ]apte fra^i ]i o singurE sorE,
nu este de mirare cE s"a ata]at foarte tare de aceasta din urmE, faptul reflectJndu"se Dn toate
cEr^ile ei! Aceea]i rela^ie apare ]i Dn acest roman, Dntre mma ]i domni]oara Taylor $d"na
#eston*! 9entru o vreme, aceastE rela^ie apare ]i Dntre mma ]i 1arriet! 9ersonaMele sunt totu]i
destul de transparente ]i se poate deslu]i conturul atJt de asemEnEtor cu cel al personaMelor din
clasicul MBndrie Ci "reAude$atD7 Astfel, dl! <arcy poate fi foarte u]or comparat cu dl! Qnightley
sau d"na 4ates cu d"na 4ennet! 9e de altE parte, personaMele sunt mai pu^in deBvoltate decJt cele
din romanul atJt de faimos! mma se aseamEnE mult cu DnsE]i autoarea! 9lEnuind intrigi de
dragoste Dntr"o realitate inventatE, la fel cum Austen imagineaBE pove]ti de dragoste, mma este
pEpu]arul sau Iupidon Dn lumea romanului!
La prima vedere, titlul e absolut nesemnificativ, ba chiar un nume obi]nuit! Totu]i, el are
propria semnifica^ie! <acE privim printre romanele autoarei, putem sesiBa cE niciunul nu poartE
numele personaMului principal! <e aici deducem atJt cE autoarea i"a acordat mai multE aten^ie
decJt altor personaMe, dar ]i cE s"a regEsit ]i a empatiBat cu mma! Hn vremea Dn care femeile
aveau mult mai pu^ine drepturi, acest roman scris de o femeie, cu un titlu care este numele unei
femei, se face remarcat cu siguran^E!
3ane Austen a fost printre primele femei care au putut trEi construindu"]i o carierE din
scris! a a fost un e7emplu ]i o DncuraMare pentru toate scriitoarele care i"au urmat! Am apreciat
77
cel mai mult descrierile pline de elegan^E ]i stil specifice pentru stilul lui Austen! Au am apreciat
comportamentul superficial al lui 6ran/, pe care totu]i l"am iertat!
Emma sau orice carte a lui 3ane Austen nu poate fi recomandatE oricui! Au din cauBE cE nu
ar fi un roman bun, ci, din contrE, pentru cE e un roman care meritE sE fie apreciat! Totu]i, o
recomand celor care ]tiu sE recunoascE o frumoasE poveste despre tinere^e!
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
Ma!!ia&e an- S#cial S$a$'s
Emma is structured around a number of marriages recently consummated or anticipated, and, in
each case, the match solidifies the participantPs social status! In AustenPs time, social status was
determined by a combination of family bac/ground, reputation, and wealth@marriage was one
of the main ways in which one could raise onePs social status! This method of social
advancement was especially crucial to women, who were denied the possibility of improving
their status through hard wor/ or personal achievement!
Wet, the novel suggests, marrying too far above oneself leads to strife! Mr! #estonPs first
marriage to Miss Ihurchill had ostensibly been a good move for him, because she came from a
wealthy and well"connected family $Mr! #eston is a tradesman*, but the ine>uality of the
relationship caused hardship to both! 1e marries Mrs! #eston Must prior to the novelPs opening,
and this second marriage is happier because their social statuses are more e>ual@Mrs! #eston is
a governess, and thus very fortunate to be rescued from her need to wor/ by her marriage!
mmaPs attempt to match 1arriet with Mr! lton is also shunned by the other characters as
inappropriate! .ince 1arrietPs parentage is un/nown, mma believes that 1arriet may have noble
blood and encourages her to reMect what turns out to be a more appropriate match with 8obert
Martin! 4y the time it is revealed that 1arriet is the daughter of a tradesman, mma admits that
Mr! Martin is more suitable for her friend!
The relationship between marriage and social status creates hardship for other characters! 6ran/
Ihurchill must /eep his engagement to the orphan 3ane 6airfa7 secret because his wealthy aunt
would disapprove! 3ane, in the absence of a good match, is forced to consider ta/ing the position
of a governess! The unmarried Miss 4ates is threatened with increasing poverty without a
husband to ta/e care of her and her mother! 6inally, the match between mma and Mr! Qnightley
is considered a good one not only because they are well matched in temperament but also
because they are well matched in social class!
%he +#n)ine- 7a$'!e #) W#men:s E6is$ence
The novelPs limited, almost claustrophobic scope of action gives us a strong sense of the
confined nature of a womanPs e7istence in early"nineteenth"century rural ngland! mma
possesses a great deal of intelligence and energy, but the best use she can ma/e of these is to
attempt to guide the marital destinies of her friends, a proMect that gets her into trouble! The
alternative pastimes depicted in the boo/@social visits, charity visits, music, artistic endeavors
@seem relatively trivial, at times even monotonous! Isabella is the only mother focused on in the
story, and her portrayal suggests that a motherPs life offers a woman little use of her intellect! Wet,
when 3ane compares the governess profession to the slave trade, she ma/es it clear that the life of
a wor/ing woman is in no way preferable to the idleness of a woman of fortune! The novel
focuses on marriage because marriage offers women a chance to e7ert their power, if only for a
brief time, and to affect their own destinies without adopting the labors or efforts of the wor/ing
78
class! 9articipating in the rituals of courtship and accepting or reMecting proposals is perhaps the
most active role that women are permitted to play in mmaPs world!
%he 8lin-in& P#3e! #) Ima&ina$i#n
The novel offers sharply critical illustrations of the ways in which personal biases or desires
blind obMective Mudgment! mma cannot understand the motives that guide Mr! ltonPs behavior
because she imagines that he is in love with 1arriet! .he later admits to herself that T+s,he had
ta/en up the idea, she supposed, and made everything bend to it!L Meanwhile, Mr! ltonPs
feelings for mma cause him to mista/e her behavior for encouragement! The generally
infallible Mr! Qnightley cannot form an unbiased Mudgment of 6ran/ Ihurchill because he is
Mealous of 6ran/Ps claim on mma, and mma spea/s cruelly of 3ane because her vanity ma/es
her Mealous of 3anePs accomplishments! mmaPs biases cause her to invent an attachment between
1arriet and 6ran/ and blind her to the fact that 1arriet actually has feelings for Qnightley! At the
same time, 6ran/Ps desire to use mma as a screen for his real preference causes him to believe
mista/enly that she is aware of the situation between him and 3ane! The admirable, fre>uently
ironic detachment of the narrator allows us to see many of these misunderstandings before the
characters do, along with the humorous aspects of their behavior! And the plot is powered by a
series of realiBations that permit each character to ma/e fuller, more obMective Mudgments!
%he 2/s$acles $# 2en E6!essi#n
The misunderstandings that permeate the novel are created, in part, by the conventions of social
propriety! To differing degrees, characters are unable to e7press their feelings directly and
openly, and their feelings are therefore mista/en! #hile the novel by no means suggests that the
manners and rituals of social interaction should be eliminated, Austen implies that the overly
clever, comple7 speech of Mr! lton, 6ran/ Ihurchill, and mma deserves censure! .he presents
Mr! MartinPs natural, warm, and direct manner of e7pressing himself as preferable to Mr! ltonPs
ostentatious and insincere style of complimenting people! 6ran/ too possesses a talent for telling
people e7actly what they want to hear, and QnightleyPs suspicions of 6ran/Ps integrity are proven
valid when it turns out that 6ran/ has been misleading 1ighbury and hiding his true feelings for
3ane! The cleverness of 6ran/Ps and mmaPs banter gets them both into trouble by upsetting 3ane,
about whom mma says indiscreet and unfair things! mma and 6ran/Ps flirting at the 4o7 1ill
party hurts both Qnightley and 3ane! Moreover, mma forgets herself to the e7tent that she
cruelly insults Miss 4ates! Austen seems to prefer Qnightley and MartinPs tactful tacitness to the
sometimes overly gregarious commentary of mma, Mr! lton, and 6ran/, and, as a result, the
author gives the latter charactersP contrived speech a misleading influence on the story as a
whole!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform
the te7tPs maMor themes!
,isi$s
The main events of the novel ta/e place during visits that the characters pay to each other! The
fre>uency and length of visits between characters indicates the level of intimacy and attachment
between them! 6ran/Ps fre>uent visits to 1artfield show his relationship with mma to be close,
though in hindsight we recogniBe that 6ran/ also continually finds e7cuses to visit 3ane! Mr!
QnightleyPs constant presence at 1artfield indicates his affection and regard for mma! mma
encourages 1arriet to limit a visit with the Martin family to fifteen minutes, because such a short
visit clearly indicates that any former interest has been lost! mma is chastised for her failure to
79
visit Miss 4ates and 3ane more often? when she ta/es steps to rectify this situation, she indicates
a new concern for Miss 4ates and a new regard for 3ane!
Pa!$ies
More formal than visits, parties are organiBed around social conventions more than around
individual attachments@mmaPs hosting a dinner party for Mrs! lton, a woman she disli/es,
e7emplifies this characteristic! There are si7 important parties in the novel2 the Ihristmas ve
party at 8andalls, the dinner party at the IolesP, the dinner party given for Mrs! lton, the dance
at the Irown Inn, the morning party at <onwell Abbey, and the picnic at 4o7 1ill! ach occasion
provides the opportunity for social intrigue and misunderstandings, and for vanities to be
satisfied and connections formed! 9arties also give characters the chance to observe other
peoplePs interactions! Qnightley observes mmaPs behavior toward 6ran/ and 6ran/Ps behavior
toward 3ane! 9arties are microcosms of the social interactions that ma/e up the novel as a whole!
+#n*e!sa$i#nal S'/$e6$s
Much of the dialogue in Emma has double or even triple meanings, with different characters
interpreting a single comment in different ways! .ometimes these double meanings are apparent
to individual characters, and sometimes they are apparent only to the alert reader! 6or e7ample,
when Mr! lton says of mmaPs portrait of 1arriet, TI cannot /eep my eyes from it,L he means to
compliment mma, but she thin/s he is complimenting 1arriet! #hen, during the scene in which
Mr! Qnightley proposes to mma, mma says, TI seem to have been doomed to blindness,L
Qnightley believes she spea/s of her blindness to 6ran/Ps love of 3ane, but she actually refers to
her blindness about her own feelings! Cne of our main tas/s in reading the novel is to decode all
of the subte7ts underlying seemingly casual interactions, Must as the main characters must! The
novel concludes by unraveling the mystery behind who loves whom, which allows us to
understand AustenPs subte7t more fully!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
%he Ri--le
Also /nown as charades, riddles in the novel ta/e the form of elaborate wordplay! They
symboliBe the pervasive subte7ts that wait to be decoded in charactersP larger social interactions!
In Ihapter 5, Mr! lton presents a riddle to mma and 1arriet! mma decodes it immediately, as
Tcourtship,L but she decodes it wrongly in the sense that she believes it is meant for 1arriet
rather than herself! This wordplay also ma/es an appearance during the 4o7 1ill party, when Mr!
#eston ma/es an acrostic for mma!
%he W#!- 5ame
.imilar to the riddle, a word game is played in Ihapter 41 between mma, 6ran/, and 3ane! It
functions as a metaphor for the partial understandings and misunderstandings that e7ist among
mma, 6ran/, 3ane, and Mr! Qnightley! As Mr! Qnightley loo/s on, 6ran/ uses childPs bloc/s to
create words for the ladies to decode, though these words mean different things to each of them!
6ran/ ma/es the word Tblunder,L which 3ane understands as referring to a mista/e he has Must
made, but whose meaning is opa>ue to mma and Qnightley! 1e then ma/es the word T<i7on,L
which mma understands as a Mo/e on 3ane, and which baffles Qnightley! In truth, everyone
TblundersL in different ways that evening, because no one possesses complete enough
information to interpret correctly everything that is going on!
%#kens #) A))ec$i#n
A number of obMects in the novel ta/e on symbolic significance as to/ens of affection! Mr! lton
frames mmaPs portrait of 1arriet as a symbol of affection for her, though mma misunderstands
80
it as a symbol of affection for 1arriet! 1arriet /eeps court plaster and a pencil stub as souvenirs
of Mr! lton! #hen the engagement between 3ane and 6ran/ is briefly called off, she returns his
letters to symboliBe her relin>uishment of his affection!
FIITC8IAA AG
3. +a!!#!l Le3is Ali$e#s Adventures in @onderland
Ionte7t
O
Lewis Iarroll was the pseudonym of 8everend Iharles Lutwidge <odgson, a lecturer in
mathematics at Ihrist Ihurch, C7ford, who lived from 10)% to 1050! IarrollPs physical
deformities, partial deafness, and irrepressible stammer made him an unli/ely candidate for
producing one of the most popular and enduring childrenPs fantasies in the nglish language!
IarrollPs unusual appearance caused him to behave aw/wardly around other adults, and his
students at C7ford saw him as a stuffy and boring teacher! 1e held strict religious beliefs, serving
as a deacon in the Anglican Ihurch for many years and briefly considering becoming a minister!
:nderneath IarrollPs aw/ward e7terior, however, lay a brilliant and imaginative artist! A gifted
amateur photographer, he too/ numerous portraits of children throughout his adulthood! IarrollPs
/een grasp of mathematics and logic inspired the linguistic humor and witty wordplay in his
stories! Additionally, his uni>ue understanding of childrenPs minds allowed him to compose
imaginative fiction that appealed to young people!
Iarroll felt shy and reserved around adults but became animated and lively around children! 1is
crippling stammer melted away in the company of children as he told them his elaborately
nonsensical stories! Iarroll discovered his gift for storytelling in his own youth when he served
as the unofficial family entertainer for his five younger sisters and three younger brothers! 1e
staged performances and wrote the bul/ of the fiction in the family magaBine! As an adult,
Iarroll continued to prefer the companionship of children to adults and tended to favor little
girls! Cver the course of his lifetime he made numerous child friends whom he wrote to
fre>uently and often mentioned in his diaries!
In 10'&, Iarroll became close with the Liddell children and met the girl who would become the
inspiration for Alice, the protagonist of his two most famous boo/s! It was in that year that
classics scholar 1enry George Liddell accepted an appointment as <ean of Ihrist Ihurch, one of
the colleges that comprise C7ford :niversity, and brought his three daughters to live with him at
C7ford! Lorina, Alice, and dith Liddell >uic/ly became IarrollPs favorite companions and
photographic subMects! <uring their fre>uent afternoon boat trips on the river, Iarroll told the
Liddells fanciful tales! Alice >uic/ly became IarrollPs favorite of the three girls, and he made her
the subMect of the stories that would later became Ali$e#s Adventures in @onderland and !hrough
the Loo*ing-<lass! Almost ten years after first meeting the Liddells, Iarroll compiled the stories
and submitted the completed manuscript for publication!
Ali$e#s Adventures in @onderland received mostly negative reviews when first published in
10&'! Iritics and readers ali/e found the boo/ to be sheer nonsense, and one critic sneered that
the boo/ was Ttoo e7travagantly absurd to produce more diversion than disappointment and
irritation!L Cnly 3ohn TennielPs detailed illustrations garnered praise, and his images continue to
appear in most reprints of the Alice boo/s! <espite the boo/Ps negative reception, Iarroll
proposed a se>uel to his publisher in 10&& and set to wor/ writing !hrough the Loo*ing-<lass!
4y the time the second boo/ reached publication in 1071, Ali$e#s Adventures in @onderland had
81
found an appreciative readership! Cver time, IarrollPs combination of sophisticated logic, social
satire, and pure fantasy would ma/e the boo/ a classic for children and adults ali/e! Iritics
eventually recogniBed the literary merits of both te7ts, and celebrated authors and philosophers
ranging from 3ames 3oyce to Ludwig #ittgenstein praised IarrollPs stories!
In 1001, Iarroll resigned from his position as mathematics lecturer at C7ford to pursue writing
full time! 1e composed numerous poems, several new wor/s for children, and boo/s of logic
puBBles and games, but none of his later writings attained the success of the Alice boo/s! Iarroll
continued to have close friendships with children! .everal of his child friends served as
inspiration for the .ylvie and 4runo boo/s! Li/e the Alice stories, S'lvie and ,runo $1005* and
S'lvie and ,runo Con$luded $1050* relied heavily on childrenPs silly sayings and absurd
fantasies! Iarroll died in 1050 at the age of si7ty"si7, soon after the publication of the S'lvie and
,runo boo/s! 1e passed away in his familyPs home in Guildford, ngland!
IarrollPs sudden brea/ with the Liddell family in the early 10&;s has led to a great deal of
speculation over the nature of his relationship with Alice Liddell! .ome boo/s indicate that the
split resulted from a disagreement between Iarroll and <ean Liddell over Ihrist Ihurch matters!
Cther evidence indicates that more insidious elements e7isted in IarrollPs relationships with
young children and with Alice Liddell in particular! This possibility seems to be supported by the
fact that Mrs! Liddell burned all of IarrollPs early letters to Alice and that Iarroll himself tore
pages out of his diary related to the brea/! 1owever, no concrete evidence e7ists that Iarroll
behaved inappropriately in his numerous friendships with children! 8ecords written by IarrollPs
associates and Alice Liddell herself do not indicate any untoward behavior on his part!
IarrollPs feelings of intense nostalgia for the simple pleasures of childhood caused him to feel
deep discomfort in the presence of adults! In the company of children, Iarroll felt understood
and could temporarily forget the loss of innocence that he associated with his own adulthood!
Ironically, Iarroll mourned this loss again and again as he watched each of his child friends
grow away from him as they became older! As he wrote in a letter to the mother of one of his
young muses, TIt is very sweet to me, to be loved by her as children love2 though the e7perience
of many years have now taught me that there are few things in the world so evanescent +fleeting,
as a childPs love! Aine"tenths of the children, whose love once seemed as warm as hers, are now
merely on the terms of everyday ac>uaintance!L The sentiment of fleeting happiness pervades
IarrollPs seemingly lighthearted fantasies and infuses the Alice boo/s with melancholy and loss!
9lot Cverview
O
Alice sits on a riverban/ on a warm summer day, drowsily reading over her sisterPs shoulder,
when she catches sight of a #hite 8abbit in a waistcoat running by her! The #hite 8abbit pulls
out a poc/et watch, e7claims that he is late, and pops down a rabbit hole! Alice follows the #hite
8abbit down the hole and comes upon a great hallway lined with doors! .he finds a small door
that she opens using a /ey she discovers on a nearby table! Through the door, she sees a beautiful
garden, and Alice begins to cry when she realiBes she cannot fit through the door! .he finds a
bottle mar/ed T<8IAQ ML and downs the contents! .he shrin/s down to the right siBe to enter
the door but cannot enter since she has left the /ey on the tabletop above her head! Alice
discovers a ca/e mar/ed TAT ML which causes her to grow to an inordinately large height!
.till unable to enter the garden, Alice begins to cry again, and her giant tears form a pool at her
feet! As she cries, Alice shrin/s and falls into the pool of tears! The pool of tears becomes a sea,
and as she treads water she meets a Mouse! The Mouse accompanies Alice to shore, where a
82
number of animals stand gathered on a ban/! After a TIaucus 8ace,L Alice scares the animals
away with tales of her cat, <inah, and finds herself alone again!
Alice meets the #hite 8abbit again, who mista/es her for a servant and sends her off to fetch his
things! #hile in the #hite 8abbitPs house, Alice drin/s an unmar/ed bottle of li>uid and grows
to the siBe of the room! The #hite 8abbit returns to his house, fuming at the now"giant Alice, but
she swats him and his servants away with her giant hand! The animals outside try to get her out
of the house by throwing roc/s at her, which ine7plicably transform into ca/es when they land in
the house! Alice eats one of the ca/es, which causes her to shrin/ to a small siBe! .he wanders off
into the forest, where she meets a Iaterpillar sitting on a mushroom and smo/ing a hoo/ah $i!e!,
a water pipe*! The Iaterpillar and Alice get into an argument, but before the Iaterpillar crawls
away in disgust, he tells Alice that different parts of the mushroom will ma/e her grow or shrin/!
Alice tastes a part of the mushroom, and her nec/ stretches above the trees! A pigeon sees her
and attac/s, deeming her a serpent hungry for pigeon eggs!
Alice eats another part of the mushroom and shrin/s down to a normal height! .he wanders until
she comes across the house of the <uchess! .he enters and finds the <uchess, who is nursing a
s>uealing baby, as well as a grinning Iheshire Iat, and a Ioo/ who tosses massive amounts of
pepper into a cauldron of soup! The <uchess behaves rudely to Alice and then departs to prepare
for a cro>uet game with the Vueen! As she leaves, the <uchess hands Alice the baby, which Alice
discovers is a pig! Alice lets the pig go and reenters the forest, where she meets the Iheshire Iat
again! The Iheshire Iat e7plains to Alice that everyone in #onderland is mad, including Alice
herself! The Iheshire Iat gives directions to the March 1arePs house and fades away to nothing
but a floating grin!
Alice travels to the March 1arePs house to find the March 1are, the Mad 1atter, and the
<ormouse having tea together! Treated rudely by all three, Alice stands by the tea party,
uninvited! .he learns that they have wronged Time and are trapped in perpetual tea"time! After a
final discourtesy, Alice leaves and Mourneys through the forest! .he finds a tree with a door in its
side, and travels through it to find herself bac/ in the great hall! .he ta/es the /ey and uses the
mushroom to shrin/ down and enter the garden!
After saving several gardeners from the temper of the Vueen of 1earts, Alice Moins the Vueen in
a strange game of cro>uet! The cro>uet ground is hilly, the mallets and balls are live flamingos
and hedgehogs, and the Vueen tears about, frantically calling for the other playerPs e7ecutions!
Amidst this madness, Alice bumps into the Iheshire Iat again, who as/s her how she is doing!
The Qing of 1earts interrupts their conversation and attempts to bully the Iheshire Iat, who
impudently dismisses the Qing! The Qing ta/es offense and arranges for the Iheshire IatPs
e7ecution, but since the Iheshire Iat is now only a head floating in midair, no one can agree on
how to behead it!
The <uchess approaches Alice and attempts to befriend her, but the <uchess ma/es Alice feel
uneasy! The Vueen of 1earts chases the <uchess off and tells Alice that she must visit the Moc/
Turtle to hear his story! The Vueen of 1earts sends Alice with the Gryphon as her escort to meet
the Moc/ Turtle! Alice shares her strange e7periences with the Moc/ Turtle and the Gryphon,
who listen sympathetically and comment on the strangeness of her adventures! After listening to
the Moc/ TurtlePs story, they hear an announcement that a trial is about to begin, and the
Gryphon brings Alice bac/ to the cro>uet ground!
The Qnave of 1earts stands trial for stealing the VueenPs tarts! The Qing of 1earts leads the
proceedings, and various witnesses approach the stand to give evidence! The Mad 1atter and the
83
Ioo/ both give their testimony, but none of it ma/es any sense! The #hite 8abbit, acting as a
herald, calls Alice to the witness stand! The Qing goes nowhere with his line of >uestioning, but
ta/es encouragement when the #hite 8abbit provides new evidence in the form of a letter
written by the Qnave! The letter turns out to be a poem, which the Qing interprets as an
admission of guilt on the part of the Qnave! Alice believes the note to be nonsense and protests
the QingPs interpretation! The Vueen becomes furious with Alice and orders her beheading, but
Alice grows to a huge siBe and /noc/s over the VueenPs army of playing cards!
All of a sudden, Alice finds herself awa/e on her sisterPs lap, bac/ at the riverban/! .he tells her
sister about her dream and goes inside for tea as her sister ponders AlicePs adventures!
8eBumat2
Alice sta pe banca impreuna cu sora ei! Fede un iepure cu ceas si il urmareste intr"o viBuina!
AMunge intr"o sala cu o masa pe care sa afla o cheita care deschide o usa spre o gradina superba,
insa este prea mare pentru a intra!
Alice bea dintr"o sticluta si se micsoreaBa, insa uita cheia pe masa! Mananca niste coBonac, insa
devine prea mare si incepe sa planga! Apare din nou Iepurele Alb si ,speriindu"se de ea, isi scapa
evantaiul si manusile albe! Alice isi face vant cu evantaiul si isi pune o manusa!
.e face din nou mica si inoata in lacrimile sale! Intalneste un soarece cu aMutorul caruia aMunge la
un mal!Iepurele Alb o confunda cu una din servitoarele sale si o trimite sa"i aduca un evantai si o
pereche de manusi albe de acasa!!
Alice intra in casa si mananca niste coBonac care o face sa creasca din nou, pana cand nu mai
incape in camera! FaBand aceasta, Iepurele trimite un servitor, pe soparla 4ill, sa intre pe cosul
casei, insa Alice il arunca afara!
Iepurele si servitorii incep sa arunce cu pietre, care se transforma in bucati de coBonac, care o
micsoreaBa pe Alice! Aceasta iese din casa si se indreapta spre o pasune unde intalneste un catel
urias si apoi o ciuperca mare, pe care sta o omida! a ii spune ca o bucata din ciuperca o va
micsora, iar alta o va face sa creasca!
Alice ia o bucata din amandoua partile si merge mai departe! AMunge la casa <ucesei, unde
bucatareasa pune foarte mult piper in mancare! <e aceea, <ucesa si copilul ei care seamana cu
un purcel, stranuta incontinuu! <ucesa este invitata de 8egina sa Moace cro>uet si ii arunca lui
Alice copilul! Acesta se transforma in purcel si Alice ii da drumul in padure!
Apare pisica de Ihesire pe o ramura de copac si o indruma pe Alice, spunandu"i ca intr"o parte
locuieste Iepurele de Martie, iar in cealalta 9alarierul, amandoi nebuni! Alice porneste spre casa
Iepurelui de Martie, unde acesta lua ceaiul cu 9alarierul si cu 1arciogul! Acestia sunt plictisitori,
iar 9alarierul este chiar nepoliticos!
Alice paraseste masa si intra intr"o scorbura de copac care o duce inapoi in sala cea mare cu
84
masuta! <e data aceasta Alice nu uita cheia si intra in gradina superba, unde vede niste sluMitori
in forma de carti de Moc care vopseau o tufa de trandafiri!
Fine alaiul regal si Alice face cunostiinta cu 8egele si 8egina! Aceasta o invita sa Moace cro>uet
alaturi de ea! 3ocul este insa lipsit de reguli, fiind un haos total, asa ca Alice vorbeste cu pisica de
Ihesire al carei cap tocmai apare pe cer!
8egele intra in discutie, insa pisica refuBa sa"i sarute mana! 8egina ordona sa i se taie capul,
precum si celorlalti Mucatori, in afara de Alice!
8egina se ofera sa i"o arate lui Alice pe 6alsa 4roasca Testoasa, insa i"o incredinteaBa Grifonului
deoarece trebuie sa se intoarca! Grifonul o duce pe Alice la 6alsa 4roasca Testoasa care ii arata
cadrilul homarilor!
<eodata se aude vocea 8eginei si Alice impreuna cu Grifonul se duc la tribunal! Alice este
cheamta ca martor, insa incepe sa creasca pana cand devine foarte mare, iar 8egele ii spune ca
trebuie sa paraseasca sala! Atunci se treBeste si incepe sa"i povesteasca surorii sale intregul vis!
Iharacter List
O
Alice " The seven"year"old protagonist of the story! Alice believes that the world is orderly and
stable, and she has an insatiable curiosity about her surroundings! #onderland challenges and
frustrates her perceptions of the world!

%he Whi$e Ra//i$ " The frantic, harried #onderland creature that originally leads Alice to
#onderland! The #hite 8abbit is figure of some importance, but he is manic, timid, and
occasionally aggressive!
%he 4'een #) Hea!$s " The ruler of #onderland! The Vueen is severe and domineering,
continually screaming for her subMects to be beheaded!

%he Kin& #) Hea!$s " The coruler of #onderland! The Qing is ineffectual and generally
unli/eable, but lac/s the VueenPs ruthlessness and undoes her orders of e7ecution!
%he +heshi!e +a$ " A perpetually grinning cat who appears and disappears at will! The
Iheshire Iat displays a detached, clearheaded logic and e7plains #onderlandPs madness to
Alice!

%he 1'chess " The VueenPs uncommonly ugly cousin! The <uchess behaves rudely to Alice at
first, but later treats her so affectionately that her advances feel threatening!
%he +a$e!illa! " A #onderland creature! The Iaterpillar sits on a mushroom, smo/es a
hoo/ah, and treats Alice with contempt! 1e directs Alice to the magic mushroom that allows her
to shrin/ and grow!
85
%he Ma- Ha$$e! " A small, impolite hatter who lives in perpetual tea"time! The Mad 1atter
enMoys frustrating Alice!
%he Ma!ch Ha!e " The Mad 1atterPs tea"time companion! The March 1are ta/es great pleasure
in frustrating Alice!
%he 1#!m#'se " The Mad 1atter and March 1arePs companion! The <ormouse sits at the tea
table and drifts in and out of sleep!
%he 5!.h#n " A servant to the Vueen who befriends Alice! The Gryphon escorts Alice to see
the Moc/ Turtle!
%he M#ck %'!$le " A turtle with the head of a calf! The Moc/ Turtle is friendly to Alice but is
e7ceedingly sentimental and self"absorbed!
Alice:s sis$e! " The only character whom Alice interacts with outside of #onderland! AlicePs
sister daydreams about AlicePs adventures as the story closes!
%he Kna*e #) Hea!$s " An attendant to the Qing and Vueen! The Qnave has been accused of
stealing the VueenPs tarts!
%he M#'se " The first #onderland creature that Alice encounters! The Mouse is initially
frightened of Alice and her tal/ about her pet cat, and eventually tells the story of 6ury and the
Mouse that foreshadows the Qnave of 1eartPs trial!
%he 1#-# " A #onderland creature! The <odo tends to use big words, and others accuse him of
not /nowing their meanings! 1e proposes that the animals participate in a Iaucus race!
%he 1'ck< $he L#!.< an- $he Ea&le$ " #onderland creatures who participate in the Iaucus
race!
%he +##k " The <uchessPs coo/, who causes everyone to sneeBe with the amount of pepper she
uses in her coo/ing! The Ioo/ is ill"tempered, throwing obMects at the <uchess and refusing to
give evidence at the trial!
%he Pi&e#n " A #onderland creature who believes Alice is a serpent! The pigeon is sul/y and
angry and thin/s Alice is after her eggs!
%3#< (i*e< an- Se*en " The playing"card gardeners! Two, 6ive, and .even are fearful and
fumbling, especially in the presence of the Vueen!
8ill " A liBard who first appears as a servant of the #hite 8abbit and later as a Muror at the trial!
4ill is stupid and ineffectual!
%he (!#&-(##$man " The <uchessPs footman! The 6rog"footman is stupid and accustomed to
the fact that nothing ma/es sense in #onderland!
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
%he %!a&ic an- Ine*i$a/le L#ss #) +hil-h##- Inn#cence
Throughout the course of Ali$e#s Adventures in @onderland, Alice goes through a variety of
absurd physical changes! The discomfort she feels at never being the right siBe acts as a symbol
for the changes that occur during puberty! Alice finds these changes to be traumatic, and feels
discomfort, frustration, and sadness when she goes through them! .he struggles to maintain a
comfortable physical siBe! In Ihapter 1, she becomes upset when she /eeps finding herself too
big or too small to enter the garden! In Ihapter ', she loses control over specific body parts when
86
her nec/ grows to an absurd length! These constant fluctuations represent the way a child may
feel as her body grows and changes during puberty!
Li)e as a Meanin&less P'AAle
In Ali$e#s Adventures in @onderland, Alice encounters a series of puBBles that seem to have no
clear solutions, which imitates the ways that life frustrates e7pectations! Alice e7pects that the
situations she encounters will ma/e a certain /ind of sense, but they repeatedly frustrate her
ability to figure out #onderland! Alice tries to understand the Iaucus race, solve the Mad
1atterPs riddle, and understand the VueenPs ridiculous cro>uet game, but to no avail! In every
instance, the riddles and challenges presented to Alice have no purpose or answer! ven though
Lewis Iarroll was a logician, in Ali$e#s Adventures in @onderland he ma/es a farce out of Mo/es,
riddles, and games of logic! Alice learns that she cannot e7pect to find logic or meaning in the
situations that she encounters, even when they appear to be problems, riddles, or games that
would normally have solutions that Alice would be able to figure out! Iarroll ma/es a broader
point about the ways that life frustrates e7pectations and resists interpretation, even when
problems seem familiar or solvable!
1ea$h as a +#ns$an$ an- Dn-e!l.in& Menace
Alice continually finds herself in situations in which she ris/s death, and while these threats
never materialiBe, they suggest that death lur/s Must behind the ridiculous events of Ali$e#s
Adventures in @onderland as a present and possible outcome! <eath appears in Ihapter 1, when
the narrator mentions that Alice would say nothing of falling off of her own house, since it would
li/ely /ill her! Alice ta/es ris/s that could possibly /ill her, but she never considers death as a
possible outcome! Cver time, she starts to realiBe that her e7periences in #onderland are far
more threatening than they appear to be! As the Vueen screams TCff with its headXL she
understands that #onderland may not merely be a ridiculous realm where e7pectations are
repeatedly frustrated! <eath may be a real threat, and Alice starts to understand that the ris/s she
faces may not be ridiculous and absurd after all!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform
the te7tPs maMor themes!
1!eam
Ali$e#s Adventures in @onderland ta/es place in AlicePs dream, so that the characters and
phenomena of the real world mi7 with elements of AlicePs unconscious state! The dream motif
e7plains the abundance of nonsensical and disparate events in the story! As in a dream, the
narrative follows the dreamer as she encounters various episodes in which she attempts to
interpret her e7periences in relationship to herself and her world! Though AlicePs e7periences
lend themselves to meaningful observations, they resist a singular and coherent interpretation!
S'/*e!si#n
Alice >uic/ly discovers during her travels that the only reliable aspect of #onderland that she
can count on is that it will frustrate her e7pectations and challenge her understanding of the
natural order of the world! In #onderland, Alice finds that her lessons no longer mean what she
thought, as she botches her multiplication tables and incorrectly recites poems she had
memoriBed while in #onderland! ven AlicePs physical dimensions become warped as she grows
and shrin/s erratically throughout the story! #onderland frustrates AlicePs desires to fit her
e7periences in a logical framewor/ where she can ma/e sense of the relationship between cause
and effect!
Lan&'a&e
87
Iarroll plays with linguistic conventions in Ali$e#s Adventures in @onderland, ma/ing use of
puns and playing on multiple meanings of words throughout the te7t! Iarroll invents words and
e7pressions and develops new meanings for words! AlicePs e7clamation TIurious and curiouserXL
suggests that both her surroundings and the language she uses to describe them e7pand beyond
e7pectation and convention! Anything is possible in #onderland, and IarrollPs manipulation of
language reflects this sense of unlimited possibility!
Curious< Nonsense< an- Confusing
Alice uses these words throughout her Mourney to describe phenomena she has trouble
e7plaining! Though the words are generally interchangeable, she usually assigns $urious and
$on%using to e7periences or encounters that she tolerates! .he endures is the e7periences that are
curious or confusing, hoping to gain a clearer picture of how that individual or e7perience
functions in the world! #hen Alice declares something to be nonsense, as she does with the trial
in Ihapter 1%, she reMects or criticiBes the e7perience or encounter!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
%he 5a!-en
Aearly every obMect in Ali$e#s Adventures in @onderland functions as a symbol, but nothing
clearly represents one particular thing! The symbolic resonances of #onderland obMects are
generally contained to the individual episode in which they appear! Cften the symbols wor/
together to convey a particular meaning! The garden may symboliBe the Garden of den, an
idyllic space of beauty and innocence that Alice is not permitted to access! Cn a more abstract
level, the garden may simply represent the e7perience of desire, in that Alice focuses her energy
and emotion on trying to attain it! The two symbolic meanings wor/ together to underscore
AlicePs desire to hold onto her feelings of childli/e innocence that she must relin>uish as she
matures!
%he +a$e!illa!:s M'sh!##m
Li/e the garden, the IaterpillarPs mushroom also has multiple symbolic meanings! .ome readers
and critics view the Iaterpillar as a se7ual threat, its phallic shape a symbol of se7ual virility!
The IaterpillarPs mushroom connects to this symbolic meaning! Alice must master the properties
of the mushroom to gain control over her fluctuating siBe, which represents the bodily
frustrations that accompany puberty! Cthers view the mushroom as a psychedelic hallucinogen
that compounds AlicePs surreal and distorted perception of #onderland!
6. +ha!les 1ichens> 5!ea$ e6ec$a$i#ns
Ionte7t
O
Iharles <ic/ens was born on 6ebruary 7, 101%, and spent the first nine years of his life living in
the coastal regions of Qent, a county in southeast ngland! <ic/ensPs father, 3ohn, was a /ind
and li/able man, but he was incompetent with moneymoney and piled up tremendous debts
throughout his life! #hen <ic/ens was nine, his family moved to London! #hen he was twelve,
his father was arrested and ta/en to debtorsP prison! <ic/ensPs mother moved his seven brothers
and sisters into prison with their father, but she arranged for the young Iharles to live alone
outside the prison and wor/ with other children pasting labels on bottles in a blac/ing warehouse
$blac/ing was a type of manufactured soot used to ma/e a blac/ pigment for products such as
88
matches or fertiliBer*! <ic/ens found the three months he spent apart from his family highly
traumatic! Aot only was the Mob itself miserable, but he considered himself too good for it,
earning the contempt of the other children! After his father was released from prison, <ic/ens
returned to school! 1e eventually became a law cler/, then a court reporter, and finally a novelist!
1is first novel, !he Pi$*?i$* Pa"ers& became a huge popular success when <ic/ens was only
twenty"five! 1e published e7tensively and was considered a literary celebrity until his death in
107;!
Many of the events from <ic/ensPs early life are mirrored in <reat E="e$tations& which, apart
from David Co""er%ield& is his most autobiographical novel! 9ip, the novelPs protagonist, lives in
the marsh country, wor/s at a Mob he hates, considers himself too good for his surroundings, and
e7periences material success in London at a very early age, e7actly as <ic/ens himself did! In
addition, one of the novelPs most appealing characters, #emmic/, is a law cler/, and the law,
Mustice, and the courts are all important components of the story!
<reat E="e$tations is set in early Fictorian ngland, a time when great social changes were
sweeping the nation! The Industrial 8evolution of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries had transformed the social landscape, enabling capitalists and manufacturers to amass
huge fortunes! Although social class was no longer entirely dependent on the circumstances of
onePs birth, the divisions between rich and poor remained nearly as wide as ever! London, a
teeming mass of humanity, lit by gasgas lamps at night and dar/ened by blac/ clouds from
smo/estac/s during the day, formed a sharp contrast with the nationPs sparsely populated rural
areas! More and more people moved from the country to the city in search of greater economic
opportunity! Throughout ngland, the manners of the upper class were very strict and
conservative2 gentlemen and ladies were e7pected to have thorough classical educations and to
behave appropriately in innumerable social situations!
These conditions defined <ic/ensPs time, and they ma/e themselves felt in almost every facet of
<reat E="e$tations! 9ipPs sudden rise from country laborer to city gentleman forces him to move
from one social e7treme to another while dealing with the strict rules and e7pectations that
governed Fictorian ngland! Ironically, this novel about the desire for wealthwealth and social
advancement was written partially out of economic necessity! <ic/ensPs magaBine, All the )ear
Round& had become e7tremely popular based on the success of wor/s it had published in serial,
such as his own A !ale o% !?o Cities and #il/ie IollinsPs !he @oman in @hite! 4ut it had
e7perienced a decline in popularity after publishing a dull serial by Iharles Lever called A Da'#s
Ride! <ic/ens conceived of <reat E="e$tations as a means of restoring his publicationPs
fortunes! The boo/ is still immensely popular a century and a half later!
In form, <reat E="e$tations fits a pattern popular in nineteenth"century uropean fiction2 the
bildungsroman, or novel depicting growth and personal development, generally a transition from
boyhood to manhood such as that e7perienced by 9ip! The genre was populariBed by Goethe
with his boo/ @ilhelm Meister $1754(175&* and became prevalent in ngland with such boo/s
as <aniel <efoePs Ro;inson Crusoe& Iharlotte 4rontaPs Jane E're& and <ic/ensPs own David
Co""er%ield! ach of these wor/s, li/e <reat E="e$tations& depicts a process of maturation and
self"discovery through e7perience as a protagonist moves from childhood to adulthood!
9lot Cverview
O
9ip, a young orphan living with his sister and her husband in the marshes of Qent, sits in a
cemetery one evening loo/ing at his parentsP tombstones! .uddenly, an escaped convict springs
up from behind a tombstone, grabs 9ip, and orders him to bring him food and a file for his leg
89
irons! 9ip obeys, but the fearsome convict is soon captured anyway! The convict protects 9ip by
claiming to have stolen the items himself!
Cne day 9ip is ta/en by his :ncle 9umblechoo/ to play at .atis 1ouse, the home of the wealthy
dowager Miss 1avisham, who is e7tremely eccentric2 she wears an old wedding dress
everywhere she goes and /eeps all the cloc/s in her house stopped at the same time! <uring his
visit, he meets a beautiful young girl named stella, who treats him coldly and contemptuously!
Aevertheless, he falls in love with her and dreams of becoming a wealthy gentleman so that he
might be worthy of her! 1e even hopes that Miss 1avisham intends to ma/e him a gentleman and
marry him to stella, but his hopes are dashed when, after months of regular visits to .atis
1ouse, Miss 1avisham decides to help him become a common laborer in his familyPs business!
#ith Miss 1avishamPs guidance, 9ip is apprenticed to his brother"in"law, 3oe, who is the village
blac/smith! 9ip wor/s in the forge unhappily, struggling to better his education with the help of
the plain, /ind 4iddy and encountering 3oePs malicious day laborer, Crlic/! Cne night, after an
altercation with Crlic/, 9ipPs sister, /nown as Mrs! 3oe, is viciously attac/ed and becomes a mute
invalid! 6rom her signals, 9ip suspects that Crlic/ was responsible for the attac/!
Cne day a lawyer named 3aggers appears with strange news2 a secret benefactor has given 9ip a
large fortune, and 9ip must come to London immediately to begin his education as a gentleman!
9ip happily assumes that his previous hopes have come true@that Miss 1avisham is his secret
benefactor and that the old woman intends for him to marry stella!
In London, 9ip befriends a young gentleman named 1erbert 9oc/et and 3aggersPs law cler/,
#emmic/! 1e e7presses disdain for his former friends and loved ones, especially 3oe, but he
continues to pine after stella! 1e furthers his education by studying with the tutor Matthew
9oc/et, 1erbertPs father! 1erbert himself helps 9ip learn how to act li/e a gentleman! #hen 9ip
turns twenty"one and begins to receive an income from his fortune, he will secretly help 1erbert
buy his way into the business he has chosen for himself! 4ut for now, 1erbert and 9ip lead a
fairly undisciplined life in London, enMoying themselves and running up debts! Crlic/ reappears
in 9ipPs life, employed as Miss 1avishamPs porter, but is promptly fired by 3aggers after 9ip
reveals Crlic/Ps unsavory past! Mrs! 3oe dies, and 9ip goes home for the funeral, feeling
tremendous grief and remorse! .everal years go by, until one night a familiar figure barges into
9ipPs room@the convict, Magwitch, who stuns 9ip by announcing that he, not Miss 1avisham, is
the source of 9ipPs fortune! 1e tells 9ip that he was so moved by 9ipPs boyhood /indness that he
dedicated his life to ma/ing 9ip a gentleman, and he made a fortune in Australia for that very
purpose!
9ip is appalled, but he feels morally bound to help Magwitch escape London, as the convict is
pursued both by the police and by Iompeyson, his former partner in crime! A complicated
mystery begins to fall into place when 9ip discovers that Iompeyson was the man who
abandoned Miss 1avisham at the altar and that stella is MagwitchPs daughter! Miss 1avisham
has raised her to brea/ menPs hearts, as revenge for the pain her own bro/en heart caused her! 9ip
was merely a boy for the young stella to practice on? Miss 1avisham delighted in stellaPs
ability to toy with his affections!
As the wee/s pass, 9ip sees the good in Magwitch and begins to care for him deeply! 4efore
MagwitchPs escape attempt, stella marries an upper"class lout named 4entley <rummle! 9ip
ma/es a visit to .atis 1ouse, where Miss 1avisham begs his forgiveness for the way she has
treated him in the past, and he forgives her! Later that day, when she bends over the fireplace, her
90
clothing catches fire and she goes up in flames! .he survives but becomes an invalid! In her final
days, she will continue to repent for her misdeeds and to plead for 9ipPs forgiveness!
The time comes for 9ip and his friends to spirit Magwitch away from London! 3ust before the
escape attempt, 9ip is called to a shadowy meeting in the marshes, where he encounters the
vengeful, evil Crlic/! Crlic/ is on the verge of /illing 9ip when 1erbert arrives with a group of
friends and saves 9ipPs life! 9ip and 1erbert hurry bac/ to effect MagwitchPs escape! They try to
snea/ Magwitch down the river on a rowboat, but they are discovered by the police, who
Iompeyson tipped off! Magwitch and Iompeyson fight in the river, and Iompeyson is drowned!
Magwitch is sentenced to death, and 9ip loses his fortune! Magwitch feels that his sentence is
GodPs forgiveness and dies at peace! 9ip falls ill? 3oe comes to London to care for him, and they
are reconciled! 3oe gives him the news from home2 Crlic/, after robbing 9umblechoo/, is now in
Mail? Miss 1avisham has died and left most of her fortune to the 9oc/ets? 4iddy has taught 3oe
how to read and write! After 3oe leaves, 9ip decides to rush home after him and marry 4iddy, but
when he arrives there he discovers that she and 3oe have already married!
9ip decides to go abroad with 1erbert to wor/ in the mercantile trade! 8eturning many years
later, he encounters stella in the ruined garden at .atis 1ouse! <rummle, her husband, treated
her badly, but he is now dead! 9ip finds that stellaPs coldness and cruelty have been replaced by
a sad /indness, and the two leave the garden hand in hand, 9ip believing that they will never part
again! $Aote2 <ic/ensPs original ending to <reat E="e$tations differed from the one described in
this summary! The final .ummary and Analysis section of this .par/Aote provides a description
of the first ending and e7plains why <ic/ens rewrote it!*
ntr"o fierErie de la marginea unei localitE i, situatE la o distan E de ' ore cu po talionul de
Londra, D i duce e7isten a orfanul 9ip $ pe numele de boteB 9hilip *, alEturi de sora i de
cumnatul lui $ dna 3oe i 3oseph, Bis 3oe Garger *! Hn timp ce cumnatul lui se purta cu multE
delicate e, micul 9ip va cunoa te asprimea surorii, care nu uita sE"i repete cE"l K ine ca"n palmeL !
<ouE vor fi evenimentele care Di vor marca via a2 DntJlnirea, Dntr"o searE, Dn cimitirul localitE ii,
cu un evadat $ Abel Magwitch * i apoi viBitele sEptEmJnale la domni oara 1avisham, femeie
care, Dn urma unei decep ii, se autoclaustrase Dntr"un decor ciudat!
C veste nea teptatE Di va aduce lui 9ip imaginea unei perspective nevisate! Avocatul 3aggers Dl
Dn tiin eaBE cE va intra Dn posesia unei Kaveri frumu eleL i cE este Dn dorin a binefEcEtorului ca
bEiatul sE fie scos din mediul acela i sE primeascE la Londra educa ia de KgentlemanL! I s"a
comunicat, de asemenea, cE numele acestuia va rEmJne o tainE pJnE cJnd persoana Dn cauBE va
crede de cuviin E sE i se deBvEluie!
La Londra, 9ip, numit de prietenul sEu 1erbert 9oc/et, 1endel, va Dncepe o via E nouE, convins
cE situa ia actualE se datoreaBE domni oarei 1avisham, aceastE Dnchipuire fiind alimentatE de
dragostea pe care i"o purta stellei, fiica adoptivE a acesteia! .tarea de incertitudine dureaBE pJnE
Dn momentul Dn care D i dace apari ia binefEcEtorul lui, acesta nefiind altul decJt evadatul din
cimitir pe care 9ip Dl aMutase! Treptat, se ridicE vElul misterului care plana asupra personaMelor!
A a vom afla cE stella nu este fiica domni oarei 1avisham, ci fiica pu cEria ului Abel
Magwitch, iar mama ei era actuala menaMerE a avocatului 3aggers, Molly, care, cu mul i ani Dn
urmE, fEptuise o crimE din geloBie! stella, copil, fusese luatE de domni oara 1avisham pentru a
fi formatE dupE tiparul acela Dn care ura ei sElbaticE, dragostea ei strivitE i mJndria ei rEnitE
gEsiserE cea mai aprigE rEBbunare!
IondamnErile repetate ale lui Abel Magwitch se datorau Dndeosebi lui Iompeyson, un om cu
purtEri de KgentlemanL, dar viciat, fEcJndu"l mai DntJi pe Abel asociatul lui, ca apoi sE poatE da
91
vina pe el! Iompeyson a fost acela care i"a pricinuit domni oarei 1avisham nesfJr ita durere,
pErEsind"o Dn Biua nun ii, dupE ce D i Dnsu ise o mare parte din averea ei, Dn colaborare cu Artur,
fratele ei!
<upE multe momente de continuE fricE trEite de evadatul Abel Magwitch $schimbJndu" i numele
Dn cel de 9rovis sau dl Iampbell*, acesta va fi denun at tot de Iompeyson! 6u condamnat la
moarte i apoi se stinse Dn Dnchisoare Dnainte de DnfEptuirea sentin ei! Acum 1endel Di va aduce la
cuno tin E lui Magwitch, aflat pe patul de moarte, cE fiica lui, stella, despre care nu tiuse
nimic, trEie te i cE el o iube te! Iompeyson, personaMul care a provocat atJta durere altora, D i va
gEsi sfJr itul Dn Tamisa, Dn timp ce"l urmErea pe Abel! stella, dupE un mariaM nereu it cu 4entley
<rummle, se va Dnso i cu 9ip, acum om cu situa ie ca urmare a unor plasamente bEne ti Dntr"o
companie de naviga ie!
Iharacter List
O
Pi " The protagonist and narrator of <reat E="e$tations& 9ip begins the story as a young orphan
boy being raised by his sister and brother"in"law in the marsh country of Qent, in the southeast of
ngland! 9ip is passionate, romantic, and somewhat unrealistic at heart, and he tends to e7pect
more for himself than is reasonable! 9ip also has a powerful conscience, and he deeply wants to
improve himself, both morally and socially!
8ead an in"depth analysis of 9ip!
Es$ella " Miss 1avishamPs beautiful young ward, stella is 9ipPs unattainable dream throughout
the novel! 1e loves her passionately, but, though she sometimes seems to consider him a friend,
she is usually cold, cruel, and uninterested in him! As they grow up together, she repeatedly
warns him that she has no heart!
8ead an in"depth analysis of stella!
Miss Ha*isham " Miss 1avisham is the wealthy, eccentric old woman who lives in a manor
called .atis 1ouse near 9ipPs village! .he is manic and often seems insane, flitting around her
house in a faded wedding dress, /eeping a decaying feast on her table, and surrounding herself
with cloc/s stopped at twenty minutes to nine! As a young woman, Miss 1avisham was Milted by
her fiancR minutes before her wedding, and now she has a vendetta against all men! .he
deliberately raises stella to be the tool of her revenge, training her beautiful ward to brea/
menPs hearts!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Miss 1avisham!
A/el Ma&3i$ch @I%he +#n*ic$JB " A fearsome criminal, Magwitch escapes from prison at the
beginning of <reat E="e$tations and terroriBes 9ip in the cemetery! 9ipPs /indness, however,
ma/es a deep impression on him, and he subse>uently devotes himself to ma/ing a fortune and
using it to elevate 9ip into a higher social class! 4ehind the scenes, he becomes 9ipPs secret
benefactor, funding 9ipPs education and opulent lifestyle in London through the lawyer 3aggers!
=#e 5a!&e!. " 9ipPs brother"in"law, the village blac/smith, 3oe stays with his overbearing,
abusive wife@/nown as Mrs! 3oe@solely out of love for 9ip! 3oePs >uiet goodness ma/es him
one of the few completely sympathetic characters in <reat E="e$tations! Although he is
92
uneducated and unrefined, he consistently acts for the benefit of those he loves and suffers in
silence when 9ip treats him coldly!
=a&&e!s " The powerful, foreboding lawyer hired by Magwitch to supervise 9ipPs elevation to
the upper class! As one of the most important criminal lawyers in London, 3aggers is privy to
some dirty business? he consorts with vicious criminals, and even they are terrified of him! 4ut
there is more to 3aggers than his impenetrable e7terior! 1e often seems to care for 9ip, and
before the novel begins he helps Miss 1avisham to adopt the orphaned stella! 3aggers smells
strongly of soap2 he washes his hands obsessively as a psychological mech"anism to /eep the
criminal taint from corrupting him!
He!/e!$ P#cke$ " 9ip first meets 1erbert 9oc/et in the garden of .atis 1ouse, when, as a pale
young gentleman, 1erbert challenges him to a fight! Wears later, they meet again in London, and
1erbert becomes 9ipPs best friend and /ey companion after 9ipPs elevation to the status of
gentleman! 1erbert nic/names 9ip T1andel!L 1e is the son of Matthew 9oc/et, Miss 1avishamPs
cousin, and hopes to become a merchant so that he can afford to marry Ilara 4arley!
Wemmick " 3aggersPs cler/ and 9ipPs friend, #emmic/ is one of the strangest characters in
<reat E="e$tations! At wor/, he is hard, cynical, sarcastic, and obsessed with Tportable
propertyL? at home in #alworth, he is Movial, wry, and a tender careta/er of his TAged 9arent!L
8i--. " A simple, /indhearted country girl, 4iddy first befriends 9ip when they attend school
together! After Mrs! 3oe is attac/ed and becomes an invalid, 4iddy moves into 9ipPs home to care
for her! Throughout most of the novel, 4iddy represents the opposite of stella? she is plain,
/ind, moral, and of 9ipPs own social class!
1#l&e 2!lick " The day laborer in 3oePs forge, Crlic/ is a slouching, oafish embodiment of evil!
1e is malicious and shrewd, hurting people simply because he enMoys it! 1e is responsible for the
attac/ on Mrs! 3oe, and he later almost succeeds in his attempt to murder 9ip!
M!s. =#e " 9ipPs sister and 3oePs wife, /nown only as TMrs! 3oeL throughout the novel! Mrs! 3oe
is a stern and overbearing figure to both 9ip and 3oe! .he /eeps a spotless household and
fre>uently menaces her husband and her brother with her cane, which she calls TTic/ler!L .he
also forces them to drin/ a foul"tasting concoction called tar"water! Mrs! 3oe is petty and
ambitious? her fondest wish is to be something more than what she is, the wife of the village
blac/smith!
Dncle P'm/lech##k " 9ipPs pompous, arrogant uncle! $1e is actually 3oePs uncle and, therefore,
9ipPs Tuncle"in"law,L but 9ip and his sister both call him T:ncle 9umblechoo/!L* A merchant
obsessed with moneymoney , 9umblechoo/ is responsible for arranging 9ipPs first meeting with
Miss 1avisham! Throughout the rest of the novel, he will shamelessly ta/e credit for 9ipPs rise in
social status, even though he has nothing to do with it, since Magwitch, not Miss 1avisham, is
9ipPs secret benefactor!
+#me.s#n " A criminal and the former partner of Magwitch, Iompeyson is an educated,
gentlemanly outlaw who contrasts sharply with the coarse and uneducated Magwitch!
Iompeyson is responsible for MagwitchPs capture at the end of the novel! 1e is also the man
who Milted Miss 1avisham on her wedding day!
93
8en$le. 1!'mmle " An oafish, unpleasant young man who attends tutoring sessions with 9ip at
the 9oc/etsP house, <rummle is a minor member of the nobility, and the sense of superiority this
gives him ma/es him feel Mustified in acting cruelly and harshly toward everyone around him!
<rummle eventually marries stella, to 9ipPs chagrin? she is miserable in their marriage and
reunites with 9ip after <rummle dies some eleven years later!
M#ll. " 3aggersPs house/eeper! In Ihapter 40, 9ip realiBes that she is stellaPs mother!
M!. W#sle " The church cler/ in 9ipPs country town? Mr! #opslePs aunt is the local
schoolteacher! .ometime after 9ip becomes a gentleman, Mr! #opsle moves to London and
becomes an actor!
S$a!$# " A friend of 9ipPs and 1erbertPs! .tartop is a delicate young man who, with 9ip and
<rummle, ta/es tutelage with Matthew 9oc/et! Later, .tartop helps 9ip and 1erbert with
MagwitchPs escape!
Miss Ski))ins " #emmic/Ps beloved, and eventual wife!
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
Am/i$i#n an- Sel)-Im!#*emen$
The moral theme of <reat E="e$tations is >uite simple2 affection, loyalty, and conscience are
more important than social advancement, wealthwealth , and class! <ic/ens establishes the
theme and shows 9ip learning this lesson, largely by e7ploring ideas of ambition and self"
improvement@ideas that >uic/ly become both the thematic center of the novel and the
psychological mechanism that encourages much of 9ipPs development! At heart, 9ip is an
idealist? whenever he can conceive of something that is better than what he already has, he
immediately desires to obtain the improvement! #hen he sees .atis 1ouse, he longs to be a
wealthy gentleman? when he thin/s of his moral shortcomings, he longs to be good? when he
realiBes that he cannot read, he longs to learn how! 9ipPs desire for self"improvement is the main
source of the novelPs title2 because he believes in the possibility of advancement in life, he has
Tgreat e7pectationsL about his future!
Ambition and self"improvement ta/e three forms in <reat E="e$tations@moral, social, and
educational? these motivate 9ipPs best and his worst behavior throughout the novel! 6irst, 9ip
desires moral self"improvement! 1e is e7tremely hard on himself when he acts immorally and
feels powerful guilt that spursspurs him to act better in the future! #hen he leaves for London,
for instance, he torments himself about having behaved so wretchedly toward 3oe and 4iddy!
.econd, 9ip desires social self"improvement! In love with stella, he longs to become a member
of her social class, and, encouraged by Mrs! 3oe and 9umblechoo/, he entertains fantasies of
becoming a gentleman! The wor/ing out of this fantasy forms the basic plot of the novel? it
provides <ic/ens the opportunity to gently satiriBe the class system of his era and to ma/e a
point about its capricious nature! .ignificantly, 9ipPs life as a gentleman is no more satisfying@
and certainly no more moral@than his previous life as a blac/smithPs apprentice! Third, 9ip
desires educational improvement! This desire is deeply connected to his social ambition and
longing to marry stella2 a full education is a re>uirement of being a gentleman! As long as he is
an ignorant country boy, he has no hope of social advancement! 9ip understands this fact as a
child, when he learns to read at Mr! #opslePs auntPs school, and as a young man, when he ta/es
lessons from Matthew 9oc/et! :ltimately, through the e7amples of 3oe, 4iddy, and Magwitch,
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9ip learns that social and educational improvement are irrelevant to onePs real worth and that
conscience and affection are to be valued above erudition and social standing!
S#cial +lass
Throughout <reat E="e$tations& <ic/ens e7plores the class system of Fictorian ngland, ranging
from the most wretched criminals $Magwitch* to the poor peasants of the marsh country $3oe and
4iddy* to the middle class $9umblechoo/* to the very rich $Miss 1avisham*! The theme of social
class is central to the novelPs plot and to the ultimate moral theme of the boo/@9ipPs realiBation
that wealth and class are less important than affection, loyalty, and inner worth! 9ip achieves this
realiBation when he is finally able to understand that, despite the esteem in which he holds
stella, onePs social status is in no way connected to onePs real character! <rummle, for instance,
is an upper"class lout, while Magwitch, a persecuted convict, has a deep inner worth!
9erhaps the most important thing to remember about the novelPs treatment of social class is that
the class system it portrays is based on the post"Industrial 8evolution model of Fictorian
ngland! <ic/ens generally ignores the nobility and the hereditary aristocracy in favor of
characters whose fortunes have been earned through commerce! ven Miss 1avishamPs family
fortune was made through the brewery that is still connected to her manor! In this way, by
connecting the theme of social class to the idea of wor/ and self"advancement, <ic/ens subtly
reinforces the novelPs overarching theme of ambition and self"improvement!
+!ime< 5'il$< an- Inn#cence
The theme of crime, guilt, and innocence is e7plored throughout the novel largely through the
characters of the convicts and the criminal lawyer 3aggers! 6rom the handcuffs 3oe mends at the
smithy to the gallows at the prison in London, the imagery of crime and criminal Mustice pervades
the boo/, becoming an important symbol of 9ipPs inner struggle to reconcile his own inner moral
conscience with the institutional Mustice system! In general, Must as social class becomes a
superficial standard of value that 9ip must learn to loo/ beyond in finding a better way to live his
life, the e7ternal trappings of the criminal Mustice system $police, courts, Mails, etc!* become a
superficial standard of morality that 9ip must learn to loo/ beyond to trust his inner conscience!
Magwitch, for instance, frightens 9ip at first simply because he is a convict, and 9ip feels guilty
for helping him because he is afraid of the police! 4y the end of the boo/, however, 9ip has
discovered MagwitchPs inner nobility, and is able to disregard his e7ternal status as a criminal!
9rompted by his conscience, he helps Magwitch to evade the law and the police! As 9ip has
learned to trust his conscience and to value MagwitchPs inner character, he has replaced an
e7ternal standard of value with an internal one!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and
inform the te7tPs maMor themes!
1#'/les
Cne of the most remar/able aspects of <ic/ensPs wor/ is its structural intricacy and remar/able
balance! <ic/ensPs plots involve complicated coincidences, e7traordinarily tangled webs of
human relationships, and highly dramatic developments in which setting, atmosphere, event, and
character are all seamlessly fused!
In <reat E="e$tations& perhaps the most visible sign of <ic/ensPs commitment to intricate
dramatic symmetry@apart from the /not of character relationships, of course@is the fascinating
motif of doubles that runs throughout the boo/! 6rom the earliest scenes of the novel to the last,
nearly every element of <reat E="e$tations is mirrored or doubled at some other point in the
95
boo/! There are two convicts on the marsh $Magwitch and Iompeyson*, two invalids $Mrs! 3oe
and Miss 1avisham*, two young women who interest 9ip $4iddy and stella*, and so on! There
are two secret benefactors2 Magwitch, who gives 9ip his fortune, and 9ip, who mirrors
MagwitchPs action by secretly buying 1erbertPs way into the mercantile business! 6inally, there
are two adults who see/ to mold children after their own purposes2 Magwitch, who wishes to
TownL a gentleman and decides to ma/e 9ip one, and Miss 1avisham, who raises stella to
brea/ menPs hearts in revenge for her own bro/en heart! Interestingly, both of these actions are
motivated by Iompeyson2 Magwitch resents but is nonetheless covetous of IompeysonPs social
status and education, which motivates his desire to ma/e 9ip a gentleman, and Miss 1avishamPs
heart was bro/en when Iompeyson left her at the altar, which motivates her desire to achieve
revenge through stella! The relationship between Miss 1avisham and Iompeyson@a well"born
woman and a common man@further mirrors the relationship between stella and 9ip!
This doubling of elements has no real bearing on the novelPs main themes, but, li/e the
connection of weather and action, it adds to the sense that everything in 9ipPs world is connected!
Throughout <ic/ensPs wor/s, this /ind of dramatic symmetry is simply part of the fabric of his
novelistic universe!
+#ma!is#n #) +ha!ac$e!s $# Inanima$e 2/Eec$s
Throughout <reat E="e$tations& the narrator uses images of inanimate obMects to describe the
physical appearance of characters@particularly minor characters, or characters with whom the
narrator is not intimate! 6or e7ample, Mrs! 3oe loo/s as if she scrubs her face with a nutmeg
grater, while the inscrutable features of Mr! #emmic/ are repeatedly compared to a letter"bo7!
This motif, which <ic/ens uses throughout his novels, may suggest a failure of empathy on the
narratorPs part, or it may suggest that the characterPs position in life is pressuring them to
resemble a thing more than a human being! The latter interpretation would mean that the motif in
general is part of a social criti>ue, in that it implies that an institution such as the class system or
the criminal Mustice system dehumaniBes certain people!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
Sa$is H#'se
In .atis 1ouse, <ic/ens creates a magnificent Gothic setting whose various elements symboliBe
9ipPs romantic perception of the upper class and many other themes of the boo/! Cn her
decaying body, Miss 1avishamPs wedding dress becomes an ironic symbol of death and
degeneration! The wedding dress and the wedding feast symboliBe Miss 1avishamPs past, and the
stopped cloc/s throughout the house symboliBe her determined attempt to freeBe time by
refusing to change anything from the way it was when she was Milted on her wedding day! The
brewery ne7t to the house symboliBes the connection between commerce and wealth2 Miss
1avishamPs fortune is not the product of an aristocratic birth but of a recent success in industrial
capitalism! 6inally, the crumbling, dilapidated stones of the house, as well as the dar/ness and
dust that pervade it, symboliBe the general decadence of the lives of its inhabitants and of the
upper class as a whole!
%he Mis$s #n $he Ma!shes
The setting almost always symboliBes a theme in <reat E="e$tations and always sets a tone that
is perfectly matched to the novelPs dramatic action! The misty marshes near 9ipPs childhood
home in Qent, one of the most evocative of the boo/Ps settings, are used several times to
symboliBe danger and uncertainty! As a child, 9ip brings Magwitch a file and food in these mists?
later, he is /idnapped by Crlic/ and nearly murdered in them! #henever 9ip goes into the mists,
96
something dangerous is li/ely to happen! .ignificantly, 9ip must go through the mists when he
travels to London shortly after receiving his fortune, alerting the reader that this apparently
positive development in his life may have dangerous conse>uences!
8en$le. 1!'mmle
Although he is a minor character in the novel, 4entley <rummle provides an important contrast
with 9ip and represents the arbitrary nature of class distinctions! In his mind, 9ip has connected
the ideas of moral, social, and educational advancement so that each depends on the others! The
coarse and cruel <rummle, a member of the upper class, provides 9ip with proof that social
advancement has no inherent connection to intelligence or moral worth! <rummle is a lout who
has inherited immense wealthwealth , while 9ipPs friend and brother"in"law 3oe is a good man
who wor/s hard for the little he earns! <rummlePs negative e7ample helps 9ip to see the inner
worth of characters such as Magwitch and 3oe, and eventually to discard his immature fantasies
about wealth and class in favor of a new understanding that is both more compassionate and
more realistic!
FIITC8IAA AG10)7"15;1
6. Charles Dichens: Great exectati!ns
Ionte7t
O
Iharles <ic/ens was born on 6ebruary 7, 101%, and spent the first nine years of his life living in
the coastal regions of Qent, a county in southeast ngland! <ic/ensPs father, 3ohn, was a /ind
and li/able man, but he was incompetent with moneymoney and piled up tremendous debts
throughout his life! #hen <ic/ens was nine, his family moved to London! #hen he was twelve,
his father was arrested and ta/en to debtorsP prison! <ic/ensPs mother moved his seven brothers
and sisters into prison with their father, but she arranged for the young Iharles to live alone
outside the prison and wor/ with other children pasting labels on bottles in a blac/ing warehouse
$blac/ing was a type of manufactured soot used to ma/e a blac/ pigment for products such as
matches or fertiliBer*! <ic/ens found the three months he spent apart from his family highly
traumatic! Aot only was the Mob itself miserable, but he considered himself too good for it,
earning the contempt of the other children! After his father was released from prison, <ic/ens
returned to school! 1e eventually became a law cler/, then a court reporter, and finally a novelist!
1is first novel, !he Pi$*?i$* Pa"ers& became a huge popular success when <ic/ens was only
twenty"five! 1e published e7tensively and was considered a literary celebrity until his death in
107;!
Many of the events from <ic/ensPs early life are mirrored in <reat E="e$tations& which, apart
from David Co""er%ield& is his most autobiographical novel! 9ip, the novelPs protagonist, lives in
the marsh country, wor/s at a Mob he hates, considers himself too good for his surroundings, and
e7periences material success in London at a very early age, e7actly as <ic/ens himself did! In
addition, one of the novelPs most appealing characters, #emmic/, is a law cler/, and the law,
Mustice, and the courts are all important components of the story!
<reat E="e$tations is set in early Fictorian ngland, a time when great social changes were
sweeping the nation! The Industrial 8evolution of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries had transformed the social landscape, enabling capitalists and manufacturers to amass
huge fortunes! Although social class was no longer entirely dependent on the circumstances of
onePs birth, the divisions between rich and poor remained nearly as wide as ever! London, a
97
teeming mass of humanity, lit by gasgas lamps at night and dar/ened by blac/ clouds from
smo/estac/s during the day, formed a sharp contrast with the nationPs sparsely populated rural
areas! More and more people moved from the country to the city in search of greater economic
opportunity! Throughout ngland, the manners of the upper class were very strict and
conservative2 gentlemen and ladies were e7pected to have thorough classical educations and to
behave appropriately in innumerable social situations!
These conditions defined <ic/ensPs time, and they ma/e themselves felt in almost every facet of
<reat E="e$tations! 9ipPs sudden rise from country laborer to city gentleman forces him to move
from one social e7treme to another while dealing with the strict rules and e7pectations that
governed Fictorian ngland! Ironically, this novel about the desire for wealthwealth and social
advancement was written partially out of economic necessity! <ic/ensPs magaBine, All the )ear
Round& had become e7tremely popular based on the success of wor/s it had published in serial,
such as his own A !ale o% !?o Cities and #il/ie IollinsPs !he @oman in @hite! 4ut it had
e7perienced a decline in popularity after publishing a dull serial by Iharles Lever called A Da'#s
Ride! <ic/ens conceived of <reat E="e$tations as a means of restoring his publicationPs
fortunes! The boo/ is still immensely popular a century and a half later!
In form, <reat E="e$tations fits a pattern popular in nineteenth"century uropean fiction2 the
bildungsroman, or novel depicting growth and personal development, generally a transition from
boyhood to manhood such as that e7perienced by 9ip! The genre was populariBed by Goethe
with his boo/ @ilhelm Meister $1754(175&* and became prevalent in ngland with such boo/s
as <aniel <efoePs Ro;inson Crusoe& Iharlotte 4rontaPs Jane E're& and <ic/ensPs own David
Co""er%ield! ach of these wor/s, li/e <reat E="e$tations& depicts a process of maturation and
self"discovery through e7perience as a protagonist moves from childhood to adulthood!
9lot Cverview
O
9ip, a young orphan living with his sister and her husband in the marshes of Qent, sits in a
cemetery one evening loo/ing at his parentsP tombstones! .uddenly, an escaped convict springs
up from behind a tombstone, grabs 9ip, and orders him to bring him food and a file for his leg
irons! 9ip obeys, but the fearsome convict is soon captured anyway! The convict protects 9ip by
claiming to have stolen the items himself!
Cne day 9ip is ta/en by his :ncle 9umblechoo/ to play at .atis 1ouse, the home of the wealthy
dowager Miss 1avisham, who is e7tremely eccentric2 she wears an old wedding dress
everywhere she goes and /eeps all the cloc/s in her house stopped at the same time! <uring his
visit, he meets a beautiful young girl named stella, who treats him coldly and contemptuously!
Aevertheless, he falls in love with her and dreams of becoming a wealthy gentleman so that he
might be worthy of her! 1e even hopes that Miss 1avisham intends to ma/e him a gentleman and
marry him to stella, but his hopes are dashed when, after months of regular visits to .atis
1ouse, Miss 1avisham decides to help him become a common laborer in his familyPs business!
#ith Miss 1avishamPs guidance, 9ip is apprenticed to his brother"in"law, 3oe, who is the village
blac/smith! 9ip wor/s in the forge unhappily, struggling to better his education with the help of
the plain, /ind 4iddy and encountering 3oePs malicious day laborer, Crlic/! Cne night, after an
altercation with Crlic/, 9ipPs sister, /nown as Mrs! 3oe, is viciously attac/ed and becomes a mute
invalid! 6rom her signals, 9ip suspects that Crlic/ was responsible for the attac/!
Cne day a lawyer named 3aggers appears with strange news2 a secret benefactor has given 9ip a
large fortune, and 9ip must come to London immediately to begin his education as a gentleman!
98
9ip happily assumes that his previous hopes have come true@that Miss 1avisham is his secret
benefactor and that the old woman intends for him to marry stella!
In London, 9ip befriends a young gentleman named 1erbert 9oc/et and 3aggersPs law cler/,
#emmic/! 1e e7presses disdain for his former friends and loved ones, especially 3oe, but he
continues to pine after stella! 1e furthers his education by studying with the tutor Matthew
9oc/et, 1erbertPs father! 1erbert himself helps 9ip learn how to act li/e a gentleman! #hen 9ip
turns twenty"one and begins to receive an income from his fortune, he will secretly help 1erbert
buy his way into the business he has chosen for himself! 4ut for now, 1erbert and 9ip lead a
fairly undisciplined life in London, enMoying themselves and running up debts! Crlic/ reappears
in 9ipPs life, employed as Miss 1avishamPs porter, but is promptly fired by 3aggers after 9ip
reveals Crlic/Ps unsavory past! Mrs! 3oe dies, and 9ip goes home for the funeral, feeling
tremendous grief and remorse! .everal years go by, until one night a familiar figure barges into
9ipPs room@the convict, Magwitch, who stuns 9ip by announcing that he, not Miss 1avisham, is
the source of 9ipPs fortune! 1e tells 9ip that he was so moved by 9ipPs boyhood /indness that he
dedicated his life to ma/ing 9ip a gentleman, and he made a fortune in Australia for that very
purpose!
9ip is appalled, but he feels morally bound to help Magwitch escape London, as the convict is
pursued both by the police and by Iompeyson, his former partner in crime! A complicated
mystery begins to fall into place when 9ip discovers that Iompeyson was the man who
abandoned Miss 1avisham at the altar and that stella is MagwitchPs daughter! Miss 1avisham
has raised her to brea/ menPs hearts, as revenge for the pain her own bro/en heart caused her! 9ip
was merely a boy for the young stella to practice on? Miss 1avisham delighted in stellaPs
ability to toy with his affections!
As the wee/s pass, 9ip sees the good in Magwitch and begins to care for him deeply! 4efore
MagwitchPs escape attempt, stella marries an upper"class lout named 4entley <rummle! 9ip
ma/es a visit to .atis 1ouse, where Miss 1avisham begs his forgiveness for the way she has
treated him in the past, and he forgives her! Later that day, when she bends over the fireplace, her
clothing catches fire and she goes up in flames! .he survives but becomes an invalid! In her final
days, she will continue to repent for her misdeeds and to plead for 9ipPs forgiveness!
The time comes for 9ip and his friends to spirit Magwitch away from London! 3ust before the
escape attempt, 9ip is called to a shadowy meeting in the marshes, where he encounters the
vengeful, evil Crlic/! Crlic/ is on the verge of /illing 9ip when 1erbert arrives with a group of
friends and saves 9ipPs life! 9ip and 1erbert hurry bac/ to effect MagwitchPs escape! They try to
snea/ Magwitch down the river on a rowboat, but they are discovered by the police, who
Iompeyson tipped off! Magwitch and Iompeyson fight in the river, and Iompeyson is drowned!
Magwitch is sentenced to death, and 9ip loses his fortune! Magwitch feels that his sentence is
GodPs forgiveness and dies at peace! 9ip falls ill? 3oe comes to London to care for him, and they
are reconciled! 3oe gives him the news from home2 Crlic/, after robbing 9umblechoo/, is now in
Mail? Miss 1avisham has died and left most of her fortune to the 9oc/ets? 4iddy has taught 3oe
how to read and write! After 3oe leaves, 9ip decides to rush home after him and marry 4iddy, but
when he arrives there he discovers that she and 3oe have already married!
9ip decides to go abroad with 1erbert to wor/ in the mercantile trade! 8eturning many years
later, he encounters stella in the ruined garden at .atis 1ouse! <rummle, her husband, treated
her badly, but he is now dead! 9ip finds that stellaPs coldness and cruelty have been replaced by
a sad /indness, and the two leave the garden hand in hand, 9ip believing that they will never part
99
again! $Aote2 <ic/ensPs original ending to <reat E="e$tations differed from the one described in
this summary! The final .ummary and Analysis section of this .par/Aote provides a description
of the first ending and e7plains why <ic/ens rewrote it!*
ntr"o fierErie de la marginea unei localitE i, situatE la o distan E de ' ore cu po talionul de
Londra, D i duce e7isten a orfanul 9ip $ pe numele de boteB 9hilip *, alEturi de sora i de
cumnatul lui $ dna 3oe i 3oseph, Bis 3oe Garger *! Hn timp ce cumnatul lui se purta cu multE
delicate e, micul 9ip va cunoa te asprimea surorii, care nu uita sE"i repete cE"l K ine ca"n palmeL !
<ouE vor fi evenimentele care Di vor marca via a2 DntJlnirea, Dntr"o searE, Dn cimitirul localitE ii,
cu un evadat $ Abel Magwitch * i apoi viBitele sEptEmJnale la domni oara 1avisham, femeie
care, Dn urma unei decep ii, se autoclaustrase Dntr"un decor ciudat!
C veste nea teptatE Di va aduce lui 9ip imaginea unei perspective nevisate! Avocatul 3aggers Dl
Dn tiin eaBE cE va intra Dn posesia unei Kaveri frumu eleL i cE este Dn dorin a binefEcEtorului ca
bEiatul sE fie scos din mediul acela i sE primeascE la Londra educa ia de KgentlemanL! I s"a
comunicat, de asemenea, cE numele acestuia va rEmJne o tainE pJnE cJnd persoana Dn cauBE va
crede de cuviin E sE i se deBvEluie!
La Londra, 9ip, numit de prietenul sEu 1erbert 9oc/et, 1endel, va Dncepe o via E nouE, convins
cE situa ia actualE se datoreaBE domni oarei 1avisham, aceastE Dnchipuire fiind alimentatE de
dragostea pe care i"o purta stellei, fiica adoptivE a acesteia! .tarea de incertitudine dureaBE pJnE
Dn momentul Dn care D i dace apari ia binefEcEtorul lui, acesta nefiind altul decJt evadatul din
cimitir pe care 9ip Dl aMutase! Treptat, se ridicE vElul misterului care plana asupra personaMelor!
A a vom afla cE stella nu este fiica domni oarei 1avisham, ci fiica pu cEria ului Abel
Magwitch, iar mama ei era actuala menaMerE a avocatului 3aggers, Molly, care, cu mul i ani Dn
urmE, fEptuise o crimE din geloBie! stella, copil, fusese luatE de domni oara 1avisham pentru a
fi formatE dupE tiparul acela Dn care ura ei sElbaticE, dragostea ei strivitE i mJndria ei rEnitE
gEsiserE cea mai aprigE rEBbunare!
IondamnErile repetate ale lui Abel Magwitch se datorau Dndeosebi lui Iompeyson, un om cu
purtEri de KgentlemanL, dar viciat, fEcJndu"l mai DntJi pe Abel asociatul lui, ca apoi sE poatE da
vina pe el! Iompeyson a fost acela care i"a pricinuit domni oarei 1avisham nesfJr ita durere,
pErEsind"o Dn Biua nun ii, dupE ce D i Dnsu ise o mare parte din averea ei, Dn colaborare cu Artur,
fratele ei!
<upE multe momente de continuE fricE trEite de evadatul Abel Magwitch $schimbJndu" i numele
Dn cel de 9rovis sau dl Iampbell*, acesta va fi denun at tot de Iompeyson! 6u condamnat la
moarte i apoi se stinse Dn Dnchisoare Dnainte de DnfEptuirea sentin ei! Acum 1endel Di va aduce la
cuno tin E lui Magwitch, aflat pe patul de moarte, cE fiica lui, stella, despre care nu tiuse
nimic, trEie te i cE el o iube te! Iompeyson, personaMul care a provocat atJta durere altora, D i va
gEsi sfJr itul Dn Tamisa, Dn timp ce"l urmErea pe Abel! stella, dupE un mariaM nereu it cu 4entley
<rummle, se va Dnso i cu 9ip, acum om cu situa ie ca urmare a unor plasamente bEne ti Dntr"o
companie de naviga ie!
Iharacter List
O
Pi " The protagonist and narrator of <reat E="e$tations& 9ip begins the story as a young orphan
boy being raised by his sister and brother"in"law in the marsh country of Qent, in the southeast of
ngland! 9ip is passionate, romantic, and somewhat unrealistic at heart, and he tends to e7pect
100
more for himself than is reasonable! 9ip also has a powerful conscience, and he deeply wants to
improve himself, both morally and socially!
8ead an in"depth analysis of 9ip!
Es$ella " Miss 1avishamPs beautiful young ward, stella is 9ipPs unattainable dream throughout
the novel! 1e loves her passionately, but, though she sometimes seems to consider him a friend,
she is usually cold, cruel, and uninterested in him! As they grow up together, she repeatedly
warns him that she has no heart!
8ead an in"depth analysis of stella!
Miss Ha*isham " Miss 1avisham is the wealthy, eccentric old woman who lives in a manor
called .atis 1ouse near 9ipPs village! .he is manic and often seems insane, flitting around her
house in a faded wedding dress, /eeping a decaying feast on her table, and surrounding herself
with cloc/s stopped at twenty minutes to nine! As a young woman, Miss 1avisham was Milted by
her fiancR minutes before her wedding, and now she has a vendetta against all men! .he
deliberately raises stella to be the tool of her revenge, training her beautiful ward to brea/
menPs hearts!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Miss 1avisham!
A/el Ma&3i$ch @I%he +#n*ic$JB " A fearsome criminal, Magwitch escapes from prison at the
beginning of <reat E="e$tations and terroriBes 9ip in the cemetery! 9ipPs /indness, however,
ma/es a deep impression on him, and he subse>uently devotes himself to ma/ing a fortune and
using it to elevate 9ip into a higher social class! 4ehind the scenes, he becomes 9ipPs secret
benefactor, funding 9ipPs education and opulent lifestyle in London through the lawyer 3aggers!
=#e 5a!&e!. " 9ipPs brother"in"law, the village blac/smith, 3oe stays with his overbearing,
abusive wife@/nown as Mrs! 3oe@solely out of love for 9ip! 3oePs >uiet goodness ma/es him
one of the few completely sympathetic characters in <reat E="e$tations! Although he is
uneducated and unrefined, he consistently acts for the benefit of those he loves and suffers in
silence when 9ip treats him coldly!
=a&&e!s " The powerful, foreboding lawyer hired by Magwitch to supervise 9ipPs elevation to
the upper class! As one of the most important criminal lawyers in London, 3aggers is privy to
some dirty business? he consorts with vicious criminals, and even they are terrified of him! 4ut
there is more to 3aggers than his impenetrable e7terior! 1e often seems to care for 9ip, and
before the novel begins he helps Miss 1avisham to adopt the orphaned stella! 3aggers smells
strongly of soap2 he washes his hands obsessively as a psychological mech"anism to /eep the
criminal taint from corrupting him!
He!/e!$ P#cke$ " 9ip first meets 1erbert 9oc/et in the garden of .atis 1ouse, when, as a pale
young gentleman, 1erbert challenges him to a fight! Wears later, they meet again in London, and
1erbert becomes 9ipPs best friend and /ey companion after 9ipPs elevation to the status of
gentleman! 1erbert nic/names 9ip T1andel!L 1e is the son of Matthew 9oc/et, Miss 1avishamPs
cousin, and hopes to become a merchant so that he can afford to marry Ilara 4arley!
101
Wemmick " 3aggersPs cler/ and 9ipPs friend, #emmic/ is one of the strangest characters in
<reat E="e$tations! At wor/, he is hard, cynical, sarcastic, and obsessed with Tportable
propertyL? at home in #alworth, he is Movial, wry, and a tender careta/er of his TAged 9arent!L
8i--. " A simple, /indhearted country girl, 4iddy first befriends 9ip when they attend school
together! After Mrs! 3oe is attac/ed and becomes an invalid, 4iddy moves into 9ipPs home to care
for her! Throughout most of the novel, 4iddy represents the opposite of stella? she is plain,
/ind, moral, and of 9ipPs own social class!
1#l&e 2!lick " The day laborer in 3oePs forge, Crlic/ is a slouching, oafish embodiment of evil!
1e is malicious and shrewd, hurting people simply because he enMoys it! 1e is responsible for the
attac/ on Mrs! 3oe, and he later almost succeeds in his attempt to murder 9ip!
M!s. =#e " 9ipPs sister and 3oePs wife, /nown only as TMrs! 3oeL throughout the novel! Mrs! 3oe
is a stern and overbearing figure to both 9ip and 3oe! .he /eeps a spotless household and
fre>uently menaces her husband and her brother with her cane, which she calls TTic/ler!L .he
also forces them to drin/ a foul"tasting concoction called tar"water! Mrs! 3oe is petty and
ambitious? her fondest wish is to be something more than what she is, the wife of the village
blac/smith!
Dncle P'm/lech##k " 9ipPs pompous, arrogant uncle! $1e is actually 3oePs uncle and, therefore,
9ipPs Tuncle"in"law,L but 9ip and his sister both call him T:ncle 9umblechoo/!L* A merchant
obsessed with moneymoney , 9umblechoo/ is responsible for arranging 9ipPs first meeting with
Miss 1avisham! Throughout the rest of the novel, he will shamelessly ta/e credit for 9ipPs rise in
social status, even though he has nothing to do with it, since Magwitch, not Miss 1avisham, is
9ipPs secret benefactor!
+#me.s#n " A criminal and the former partner of Magwitch, Iompeyson is an educated,
gentlemanly outlaw who contrasts sharply with the coarse and uneducated Magwitch!
Iompeyson is responsible for MagwitchPs capture at the end of the novel! 1e is also the man
who Milted Miss 1avisham on her wedding day!
8en$le. 1!'mmle " An oafish, unpleasant young man who attends tutoring sessions with 9ip at
the 9oc/etsP house, <rummle is a minor member of the nobility, and the sense of superiority this
gives him ma/es him feel Mustified in acting cruelly and harshly toward everyone around him!
<rummle eventually marries stella, to 9ipPs chagrin? she is miserable in their marriage and
reunites with 9ip after <rummle dies some eleven years later!
M#ll. " 3aggersPs house/eeper! In Ihapter 48, 9ip realiBes that she is stellaPs mother!
M!. W#sle " The church cler/ in 9ipPs country town? Mr! #opslePs aunt is the local
schoolteacher! .ometime after 9ip becomes a gentleman, Mr! #opsle moves to London and
becomes an actor!
S$a!$# " A friend of 9ipPs and 1erbertPs! .tartop is a delicate young man who, with 9ip and
<rummle, ta/es tutelage with Matthew 9oc/et! Later, .tartop helps 9ip and 1erbert with
MagwitchPs escape!
Miss Ski))ins " #emmic/Ps beloved, and eventual wife!
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
102
Am/i$i#n an- Sel)-Im!#*emen$
The moral theme of <reat E="e$tations is >uite simple2 affection, loyalty, and conscience are
more important than social advancement, wealthwealth , and class! <ic/ens establishes the
theme and shows 9ip learning this lesson, largely by e7ploring ideas of ambition and self"
improvement@ideas that >uic/ly become both the thematic center of the novel and the
psychological mechanism that encourages much of 9ipPs development! At heart, 9ip is an
idealist? whenever he can conceive of something that is better than what he already has, he
immediately desires to obtain the improvement! #hen he sees .atis 1ouse, he longs to be a
wealthy gentleman? when he thin/s of his moral shortcomings, he longs to be good? when he
realiBes that he cannot read, he longs to learn how! 9ipPs desire for self"improvement is the main
source of the novelPs title2 because he believes in the possibility of advancement in life, he has
Tgreat e7pectationsL about his future!
Ambition and self"improvement ta/e three forms in <reat E="e$tations@moral, social, and
educational? these motivate 9ipPs best and his worst behavior throughout the novel! 6irst, 9ip
desires moral self"improvement! 1e is e7tremely hard on himself when he acts immorally and
feels powerful guilt that spursspurs him to act better in the future! #hen he leaves for London,
for instance, he torments himself about having behaved so wretchedly toward 3oe and 4iddy!
.econd, 9ip desires social self"improvement! In love with stella, he longs to become a member
of her social class, and, encouraged by Mrs! 3oe and 9umblechoo/, he entertains fantasies of
becoming a gentleman! The wor/ing out of this fantasy forms the basic plot of the novel? it
provides <ic/ens the opportunity to gently satiriBe the class system of his era and to ma/e a
point about its capricious nature! .ignificantly, 9ipPs life as a gentleman is no more satisfying@
and certainly no more moral@than his previous life as a blac/smithPs apprentice! Third, 9ip
desires educational improvement! This desire is deeply connected to his social ambition and
longing to marry stella2 a full education is a re>uirement of being a gentleman! As long as he is
an ignorant country boy, he has no hope of social advancement! 9ip understands this fact as a
child, when he learns to read at Mr! #opslePs auntPs school, and as a young man, when he ta/es
lessons from Matthew 9oc/et! :ltimately, through the e7amples of 3oe, 4iddy, and Magwitch,
9ip learns that social and educational improvement are irrelevant to onePs real worth and that
conscience and affection are to be valued above erudition and social standing!
S#cial +lass
Throughout <reat E="e$tations& <ic/ens e7plores the class system of Fictorian ngland, ranging
from the most wretched criminals $Magwitch* to the poor peasants of the marsh country $3oe and
4iddy* to the middle class $9umblechoo/* to the very rich $Miss 1avisham*! The theme of social
class is central to the novelPs plot and to the ultimate moral theme of the boo/@9ipPs realiBation
that wealth and class are less important than affection, loyalty, and inner worth! 9ip achieves this
realiBation when he is finally able to understand that, despite the esteem in which he holds
stella, onePs social status is in no way connected to onePs real character! <rummle, for instance,
is an upper"class lout, while Magwitch, a persecuted convict, has a deep inner worth!
9erhaps the most important thing to remember about the novelPs treatment of social class is that
the class system it portrays is based on the post"Industrial 8evolution model of Fictorian
ngland! <ic/ens generally ignores the nobility and the hereditary aristocracy in favor of
characters whose fortunes have been earned through commerce! ven Miss 1avishamPs family
fortune was made through the brewery that is still connected to her manor! In this way, by
connecting the theme of social class to the idea of wor/ and self"advancement, <ic/ens subtly
reinforces the novelPs overarching theme of ambition and self"improvement!
103
+!ime< 5'il$< an- Inn#cence
The theme of crime, guilt, and innocence is e7plored throughout the novel largely through the
characters of the convicts and the criminal lawyer 3aggers! 6rom the handcuffs 3oe mends at the
smithy to the gallows at the prison in London, the imagery of crime and criminal Mustice pervades
the boo/, becoming an important symbol of 9ipPs inner struggle to reconcile his own inner moral
conscience with the institutional Mustice system! In general, Must as social class becomes a
superficial standard of value that 9ip must learn to loo/ beyond in finding a better way to live his
life, the e7ternal trappings of the criminal Mustice system $police, courts, Mails, etc!* become a
superficial standard of morality that 9ip must learn to loo/ beyond to trust his inner conscience!
Magwitch, for instance, frightens 9ip at first simply because he is a convict, and 9ip feels guilty
for helping him because he is afraid of the police! 4y the end of the boo/, however, 9ip has
discovered MagwitchPs inner nobility, and is able to disregard his e7ternal status as a criminal!
9rompted by his conscience, he helps Magwitch to evade the law and the police! As 9ip has
learned to trust his conscience and to value MagwitchPs inner character, he has replaced an
e7ternal standard of value with an internal one!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and
inform the te7tPs maMor themes!
1#'/les
Cne of the most remar/able aspects of <ic/ensPs wor/ is its structural intricacy and remar/able
balance! <ic/ensPs plots involve complicated coincidences, e7traordinarily tangled webs of
human relationships, and highly dramatic developments in which setting, atmosphere, event, and
character are all seamlessly fused!
In <reat E="e$tations& perhaps the most visible sign of <ic/ensPs commitment to intricate
dramatic symmetry@apart from the /not of character relationships, of course@is the fascinating
motif of doubles that runs throughout the boo/! 6rom the earliest scenes of the novel to the last,
nearly every element of <reat E="e$tations is mirrored or doubled at some other point in the
boo/! There are two convicts on the marsh $Magwitch and Iompeyson*, two invalids $Mrs! 3oe
and Miss 1avisham*, two young women who interest 9ip $4iddy and stella*, and so on! There
are two secret benefactors2 Magwitch, who gives 9ip his fortune, and 9ip, who mirrors
MagwitchPs action by secretly buying 1erbertPs way into the mercantile business! 6inally, there
are two adults who see/ to mold children after their own purposes2 Magwitch, who wishes to
TownL a gentleman and decides to ma/e 9ip one, and Miss 1avisham, who raises stella to
brea/ menPs hearts in revenge for her own bro/en heart! Interestingly, both of these actions are
motivated by Iompeyson2 Magwitch resents but is nonetheless covetous of IompeysonPs social
status and education, which motivates his desire to ma/e 9ip a gentleman, and Miss 1avishamPs
heart was bro/en when Iompeyson left her at the altar, which motivates her desire to achieve
revenge through stella! The relationship between Miss 1avisham and Iompeyson@a well"born
woman and a common man@further mirrors the relationship between stella and 9ip!
This doubling of elements has no real bearing on the novelPs main themes, but, li/e the
connection of weather and action, it adds to the sense that everything in 9ipPs world is connected!
Throughout <ic/ensPs wor/s, this /ind of dramatic symmetry is simply part of the fabric of his
novelistic universe!
+#ma!is#n #) +ha!ac$e!s $# Inanima$e 2/Eec$s
104
Throughout <reat E="e$tations& the narrator uses images of inanimate obMects to describe the
physical appearance of characters@particularly minor characters, or characters with whom the
narrator is not intimate! 6or e7ample, Mrs! 3oe loo/s as if she scrubs her face with a nutmeg
grater, while the inscrutable features of Mr! #emmic/ are repeatedly compared to a letter"bo7!
This motif, which <ic/ens uses throughout his novels, may suggest a failure of empathy on the
narratorPs part, or it may suggest that the characterPs position in life is pressuring them to
resemble a thing more than a human being! The latter interpretation would mean that the motif in
general is part of a social criti>ue, in that it implies that an institution such as the class system or
the criminal Mustice system dehumaniBes certain people!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
Sa$is H#'se
In .atis 1ouse, <ic/ens creates a magnificent Gothic setting whose various elements symboliBe
9ipPs romantic perception of the upper class and many other themes of the boo/! Cn her
decaying body, Miss 1avishamPs wedding dress becomes an ironic symbol of death and
degeneration! The wedding dress and the wedding feast symboliBe Miss 1avishamPs past, and the
stopped cloc/s throughout the house symboliBe her determined attempt to freeBe time by
refusing to change anything from the way it was when she was Milted on her wedding day! The
brewery ne7t to the house symboliBes the connection between commerce and wealth2 Miss
1avishamPs fortune is not the product of an aristocratic birth but of a recent success in industrial
capitalism! 6inally, the crumbling, dilapidated stones of the house, as well as the dar/ness and
dust that pervade it, symboliBe the general decadence of the lives of its inhabitants and of the
upper class as a whole!
%he Mis$s #n $he Ma!shes
The setting almost always symboliBes a theme in <reat E="e$tations and always sets a tone that
is perfectly matched to the novelPs dramatic action! The misty marshes near 9ipPs childhood
home in Qent, one of the most evocative of the boo/Ps settings, are used several times to
symboliBe danger and uncertainty! As a child, 9ip brings Magwitch a file and food in these mists?
later, he is /idnapped by Crlic/ and nearly murdered in them! #henever 9ip goes into the mists,
something dangerous is li/ely to happen! .ignificantly, 9ip must go through the mists when he
travels to London shortly after receiving his fortune, alerting the reader that this apparently
positive development in his life may have dangerous conse>uences!
8en$le. 1!'mmle
Although he is a minor character in the novel, 4entley <rummle provides an important contrast
with 9ip and represents the arbitrary nature of class distinctions! In his mind, 9ip has connected
the ideas of moral, social, and educational advancement so that each depends on the others! The
coarse and cruel <rummle, a member of the upper class, provides 9ip with proof that social
advancement has no inherent connection to intelligence or moral worth! <rummle is a lout who
has inherited immense wealthwealth , while 9ipPs friend and brother"in"law 3oe is a good man
who wor/s hard for the little he earns! <rummlePs negative e7ample helps 9ip to see the inner
worth of characters such as Magwitch and 3oe, and eventually to discard his immature fantasies
about wealth and class in favor of a new understanding that is both more compassionate and
more realistic!
CLIF8 T#I.T
Ionte7t
O
105
Iharles <ic/ens was born on 6ebruary 7, 101%, in 9ortsea, ngland! 1is parents were middle"
class, but they suffered financially as a result of living beyond their means! #hen <ic/ens was
twelve years old, his familyPs dire straits forced him to >uit school and wor/ in a blac/ing
factory, a place where shoe polish is made! #ithin wee/s, his father was put in debtorPs prison,
where <ic/ensPs mother and siblings eventually Moined him! At this point, <ic/ens lived on his
own and continued to wor/ at the factory for several months! The horrific conditions in the
factory haunted him for the rest of his life, as did the e7perience of temporary orphanhood!
Apparently, <ic/ens never forgot the day when a more senior boy in the warehouse too/ it upon
himself to instruct <ic/ens in how to do his wor/ more efficiently! 6or <ic/ens, that instruction
may have represented the first step toward his full integration into the misery and tedium of
wor/ing"class life! The more senior boyPs name was 4ob 6agin! <ic/ensPs residual resentment of
him reached a fevered pitch in the characteriBation of the villain 6agin in liver !?ist7
After inheriting some moneymoney , <ic/ensPs father got out of prison and Iharles returned to
school! As a young adult, he wor/ed as a law cler/ and later as a Mournalist! 1is e7perience as a
Mournalist /ept him in close contact with the dar/er social conditions of the Industrial 8evolution,
and he grew disillusioned with the attempts of lawma/ers to alleviate those conditions! A
collection of semi"fictional s/etches entitled S*et$hes ;' ,oF earned him recognition as a writer!
<ic/ens became famous and began to ma/e moneymoney from his writing when he published
his first novel, !he Pi$*?i$* Pa"ers& which was serialiBed in 10)& and published in boo/ form
the following year!
In 10)7, the first installment of liver !?ist appeared in the magaBine ,entle'#s Mis$ellan'&
which <ic/ens was then editing! It was accompanied by illustrations by George Irui/shan/,
which still accompany many editions of the novel today! ven at this early date, some critics
accused <ic/ens of writing too >uic/ly and too prolifically, since he was paid by the word for his
serialiBed novels! Wet the passion behind liver !?ist& animated in part by <ic/ensPs own
childhood e7periences and in part by his outrage at the living conditions of the poor that he had
witnessed as a Mournalist, touched his contemporary readers! Greatly successful, the novel was a
thinly veiled protest against the 9oor Law of 10)4, which dictated that all public charity must be
channeled through wor/houses!
In 10)&, <ic/ens married Iatherine 1ogarth, but after twenty years of marriage and ten children,
he fell in love with llen Ternan, an actress many years his Munior! .oon after, <ic/ens and his
wife separated, ending a long series of marital difficulties! <ic/ens remained a prolific writer to
the end of his life, and his novels@among them <reat E="e$tations& A !ale o% !?o Cities& A
Christmas Carol& David Co""er%ield& and ,lea* HouseGcontinued to earn critical and popular
acclaim! 1e died of a stro/e in 107;, at the age of '0, leaving !he M'ster' o% Ed?in Drood
unfinished!
%he P##! La3s> Oliver Twist:s S#cial +#mmen$a!.
liver !?ist opens with a bitter invective directed at the nineteenth"century nglish 9oor Laws!
These laws were a distorted manifestation of the Fictorian middle classPs emphasis on the virtues
of hard wor/! ngland in the 10);s was rapidly undergoing a transformation from an
agricultural, rural economy to an urban, industrial nation! The growing middle class had
achieved an economic influence e>ual to, if not greater than, that of the 4ritish aristocracy!
In the 10);s, the middle class clamored for a share of political power with the landed gentry,
bringing about a restructuring of the voting system! 9arliament passed the 8eform Act, which
granted the right to vote to previously disenfranchised middle"class citiBens! The middle class
106
was eager to gain social legitimacy! This desire gave rise to the vangelical religious movement
and inspired sweeping economic and political change!
In the e7tremely stratified nglish class structure, the highest social class belonged to the
Tgentleman,L an aristocrat who did not have to wor/ for his living! The middle class was
stigmatiBed for having to wor/, and so, to alleviate the stigma attached to middle"class wealth,
the middle class promoted wor/ as a moral virtue! 4ut the resulting moral value attached to
wor/, along with the middle classPs insecurity about its own social legitimacy, led nglish
society to subMect the poor to hatred and cruelty! Many members of the middle class were
an7ious to be differentiated from the lower classes, and one way to do so was to stigmatiBe the
lower classes as laBy good"for"nothings! The middle classPs value system transformed earned
wealth into a sign of moral virtue! Fictorian society interpreted economic success as a sign that
God favored the honest, moral virtue of the successful individualPs efforts, and, thus, interpreted
the condition of poverty as a sign of the wea/ness of the poor individual!
The sentiment behind the 9oor Law of 10)4 reflected these beliefs! The law allowed the poor to
receive public assistance only if they lived and wor/ed in established wor/houses! 4eggars
ris/ed imprisonment! <ebtors were sent to prison, often with their entire families, which virtually
ensured that they could not repay their debts! #or/houses were deliberately made to be as
miserable as possible in order to deter the poor from relying on public assistance! The philosophy
was that the miserable conditions would prevent able"bodied paupers from being laBy and idle
bums!
In the eyes of middle"class nglish society, those who could not support themselves were
considered immoral and evil! Therefore, such individuals should enMoy no comforts or lu7uries in
their reliance on public assistance! In order to create the misery needed to deter immoral
idleness, families were split apart upon entering the wor/house! 1usbands were permitted no
contact with their wives, lest they breed more paupers! Mothers were separated from children,
lest they impart their immoral ways to their children! 4rothers were separated from their sisters
because the middle"class patrons of wor/houses feared the lower classPs TnaturalL inclination
toward incest! In short, the state undertoo/ to become the surrogate parents of wor/house
children, whether or not they were orphans! Meals served to wor/house residents were
deliberately inade>uate, so as to encourage the residents to find wor/ and support themselves!
4ecause of the great stigma attached to wor/house relief, many poor people chose to die in the
streets rather than see/ public aid! The wor/house was supposed to demonstrate the virtue of
gainful employment to the poor! In order to receive public assistance, they had to pay in suffering
and misery! Fictorian values stressed the moral virtue of suffering and privation, and the
wor/house residents were made to e7perience these virtues many times over!
8ather than improving what the middle class saw as the >uestionable morals of the able"bodied
poor, the 9oor Laws punished the most defenseless and helpless members of the lower class! The
old, the sic/, and the very young suffered more than the able"bodied benefited from these laws!
<ic/ens meant to demonstrate this incongruity through the figure of Cliver Twist, an orphan
born and raised in a wor/house for the first ten years of his life! 1is story demonstrates the
hypocrisy of the petty middle"class bureaucrats, who treat a small child cruelly while voicing
their belief in the Ihristian virtue of giving charity to the less fortunate!
<ic/ens was a lifelong champion ofchampion of the poor! 1e himself suffered the harsh abuse
visited upon the poor by the nglish legal system! In ngland in the 10);s, the poor truly had no
voice, political or economic! In liver !?ist& <ic/ens presents the everyday e7istence of the
107
lowest members of nglish society! 1e goes far beyond the e7periences of the wor/house,
e7tending his depiction of poverty to LondonPs s>ualid streets, dar/ alehouses, and thievesP dens!
1e gives voice to those who had no voice, establishing a lin/ between politics and literature with
his social commentary!
9lot Cverview
O
Cliver Twist is born in a wor/house in 10);s ngland! 1is mother, whose name no one /nows, is
found on the street and dies Must after CliverPs birth! Cliver spends the first nine years of his life
in a badly run home for young orphans and then is transferred to a wor/house for adults! After
the other boys bully Cliver into as/ing for more gruel at the end of a meal, Mr! 4umble, the
parish beadle, offers five pounds to anyone who will ta/e the boy away from the wor/house!
Cliver narrowly escapes being apprenticed to a brutish chimney sweep and is eventually
apprenticed to a local underta/er, Mr! .owerberry! #hen the underta/erPs other apprentice, Aoah
Ilaypole, ma/es disparaging comments about CliverPs mother, Cliver attac/s him and incurs the
.owerberrysP wrath! <esperate, Cliver runs away at dawn and travels toward London!
Cutside London, Cliver, starved and e7hausted, meets 3ac/ <aw/ins, a boy his own age! 3ac/
offers him shelter in the London house of his benefactor, 6agin! It turns out that 6agin is a career
criminal who trains orphan boys to pic/ poc/ets for him! After a few days of training, Cliver is
sent on a pic/poc/eting mission with two other boys! #hen he sees them swipe a hand/erchief
from an elderly gentleman, Cliver is horrified and runs off! 1e is caught but narrowly escapes
being convicted of the theft! Mr! 4rownlow, the man whose hand/erchief was stolen, ta/es the
feverish Cliver to his home and nurses him bac/ to health! Mr! 4rownlow is struc/ by CliverPs
resemblance to a portrait of a young woman that hangs in his house! Cliver thrives in Mr!
4rownlowPs home, but two young adults in 6aginPs gang, 4ill .i/es and his lover Aancy, capture
Cliver and return him to 6agin!
6agin sends Cliver to assist .i/es in a burglary! Cliver is shot by a servant of the house and, after
.i/es escapes, is ta/en in by the women who live there, Mrs! Maylie and her beautiful adopted
niece 8ose! They grow fond of Cliver, and he spends an idyllic summer with them in the
countryside! 4ut 6agin and a mysterious man named Mon/s are set on recapturing Cliver!
Meanwhile, it is revealed that CliverPs mother left behind a gold loc/et when she died! Mon/s
obtains and destroys that loc/et! #hen the Maylies come to London, Aancy meets secretly with
8ose and informs her of 6aginPs designs, but a member of 6aginPs gang overhears the
conversation! #hen word of AancyPs disclosure reaches .i/es, he brutally murders Aancy and
flees London! 9ursued by his guilty conscience and an angry mob, he inadvertently hangs
himself while trying to escape!
Mr! 4rownlow, with whom the Maylies have reunited Cliver, confronts Mon/s and wrings the
truth about CliverPs parentage from him! It is revealed that Mon/s is CliverPs half brother! Their
father, Mr! Leeford, was unhappily married to a wealthy woman and had an affair with CliverPs
mother, Agnes 6leming! Mon/s has been pursuing Cliver all along in the hopes of ensuring that
his half"brother is deprived of his share of the family inheritance! Mr! 4rownlow forces Mon/s to
sign over CliverPs share to Cliver! Moreover, it is discovered that 8ose is AgnesPs younger sister,
hence CliverPs aunt! 6agin is hung for his crimes! 6inally, Mr! 4rownlow adopts Cliver, and they
and the Maylies retire to a blissful e7istence in the countryside!
In romanul Cliver Twist de Iharles <ic/ens autorul preBinta viata grea si miBerabila a straBilor si
oamenilor saraci din Londra si impreMurimile ei! oliver este nascut be o biata femeie care isi da
duhul imediat dupa nasterea baiatului! Aimeni nu stia de unde vine sau ce nume poarta asa ca
108
aBilul il numi oliver twist! Ireste pana la noua ani din mila parorhiei intro casa miBera cu alti
tovarasi de suferinta!
<omnul 4umble avuse sarcuna de al lua pe oliver la varsta de noua ani si al duce la casa de
munca alaturi de alti orfani! <eoarece aici mancarea era foarte saraca oliver fu obligat sa mai
ceara de mancara pt ca unul din copii mai mici sa nu fie mancat! 9entru tupeul care la avut oliver
este iBolat si dat spre adoptie! .e gasige un cosar care era interesat de el, dar prin bunavointa
Mudecatorului care cities frica de pe fata lui oliver nul incredinta acelui om! ste apoi adoptat de
domnul .owerberry un mester ce face sicrie pentru aBil!
Aici Cliver invata meseria si este folosit de stapan pentru a aduce un profitprofit remarcabil!
Intro seara este batut de un alt ucenic al domnului .oweberry numit Aoah! Iopilul nemairabdand
fuge spre Londra! <rumul era lung si anevoios! .pre bucurie lui Cliver se intalneste cu un vechi
prieten <ic/ care ii ofera primele cuvinte calde ce le va pastra toata viata!
AMuns aproape de Londra aproape mort de oboseala si foame se imprieteneste cu un baiat Bis
.mecherul care ii ofera mancare si bere! .mecherul ii propune s ail preBinte protectorului lui
domnul 6agin! Cliver neintalnind ticalosi cade in mreMele smecherului! <omnul 6agin se arata
bucuros de noul oaspete si il ingriMeste pana isi revine! Ii propune s ail invete mestesug ca si pe
ceilalti baieti! Ii preBenta diferite moduri de a sterpelii batiste de la trecatorii iar oliver se arata
incantat!
Intr"o Bi olover cere permisiunea de a merge si el cu smecherul si prietenul lui la treaba! 9e strada
priveste cu uimire cum smecherul scoate din buBunarul unui cetatean o batista $care pe vremea
aceea aratau rangul inalt al persoanei* si speriat o ia la fuga!
9agubasul observa lipsa batistei si da alarma! Cliver este prins si dus la politie unde nu se gaseste
nicio batista asupra lui asa ca este considerat nevinovat! 9agubasul domnul 4rownlow il ia pe
oliver sal ingriMeasca! <upa multe Bile de stat la pat oliver isi revine!
Iand veni domnul 4rownlow sal vada observa neobisnuita asemanare a baiatului cu o femeie
dintr"un tablou! Insanatosindu"se rapid oliver dori sa arate recunostinta fata de binefacatori asa ca
primeste cu entuBiasm orice sarcina!In acest timp fagin si gasca lui se speriasera la auBul ca
oliver este la niste binefacatori, e7istand riscu sa deBvaluie munca murdara a lui fagin! Il roaga
pe un bun prieten .i/es si concubine lui Aancy sal caute!
In acest timp oliver primi sarcina sa duca niste carti inapoi la o librarie! ste vaBut si prins de
Aancy care il aduce inapoi lui fagin! 4atranul fagin il tine captive pe oliver cateva Bile in casa
lui! Cliver cu parere de rau se gandea ce vor crede acum domnul brownlow si menaMera lui
despre el! .i/es ii propune lui fagin sal foloseasca pe oliver la un Maf!
3aful nu are loc deoarece oliver vrind sa anunte pe locatarii casei este impuscat de maMordom!
ste lasat intr"o rapa, iar ceilalti fug san u fie prinsi! Cliver se treBeste si se taraste pana la casa
ce trebui Mefuita fara voia lui! Aici doamna Myle si rose nepoata ei chema pe doctoral Losberne
care avu griMa de oliver! Iand isi reveni baiatul le istorisii doamnelor povestea vietii lui!
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Acestea au ramas impresionate si au prins in acest imp mare drag de baiat! <oamnele il iau pe
oliver si il cresc la tara timp de trei luni de primavera! Aici oliver traieste clipe linistite pline de
dragiste! <ar 8ose nepoata caBu la pat bolnava sin u mai erau sperante! Multa vreme se ruga
oliver ca tanara sa se insanatoseasca! 8ugamintile lui si a celorlalti fura ascultate iar rose se
insanatosii!
Aici in acel sat linistit oliver intalni intrun local pe fagin impreuna cu un prieten de"al lui si
ramane speriat! Totusi batranul fagin nu pune man ape baiat si acesta se intoarce la Londra!
Intr"o seara domnisoara 8ose primeste o viBita neasteptata din partea unei nevoiase numita
Aancy! a ii povesteste ce auBise vorbind pe fagin cu un anume Mon/ de oliver, de unde vine si
cine ii sunt parintii! 4iata Aancy este spionata si descoperita ca oferea informatii si omorata!
Cliver intalnii pe primul lui binefacator domnul 4rownlou si ii e7pilca de ce nu se intorsese
acasa in acea seara! Acesta schimbanusi parerea despre oliver! 8ose povestii matusii ei doctorului
si domnului 4rownlow despre ce ii povestise Aancy!
Acestia au facut cercetari si lau prins pe Mon/s facandul sa marturiseasca! .i/es vinovat de
moartea lui Aancy cade de pe un acoperis incercand sa scape si moare! 6agin este si el prins si
condamnat la moarte! <omnul 4rownlou descoperise o legatura intre el si Mon/s caruia ii
cunostea to!!!
A$en$ie > Te7tul de mai sus este doar un preview al referatului, pentru a vedea daca continutul
acestui referat te poate aMuta! 9entru varianta printabila care poate sa contina imagini sau tabele
apasa butonul de -download- XXX
Iharacter List
O
2li*e! %3is$ " The novelPs protagonist! Cliver is an orphan born in a wor/house, and <ic/ens
uses his situation to criticiBe public policy toward the poor in 10);s ngland! Cliver is between
nine and twelve years old when the main action of the novel occurs! Though treated with cruelty
and surrounded by coarseness for most of his life, he is a pious, innocent child, and his charms
draw the attention of several wealthy benefactors! 1is true identity is the central mystery of the
novel!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Cliver Twist!
(a&in " A conniving career criminal! 6agin ta/es in homeless children and trains them to pic/
poc/ets for him! 1e is also a buyer of other peoplePs stolen goods! 1e rarely commits crimes
himself, preferring to employ others to commit them@and often suffer legal retribution@in his
place! <ic/ensPs portrait of 6agin displays the influence of anti".emitic stereotypes!
8ead an in"depth analysis of 6agin!
7anc. " A young prostitute and one of 6aginPs former child pic/poc/ets! Aancy is also 4ill
.i/esPs lover! 1er love for .i/es and her sense of moral decency come into conflict when .i/es
abuses Cliver! <espite her criminal lifestyle, she is among the noblest characters in the novel! In
effect, she gives her life for Cliver when .i/es murders her for revealing Mon/sPs plots!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Aancy!
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R#se Ma.lie " Agnes 6lemingPs sister, raised by Mrs! Maylie after the death of 8osePs father! A
beautiful, compassionate, and forgiving young woman, 8ose is the novelPs model of female
virtue! .he establishes a loving relationship with Cliver even before it is revealed that the two
are related!
M!. 8!#3nl#3 " A well"off, erudite gentleman who serves as CliverPs first benefactor! Mr!
4rownlow owns a portrait of Agnes 6leming and was engaged to Mr! LeefordPs sister when she
died! Throughout the novel, he behaves with compassion and common sense and emerges as a
natural leader!
M#nks " A sic/ly, vicious young man, prone to violent fits and teeming with ine7plicable
hatred! #ith 6agin, he schemes to give Cliver a bad reputation!
8ill Sikes " A brutal professional burglar brought up in 6aginPs gang! .i/es is Aancy-s pimp and
lover, and he treats both her and his dog 4ullPs"eye with an odd combination of cruelty and
grudging affection! 1is murder of Aancy is the most heinous of the many crimes that occur in the
novel!
M!. 8'm/le " The pompous, self"important beadle@a minor church official@for the
wor/house where Cliver is born! Though Mr! 4umble preaches Ihristian morality, he behaves
without compassion toward the paupers under his care! <ic/ens mercilessly satiriBes his self"
righteousness, greed, hypocrisy, and folly, of which his name is an obvious symbol!
A&nes (lemin& " CliverPs mother! After falling in love with and becoming pregnant by Mr!
Leeford, she chooses to die anonymously in a wor/house rather than stain her familyPs
reputation! A retired naval officerPs daughter, she was a beautiful, loving woman! CliverPs face
closely resembles hers!
M!. Lee)#!- " Cliver and Mon/sPs father, who dies long before the events of the novel! 1e was
an intelligent, high"minded man whose family forced him into an unhappy marriage with a
wealthy woman! 1e eventually separated from his wife and had an illicit love affair with Agnes
6leming! 1e intended to flee the country with Agnes but died before he could do so!
M!. L#s/e!ne " Mrs! MayliePs family physician! A hot"tempered but good"hearted old bachelor,
Mr! Losberne is fiercely loyal to the Maylies and, eventually, to Cliver!
M!s. Ma.lie " A /ind, wealthy older woman, the mother of 1arry Maylie and adoptive TauntL of
8ose!
Ha!!. Ma.lie " Mrs! MayliePs son! 1arry is a dashing young man with grand political ambitions
and career prospects, which he eventually gives up to marry 8ose!
%he A!$)'l 1#-&e! " The cleverest of 6aginPs pic/poc/ets! The <odgerPs real name is 3ac/
<aw/ins! Though no older than Cliver, the <odger tal/s and dresses li/e a grown man! 1e
introduces Cliver to 6agin!
+ha!le. 8a$es " Cne of 6aginPs pic/poc/ets! Iharley is ready to laugh at anything!
2l- Sall. " An elderly pauper who serves as the nurse at CliverPs birth! Cld .ally steals AgnesPs
gold loc/et, the only clue to CliverPs identity!
M!s. +#!ne. " The matron of the wor/house where Cliver is born! Mrs! Iorney is hypocritical,
callous, and materialistic! After she marries Mr! 4umble, she hounds him mercilessly!
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7#ah +la.#le " A charity boy and Mr! .owerberryPs apprentice! Aoah is an overgrown,
cowardly bully who mistreats Cliver and eventually Moins 6aginPs gang!
+ha!l#$$e " The .owerberrysP maid! Iharlotte becomes romantically involved with Aoah
Ilaypole and follows him about slavishly!
%#/. +!acki$ " Cne of 6agin and .i/esPs associates, crass and not too bright! Toby participates
in the attempted burglary of Mrs! MayliePs home!
M!s. 8e-3in " Mr! 4rownlowPs /indhearted house/eeper! Mrs! 4edwin is unwilling to believe
Mr! 4umblePs negative report of CliverPs character!
8'll:s-e.e " 4ill .i/esPs dog! As vicious as his master, 4ullPs"eye functions as .i/esPs alter ego!
M#nks:s m#$he! " An heiress who lived a decadent life and alienated her husband, Mr! Leeford!
Mon/sPs mother destroyed Mr! LeefordPs will, which left part of his property to Cliver! Much of
Mon/sPs nastiness is presumably inherited from her!
M!. S#3e!/e!!. " The underta/er to whom Cliver is apprenticed! Though Mr! .owerberry
ma/es a grotes>ue living arranging cut"rate burials for paupers, he is a decent man who is /ind to
Cliver!
M!s. S#3e!/e!!. " .owerberryPs wife! Mrs! .owerberry is a mean, Mudgmental woman who
henpec/s her husband!
M!. 5!im3i& " 4rownlowPs pessimistic, curmudgeonly friend! Mr! Grimwig is essentially good"
hearted, and his pessimism is mostly Must a provocative character >uir/!
M!. 5iles " Mrs! MayliePs loyal, though somewhat pompous, butler!
M!. 8!i$$les " A sort of handyman for Mrs! MayliePs estate! It is implied that Mr! 4rittles is
slightly mentally handicapped!
M!s. Mann " The superintendent of the Muvenile wor/house where Cliver is raised! Mrs! Mann
physically abuses and half"starves the children in her care!
M!. 5am)iel- " A brutal chimney sweep! Cliver almost becomes Mr! GamfieldPs apprentice!
8e$ " Cne of 6aginPs former child pic/poc/ets, now a prostitute!
M!. (an& " The harsh, irrational, power"hungry magistrate who presides over CliverPs trial for
pic/poc/eting!
8a!ne. " Cne of 6aginPs criminal associates! Li/e 6agin, 4arney is 3ewish!
1')) an- 8la$he!s " Two bumbling police officers who investigate the attempted burglary of
Mrs! MayliePs home!
%#m +hi$lin& " A rather dim member of 6aginPs gang! Tom has served time in Mail for doing
6aginPs bidding!
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
%he (ail'!e #) +ha!i$.
Much of the first part of liver !?ist challenges the organiBations of charity run by the church
and the government in <ic/ensPs time! The system <ic/ens describes was put into place by the
9oor Law of 10)4, which stipulated that the poor could only receive government assistance if
they moved into government wor/houses! 8esidents of those wor/houses were essentially
inmates whose rights were severely curtailed by a host of onerous regulations! Labor was
re>uired, families were almost always separated, and rations of food and clothing were meager!
112
The wor/houses operated on the principle that poverty was the conse>uence of laBiness and that
the dreadful conditions in the wor/house would inspire the poor to better their own
circumstances! Wet the economic dislocation of the Industrial 8evolution made it impossible for
many to do so, and the wor/houses did not provide any means for social or economic betterment!
6urthermore, as <ic/ens points out, the officials who ran the wor/houses blatantly violated the
values they preached to the poor! <ic/ens describes with great sarcasm the greed, laBiness, and
arrogance of charitable wor/ers li/e Mr! 4umble and Mrs! Mann! In general, charitable
institutions only reproduced the awful conditions in which the poor would live anyway! As
<ic/ens puts it, the poor choose between Tbeing starved by a gradual process in the house, or by
a >uic/ one out of it!L
%he (#ll. #) In-i*i-'alism
#ith the rise of capitalism during the Industrial 8evolution, individualism was very much in
vogue as a philosophy! Fictorian capitalists believed that society would run most smoothly if
individuals loo/ed out for their own interests! Ironically, the clearest pronunciation of this
philosophy comes not from a legitimate businessman but from 6agin, who operates in the illicit
businesses of theft and prostitution! 1e tells Aoah Ilaypole that Ta regard for number one holds
us all together, and must do so, unless we would all go to pieces in company!L In other words, the
groupPs interests are best maintained if every individual loo/s out for Tnumber one,L or himself!
The folly of this philosophy is demonstrated at the end of the novel, when Aancy turns against
Mon/s, Iharley 4ates turns against .i/es, and Mon/s turns against Mrs! Iorney! 6aginPs
unstable family, held together only by the self"interest of its members, is Mu7taposed to the little
society formed by Cliver, 4rownlow, 8ose Maylie, and their many friends! This second group is
bound together not by concerns of self"interest but by Tstrong affection and humanity of heart,L
the selfless devotion to each other that <ic/ens sees as the prere>uisite for Tperfect happiness!L
P'!i$. in a +#!!'$ +i$.
Throughout the novel, <ic/ens confronts the >uestion of whether the terrible environments he
depicts have the power to Tblac/en +the soul, and change its hue for ever!L 4y e7amining the
fates of most of the characters, we can assume that his answer is that they do not! Iertainly,
characters li/e .i/es and 6agin seem to have sustained permanent damage to their moral
sensibilities! Wet even .i/es has a conscience, which manifests itself in the apparition of AancyPs
eyes that haunts him after he murders her! Iharley 4ates maintains enough of a sense of decency
to try to capture .i/es! Cf course, Cliver is above any corruption, though the novel removes him
from unhealthy environments relatively early in his life! Most telling of all is Aancy, who,
though she considers herself Tlost almost beyond redemption,L ends up ma/ing the ultimate
sacrifice for a child she hardly /nows! In contrast, Mon/s, perhaps the novelPs most inhuman
villain, was brought up amid wealth and comfort!
%he +#'n$!.si-e I-ealiAe-
All the inMustices and privations suffered by the poor in liver !?ist occur in cities@either the
great city of London or the provincial city where Cliver is born! #hen the Maylies ta/e Cliver to
the countryside, he discovers a Tnew e7istence!L <ic/ens asserts that even people who have
spent their entire lives in Tclose and noisy placesL are li/ely, in the last moments of their lives, to
find comfort in half""imagined memories Tof s/y, and hill and plain!L Moreover, country scenes
have the potential to Tpurify our thoughtsL and erase some of the vices that develop in the city!
1ence, in the country, Tthe poor people +are, so neat and clean,L living a life that is free of the
s>ualor that torments their urban counterparts! Cliver and his new family settle in a small village
at the novelPs end, as if a happy ending would not be possible in the city! <ic/ensPs portrait of
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rural life in liver !?ist is more approving yet far less realistic than his portrait of urban life!
This fact does not contradict, but rather supports, the general estimation of <ic/ens as a great
urban writer! It is precisely <ic/ensPs distance from the countryside that allows him to idealiBe it!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform
the te7tPs maMor themes!
1is&'ise- #! Mis$aken I-en$i$ies
The plot of liver !?ist revolves around the various false identities that other characters impose
upon Cliver, often for the sa/e of advancing their own interests! Mr! 4umble and the other
wor/house officials insist on portraying Cliver as something he is not@an ungrateful, immoral
pauper! Mon/s does his best to conceal CliverPs real identity so that Mon/s himself can claim
CliverPs rightful inheritance! Iharacters also disguise their own identities when it serves them
well to do so! Aancy pretends to be CliverPs middle"class sister in order to get him bac/ to 6agin,
while Mon/s changes his name and poses as a common criminal rather than the heir he really is!
.cenes depicting the manipulation of clothing indicate how it plays an important part in the
construction of various charactersP identities! Aancy dons new clothing to pass as a middle"class
girl, and 6agin strips Cliver of all his upper"class credibility when he ta/es from him the suit of
clothes purchased by 4rownlow! The novelPs resolution revolves around the revelation of the real
identities of Cliver, 8ose, and Mon/s! Cnly when every characterPs identity is /nown with
certainty does the story achieve real closure!
Hi--en (amil. Rela$i#nshis
The revelation of CliverPs familial ties is among the novelPs most unli/ely plot turns2 Cliver is
related to 4rownlow, who was married to his fatherPs sister? to 8ose, who is his aunt? and to
Mon/s, who is his half"brother! The coincidences involved in these facts are >uite unbelievable
and represent the novelPs reMection of realism in favor of fantasy! Cliver is at first believed to be
an orphan without parents or relatives, a position that would, in that time and place, almost
certainly seal his doom! Wet, by the end of the novel, it is revealed that he has more relatives than
Must about anyone else in the novel! This reversal of his fortunes strongly resembles the
fulfillment of a na_ve childPs wish! It also suggests the mystical binding power of family
relationships! 4rownlow and 8ose ta/e to Cliver immediately, even though he is implicated in an
attempted robbery of 8osePs house, while Mon/s recogniBes Cliver the instant he sees him on the
street! The influence of blood ties, it seems, can be felt even before anyone /nows those ties
e7ist!
S'!!#&a$e (amilies
4efore Cliver finds his real family, a number of individuals serve him as substitue parents,
mostly with very limited success! Mrs! Mann and Mr! 4umble are surrogate parents, albeit
horribly negligent ones, for the vast numbers of orphans under their care! Mr! .owerberry and his
wife, while far from ideal, are much more serviceable parent figures to Cliver, and one can even
imagine that Cliver might have grown up to be a productive citiBen under their care!
Interestingly, it is the mention of his real mother that leads to CliverPs voluntary abandonment of
the .owerberrys! The most provocative of the novelPs moc/ family structures is the unit formed
by 6agin and his young charges! 6agin provides for and trains his wards nearly as well as a father
might, and he inspires enough loyalty in them that they stic/ around even after they are grown!
4ut these >uasi"familial relationships are built primarily around e7ploitation and not out of true
114
concern or selfless interest! Cddly enough, the only satisfactory surrogate parents Cliver finds
are 4rownlow and 8ose, both of whom turn out to be actual relatives!
2li*e!:s (ace
CliverPs face is singled out for special attention at multiple points in the novel! Mr! .owerberry,
Iharley 4ates, and Toby Irac/it all comment on its particular appeal, and its resemblance to the
portrait of Agnes 6leming provides the first clue to CliverPs identity! The power of CliverPs
physiognomy, combined with the facts that 6agin is hideous and 8ose is beautiful, suggests that
in the world of the novel, e7ternal appearance usually gives a fair impression of a personPs inner
character!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
+ha!ac$e!s: 7ames
The names of characters represent personal >ualities! Cliver Twist himself is the most obvious
e7ample! The name TTwist,L though given by accident, alludes to the outrageous reversals of
fortune that he will e7perience! 8ose MayliePs name echoes her association with flowers and
springtime, youth and beauty! Toby Irac/itPs name is a lighthearted reference to his chosen
profession of brea/ing into houses! Mr! 4umblePs name connotes his bumbling arrogance? Mrs!
MannPs, her lac/ of maternal instinct? and Mr! GrimwigPs, his superficial grimness that can be
removed as easily as a wig!
8'll:s-e.e
4ill .i/esPs dog, 4ullPs"eye, has Tfaults of temper in common with his ownerL and is a symbolic
emblem of his ownerPs character! The dogPs viciousness reflects and represents .i/esPs own
animal"li/e brutality! After .i/es murders Aancy, 4ullPs"eye comes to represent .i/esPs guilt! The
dog leaves bloody footprints on the floor of the room where the murder is committed! Aot long
after, .i/es becomes desperate to get rid of the dog, convinced that the dogPs presence will give
him away! Wet, Must as .i/es cannot sha/e off his guilt, he cannot sha/e off 4ullPs"eye, who
arrives at the house of .i/esPs demise before .i/es himself does! 4ullPs"eyePs name also conMures
up the image of AancyPs eyes, which haunts .i/es until the bitter end and eventually causes him
to hang himself accidentally!
L#n-#n 8!i-&e
AancyPs decision to meet 4rownlow and 8ose on London 4ridge reveals the symbolic aspect of
this bridge in liver !?ist7 4ridges e7ist to lin/ two places that would otherwise be separated by
an uncrossable chasm! The meeting on London 4ridge represents the collision of two worlds
unli/ely ever to come into contact@the idyllic world of 4rownlow and 8ose, and the
atmosphere of degradation in which Aancy lives! Cn the bridge, Aancy is given the chance to
cross over to the better way of life that the others represent, but she reMects that opportunity, and
by the time the three have all left the bridge, that possibility has vanished forever!
2.8!#n$e< Emil.>
W'$he!in& Hei&h$s
Context

@uthering Heights, which has long been one of the most popular and highly regarded novels in
nglish literature, seemed to hold little promise when it was published in 1047, selling very
115
poorly and receiving only a few mi7ed reviews! Fictorian readers found the boo/ shoc/ing and
inappropriate in its depiction of passionate, ungoverned love and cruelty $despite the fact that the
novel portrays no se7 or bloodshed*, and the wor/ was virtually ignored! ven mily 4rontaPs
sister Iharlotte@an author whose wor/s contained similar motifs of GothicGothic love and
desolate landscapes@remained ambivalent toward the unapologetic intensity of her sisterPs
novel! In a preface to the boo/, which she wrote shortly after mily 4rontaPs death, Iharlotte
4ronta stated, T#hether it is right or advisable to create beings li/e 1eathcliff, I do not /now! I
scarcely thin/ it is!L
mily 4ronta lived an eccentric, closely guarded life! .he was born in 1010, two years after
Iharlotte and a year and a half before her sister Anne, who also became an author! 1er father
wor/ed as a church rector, and her aunt, who raised the 4ronta children after their mother died,
was deeply religious! mily 4ronta did not ta/e to her auntPs Ihristian fervor? the character of
3oseph, a caricature of an evangelical, may have been inspired by her auntPs religiosity! The
4rontas lived in 1aworth, a Wor/shire village in the midst of the moors! These wild, desolate
e7panses@later the setting of @uthering Heights@made up the 4rontasP daily environment, and
mily lived among them her entire life! .he died in 1040, at the age of thirty!
As witnessed by their e7traordinary literary accomplishments, the 4ronta children were a highly
creative group, writing stories, plays, and poems for their own amusement! Largely left to their
own devices, the children created imaginary worlds in which to play! Wet the sisters /new that the
outside world would not respond favorably to their creative e7pression? female authors were
often treated less seriously than their male counterparts in the nineteenth century! Thus the
4ronta sisters thought it best to publish their adult wor/s under assumed names! Iharlotte wrote
as Iurrer 4ell, mily as llis 4ell, and Anne as Acton 4ell! Their real identities remained secret
until after mily and Anne had died, when Iharlotte at last revealed the truth of their novelsP
authorship!
Today, @uthering Heights has a secure position in the canon of world literature, and mily
4ronta is revered as one of the finest writers@male or female@of the nineteenth century! Li/e
Iharlotte 4rontaPs Jane E're& @uthering Heights is based partly on the GothicGothic tradition
of the late eighteenth century, a style of literature that featured supernatural encounters,
crumbling ruins, moonless nights, and grotes>ue imagery, see/ing to create effects of mystery
and fear! 4ut @uthering Heights transcends its genre in its sophisticated observation and artistic
subtlety! The novel has been studied, analyBed, dissected, and discussed from every imaginable
critical perspective, yet it remains une7hausted! And while the novelPs symbolism, themes,
structure, and language may all spar/ fertile e7ploration, the bul/ of its popularity may rest on its
unforgettable characters! As a shattering presentation of the doomed love affair between the
fiercely passionate Iatherine and 1eathcliff, it remains one of the most haunting love stories in
all of literature!
Plot Overview

In the late winter months of 10;1, a man named Loc/wood rents a manor house called
Thrushcross Grange in the isolated moor country of ngland! 1ere, he meets his dour landlord,
1eathcliff, a wealthy man who lives in the ancient manor of #uthering 1eights, four miles away
from the Grange! In this wild, stormy countryside, Loc/wood as/s his house/eeper, Aelly <ean,
to tell him the story of 1eathcliff and the strange deniBens of #uthering 1eights! Aelly consents,
and Loc/wood writes down his recollections of her tale in his diary? these written recollections
form the main part of @uthering Heights!
116
Aelly remembers her childhood! As a young girl, she wor/s as a servant at #uthering 1eights for
the owner of the manor, Mr! arnshaw, and his family! Cne day, Mr! arnshaw goes to Liverpool
and returns home with an orphan boy whom he will raise with his own children! At first, the
arnshaw children@a boy named 1indley and his younger sister Iatherine@detest the dar/"
s/inned 1eathcliff! 4ut Iatherine >uic/ly comes to love him, and the two soon grow inseparable,
spending their days playing on the moors! After his wifePs death, Mr! arnshaw grows to prefer
1eathcliff to his own son, and when 1indley continues his cruelty to 1eathcliff, Mr! arnshaw
sends 1indley away to college, /eeping 1eathcliff nearby!
Three years later, Mr! arnshaw dies, and 1indley inherits #uthering 1eights! 1e returns with a
wife, 6rances, and immediately see/s revenge on 1eathcliff! Cnce an orphan, later a pampered
and favored son, 1eathcliff now finds himself treated as a common laborer, forced to wor/ in the
fields! 1eathcliff continues his close relationship with Iatherine, however! Cne night they
wander to Thrushcross Grange, hoping to tease dgar and Isabella Linton, the cowardly,
snobbish children who live there! Iatherine is bitten by a dog and is forced to stay at the Grange
to recuperate for five wee/s, during which time Mrs! Linton wor/s to ma/e her a proper young
lady! 4y the time Iatherine returns, she has become infatuated with dgar, and her relationship
with 1eathcliff grows more complicated!
#hen 6rances dies after giving birth to a baby boy named 1areton, 1indley descends into the
depths of alcoholism, and behaves even more cruelly and abusively toward 1eathcliff!
ventually, IatherinePs desire for social advancement prompts her to become engaged to dgar
Linton, despite her overpowering love for 1eathcliff! 1eathcliff runs away from #uthering
1eights, staying away for three years, and returning shortly after Iatherine and dgarPs
marriage!
#hen 1eathcliff returns, he immediately sets about see/ing revenge on all who have wronged
him! 1aving come into a vast and mysterious wealth, he deviously lends moneymoney to the
drun/en 1indley, /nowing that 1indley will increase his debts and fall into deeper despondency!
#hen 1indley dies, 1eathcliff inherits the manor! 1e also places himself in line to inherit
Thrushcross Grange by marrying Isabella Linton, whom he treats very cruelly! Iatherine
becomes ill, gives birth to a daughter, and dies! 1eathcliff begs her spirit to remain on arth@
she may ta/e whatever form she will, she may haunt him, drive him mad@Must as long as she
does not leave him alone! .hortly thereafter, Isabella flees to London and gives birth to
1eathcliffPs son, named Linton after her family! .he /eeps the boy with her there!
Thirteen years pass, during which Aelly <ean serves as IatherinePs daughterPs nursemaid at
Thrushcross Grange! Woung Iatherine is beautiful and headstrong li/e her mother, but her
temperament is modified by her fatherPs gentler influence! Woung Iatherine grows up at the
Grange with no /nowledge of #uthering 1eights? one day, however, wandering through the
moors, she discovers the manor, meets 1areton, and plays together with him! .oon afterwards,
Isabella dies, and Linton comes to live with 1eathcliff! 1eathcliff treats his sic/ly, whining son
even more cruelly than he treated the boyPs mother!
Three years later, Iatherine meets 1eathcliff on the moors, and ma/es a visit to #uthering
1eights to meet Linton! .he and Linton begin a secret romance conducted entirely through
letters! #hen Aelly destroys IatherinePs collection of letters, the girl begins snea/ing out at night
to spend time with her frail young lover, who as/s her to come bac/ and nurse him bac/ to
health! 1owever, it >uic/ly becomes apparent that Linton is pursuing Iatherine only because
1eathcliff is forcing him to? 1eathcliff hopes that if Iatherine marries Linton, his legal claim
upon Thrushcross Grange@and his revenge upon dgar Linton@will be complete! Cne day, as
117
dgar Linton grows ill and nears death, 1eathcliff lures Aelly and Iatherine bac/ to #uthering
1eights, and holds them prisoner until Iatherine marries Linton! .oon after the marriage, dgar
dies, and his death is >uic/ly followed by the death of the sic/ly Linton! 1eathcliff now controls
both #uthering 1eights and Thrushcross Grange! 1e forces Iatherine to live at #uthering
1eights and act as a common servant, while he rents Thrushcross Grange to Loc/wood!
AellyPs story ends as she reaches the present! Loc/wood, appalled, ends his tenancy at
Thrushcross Grange and returns to London! 1owever, si7 months later, he pays a visit to Aelly,
and learns of further developments in the story! Although Iatherine originally moc/ed 1aretonPs
ignorance and illiteracy $in an act of retribution, 1eathcliff ended 1aretonPs education after
1indley died*, Iatherine grows to love 1areton as they live together at #uthering 1eights!
1eathcliff becomes more and more obsessed with the memory of the elder Iatherine, to the
e7tent that he begins spea/ing to her ghost! verything he sees reminds him of her! .hortly after
a night spent wal/ing on the moors, 1eathcliff dies! 1areton and young Iatherine inherit
#uthering 1eights and Thrushcross Grange, and they plan to be married on the ne7t Aew WearPs
<ay! After hearing the end of the story, Loc/wood goes to visit the graves of Iatherine and
1eathcliff!
+h!#n#l#&.
The story of @uthering Heights is told through flashbac/s recorded in diary entries, and events
are often presented out of chronological order@Loc/woodPs narrative ta/es place after AellyPs
narrative, for instance, but is interspersed with AellyPs story in his Mournal! Aevertheless, the
novel contains enough clues to enable an appro7imate reconstruction of its chronology, which
was elaborately designed by mily 4ronta! 6or instance, Loc/woodPs diary entries are recorded
in the late months of 10;1 and in .eptember 10;%? in 10;1, Aelly tells Loc/wood that she has
lived at Thrushcross Grange for eighteen years, since IatherinePs marriage to dgar, which must
then have occurred in 170)! #e /now that Iatherine was engaged to dgar for three years, and
that Aelly was twenty"two when they were engaged, so the engagement must have ta/en place in
170;, and Aelly must have been born in 17'0! .ince Aelly is a few years older than Iatherine,
and since Loc/wood comments that 1eathcliff is about forty years old in 10;1, it stands to
reason that 1eathcliff and Iatherine were born around 17&1, three years after Aelly! There are
several other clues li/e this in the novel $such as 1aretonPs birth, which occurs in 3une, 1770*!
The following chronology is based on those clues, and should closely appro7imate the timing of
the novelPs important events! A TbL before a date indicates that it cannot be precisely determined
from the evidence in the novel, but only closely estimated!
15"" - The stone above the ront !oor o "#therin$ %ei$hts& bearin$ the na'e o
%areton (arnshaw& is ins)ribe!& *ossibl+ to 'ar, the )o'*letion o the ho#se-
175# - .ell+ is born-
$1761 - %eath)li/ an! Catherine are born-
$1767 - 0r- (arnshaw brin$s %eath)li/ to live at "#therin$ %ei$hts-
177% - 0r- (arnshaw sen!s %in!le+ awa+ to )olle$e-
1777 - 0r- (arnshaw !ies1 %in!le+ an! 2ran)es ta,e *ossession o "#therin$
%ei$hts1 Catherine 3rst visits Thr#sh)ross 4ran$e aro#n! Christ'asti'e-
177# - %areton is born in 5#ne1 2ran)es !ies1 %in!le+ be$ins his sli!e into
al)oholis'-
17#" - Catherine be)o'es en$a$e! to (!$ar 6inton1 %eath)li/ leaves "#therin$
%ei$hts-
118
17#& - Catherine an! (!$ar are 'arrie!1 %eath)li/ arrives at Thr#sh)ross 4ran$e
in 7e*te'ber-
17#% - %eath)li/ an! 8sabella elo*e in the earl+ *art o the +ear1 Catherine
be)o'es ill with brain ever1 +o#n$ Catherine is born late in the +ear1 Catherine
!ies-
17#5 - (arl+ in the +ear& 8sabella 9ees "#therin$ %ei$hts an! settles in 6on!on1
6inton is born-
$17#5 - %in!le+ !ies1 %eath)li/ inherits "#therin$ %ei$hts-
$17'7 - :o#n$ Catherine 'eets %areton an! visits "#therin$ %ei$hts or the 3rst
ti'e1 6inton )o'es ro' 6on!on ater 8sabella !ies ;in late 1797 or earl+ 1798<-
1#"" - :o#n$ Catherine sta$es her ro'an)e with 6inton in the winter-
1#"1 - (arl+ in the +ear& +o#n$ Catherine is i'*risone! b+ %eath)li/ an! or)e! to
'arr+ 6inton1 (!$ar 6inton !ies1 6inton !ies1 %eath)li/ ass#'es )ontrol o
Thr#sh)ross 4ran$e- 6ate in the +ear& 6o),woo! rents the 4ran$e ro' %eath)li/
an! be$ins his tenan)+- 8n a winter stor'& 6o),woo! ta,es ill an! be$ins )onversin$
with .ell+ =ean-
1#"1(1#"2 - =#rin$ the winter& .ell+ narrates her stor+ or 6o),woo!-
1#"2 - 8n s*rin$& 6o),woo! ret#rns to 6on!on1 Catherine an! %areton all in love1
%eath)li/ !ies1 6o),woo! ret#rns in 7e*te'ber an! hears the en! o the stor+ ro'
.ell+-
1#"& - On .ew :ear>s =a+& +o#n$ Catherine an! %areton *lan to be 'arrie!-
Ac iunea romanului Pe ari"ile vBntului are loc Dn Ilayton Iounty, Georgia i Atlanta, .tatele
:nite ale Americii Dn timpul 8EBboiului Iivil American $10&1(10&'* i al pocii de
reconstruc ie $10&'(1077* care urmeaBE! 8omanul se desfa oarE Dn atmosfera creatE de
rebeliunea celor apte state din sud, printre care i Georgia, care declarE secesiunea de .tatele
:nite $=:niunea=* i formeaBE Ionfedera ia .tatelor Americii $=Ionfedera ia=*, dupa ce
Abraham Lincoln a fost ales pre edinte fEra votul a Bece state sudiste Dn care sclavagismul era
legal! Astfel a Dnceput disputa ce avea sE decidE soarta sclavilor de origine africanE care
repreBentau mJna de lucru pe planta iile de bumbac din sudul Americii i Dn acelasi timp ar fi
putut deveni o sursE de salaria i ieftini Dn fabricile din nord! 9ovestea Dncepe Dn aprilie 10&1 la
=Tara=, planta ia familiei CP1ara, o familie de emigran i irlandeBi prosperi! .carlett C-1ara, fata
cea mare a lui Gerald i llen C-1ara, la cei 1& ani ai sEi, =nu era frumoasE=, dar avea un farmec
aparte care o fEcea sE fie ireBistibilE Dn ochii bErba ilor, mai ales atunci cJnd D i propunea acest
lucru! Mai era doar o Bi pJnE la iBbucnirea rEBboilui!
Autoarea ne introduce treptat Dn farmecul .udului american de altEdatE cu istoria i tradi iile sale,
fEcJnd o scurtE descriere a fiecEruia dintre personaMele principale ce DmbinE diversele trEsEturi de
caracter mo tenite de la Dnainta i2 stilul i rafinamentul franceB, polite ea impecabilE engleBE,
impetuoBitatea i DncEpE Jnarea irlandeBE!
.carlett aflE cE unul dintre curteBanii sEi, Ashley #il/es, se va logodi curJnd cu veri oara lui,
Melanie 1amilton! AceastE veste o rEne te profund i decide ca a doua Bi, la picnicul organiBat
de familia #il/es la =<oispreBece .teMari=, sE Di mErturiseascE lui Ashley dragostea sa pentru el,
convinsE cE este doar o nein elegere la miMloc! Ashley recunoa te cE este sensibil la farmecul lui
.carlett, dar o respinge politicos con tient fiind cE nu vor putea face niciodata un cuplu fericit
datoritE personalita ilor lor atJt de diferite! .carlett se Dnfurie Dn urma reac iei lui Ashley i are o
iBbucnire de nervi Dn bibliotecE, Dn timp ce restul domni oarelor D i fac conform obiceiului siesta
119
intr"o altE aripa a casei! <upE plecarea lui Ashley, dE peste 8hett 4utler, un om cu o reputa ie
Dndoielnica! 8hett este singur Dn bibliotecE Dn momentul Dn care are loc discu ia dintre .carlett i
Ashley, DnsE cei doi nu D i dau seama de preBen a lui! 8hett o aplaudE amuBat pe .carlett pentru
nonconformismul i lipsa de bune maniere pe care aceasta le afi eaBE Dn dialogul cu iubitul sEu!
InfuriatE si umilitE, .carlett Di declarE lui 8hett =Au meri i nici sE Di lustruiesti ciBmele lui
AshleyX=
Imediat dupE aceea aflE cE a fost declarat rEBboi i bErba ii sunt nerEbdEtori sE se Dnscrie!
1otErJtE sE se rEBbune pe Ashley, pentru cE o respinsese, .carlett acceptE cererea de cEsEtorie a
fratelui lui Melanie, Iharles 1amilton! <ouE sEptEmJni mai tJrBiu se cEsEtorsec, dupE care
Iharles pleacE pe front, unde moare de ruMeolE, la douE luni dupE Dnceperea rEBboiului! FEduvE
la numai aispreBece ani, .carlett dE na tere primului ei copil, un bEiat pe nume #ade 1ampton
1amilton! Ia vEduvE, ea este constrJnsE de tradi ie sE se Dmbrace Dn negru i sE nu vorbeascE cu
tineri, ca atare .carlett este foarte deprimatE!
Melanie, care stE Dn Atlanta cu mEtu a 9ittypat, o invitE pe .carlett sE locuiascE cu ele! Hn
Atlanta, .carlett D i redobJnde te treptat energia i se implicE Dn munca la spitalul unde sunt
DngriMi i rEni ii de rEBboi i Dn alte ac iuni de benevolat organiBate Dn spriMinul armatei confederate!
.carlett Dl intJlneste din nou pe 8hett 4utler la o seratE dansantE organiBatE pentru strJngerea de
fonduri Dn spriMinul Ionfedera iei! 8hett crede ca rEBboiul este o cauBE pierdutE, dar afacerile lui
au profituri uria e de pe urma acestuia! Hn cadrul seratei, bErba ii trebuie sE liciteBe pentru a putea
dansa cu o doamna sau domni oara, iar 8hett decide sE liciteBe =o sutE cinciBeci de dolari " Dn
aur= pentru un dans cu .carlett! ToatE lumea este contrariatE de alegerea lui deoarece .carlett
este vEduvE, iar eticheta nu permite acest lucru! Melanie intervine pentru a"i lua apErarea lui
8hett subliniind generoBitatea acestuia i spriMinul considerabil adus Dn acest fel Ionfedera iei,
cauBE pentru care luptE i so ul ei Ashley!
<e IrEciun $10&)*, Ashley vine Dn permisie pentru a" i vedea so ia! <upE cJteva luni Atlanta este
asediatE $septembrie 10&4*, iar popula ia este din ce Dn ce mai speriatE, Dn timp ce sute de solda i
rani i isi fac apari ia pe strEBile orasului, mul i dintre ei murind sub ochii neputincio i ai
medicilor si infirmierelor! Melanie este DnsarcinatE dar nu poate apela la niciun medic pentru a o
asista la nastere, to i fiind ocupa i cu DngriMirea rEni ilor! Hn acest haos general, .carlett, rEmasE
farE niciun suport, tJnMeste dupa Tara i dupE preBen a mamei ei cEreia Di duce lipsa Dn aceste
momente grele! Hntr"un final, armata confederatE este nevoitE sE arunce Dn aer depoBitele de
muni ii din Atlanta i abandoneaBE ora ul Dn mJinile armatei unioniste!
Melanie na te un baie el al cErui nume este 4eauregard, dupE care .carlett decide sE se refugieBe
la Tara cu orice pre ! ApeleaBa la 8hett, pe care Dl implorE sE Di ducE pe ea, #ade, Melanie, 4eau
i 9rissy la Tara! 8hett este amuBat de aceastE idee riscantE, dar reu e te sE facE rost de o caru E
veche i de un cal bEtrJn cu care pornesc cu to ii Dn urma armatei confederate care se retrage din
Atlanta!
Hn drum spre Tara, 8hett se rEBgJnde te i pleacE pe front, lEsJnd"o singurE pe .carlett! Aceasta
aMunge Dntr"un sfJr it acasE, dar realiBeaBE repede cJt de mult s"au schimbat lucrurile2 tatEl ei,
Gerald, i"a pierdut min ile, mama ei a murit, surorile ei sunt bolnave de febrE tifoidE, iar sclavii
au dispErut! La trecerea lor yan/eii au ars tot bumbacul i nu mai e nici un pic de mJncare Dn
casE!
.carlett decide sE nu se dea batutE si incepe lupta istovitoare pentru asigurarea Bilei de mJine
pentru ea i to i cei afla i Dn griMa ei! <ecide sE cultive pamantul pentru a avea cu ce sE Di
hrEneasca! Hn tot acest timp sunt frecvente atacurile yan/eilor care Mefuiesc i dau foc planta iilor!
cilnic, solda i obosi i ai armatei confederate se opresc la Tara pentru un pic de mJncare i odihnE
120
Dn drumul lor spre casa! Hntr"un tJrBiu, apare i Ashley #il/es, istovit i distrus suflete te de
rEBboiul care tocmai se terminase! Fia a la Tara pare sE reintre treptat Dn normal pJnE Dntr"o buna
Bi cand mErirea bruscE a impoBitului le amenin E din nou siguran a Bilei de mJine!
.carlett cunoa te o singura persoanE care are suficien i bani pentru a o putea aMuta sE plEteasca
impoBitul2 8hett 4utler! 9leacE la Atlanta pentru a"l gEsi, dar aflE cu stupoare cE 8hett este
Dnchis! 9lecJnd de la inchisoarea unde Dl viBitase pe 8hett Dn speran a cE ar putea totu i sE ob ina
ni te bani de la el, .carlett Dl intJlne te pe 6ran/ Qennedy, logodnicul surorii sale .uellen, care
are un mic magaBin Dn Atlanta! 8ealiBeaBE imediat cE i 6ran/ are bani, deci decide pe loc sE Dl
convingE cE .uellen s"a rEBgJndit Dn privinta mEriti ului cu el! Hn mai pu in de douE sEptEmani
.carlett reu e te sE Dl cucereascE i sE Dl determine sE se cEsEtoreascE cu ea! <orind sE o vadE pe
so ia lui fericitE, 6ran/ Di dE imediat banii necesari sE plEteasca impoBitul la Tara!
La un moment dat, Dn timp ce 6ran/ este nevoit sE stea la pat din cauBa unei rEceli, .carlett
aruncE o privire Dn registrele contabile ale magaBinului i descoperE cu uimire cJt de multE lume
cumpErE pe datorie de la magaBinul so ului ei! HngroBitE de perspectiva lipsei de bani i de
impoBitele tot mai mari, decide sE preia controlul afacerii! <e asemenea, face un Dmprumut la
8hett pentru a cumpEra un gater i se ocupE personal de comertul cu cherestea, atrEgJndu" i
astfel deBaprobarea maMoritE ii cetEtenilor onorabili din Atlanta! .pre marea bucurie a lui 6ran/,
aflE curJnd cE este gravidE, lucru care o face sE D i DntrerupE activitatea pentru o perioadE! Hl
determinE pe Ashley sE vinE in Atlanta ca sE preia conducerea gaterului i totodata pentru a"l
avea din nou aproape de ea! La insisten a lui Melanie, Ashley acceptE! Melanie devine Dn curJnd
arbitrul si sufletul societE ii aristocrate din Atlanta iar .carlett dE na tere unei feti e cEreia Di pune
numele lla Lorena, in amintirea mamei sale!
Hn Georgia este decretatE legea mar ialE din cauBa numeroaselor atacuri i crime comise Dn haosul
lEsat de rEBboi i Dn plin proces de destrEmare a unei lumi i Dnlocuire a ei cu noile valori aduse
din nord! .carlett are intotdeauna la ea pistolul lui 6ran/ deoarece drumul cEtre gater trece prin
Bone ale orasului cu o ratE mare de criminalitate! Hntr"o searE, Dn drum spre casE, .carlett este
acostatE de doi bErba i care incearcE sE o atace, dar reu e te Dn cele din urmE sE scape cu aMutorul
lui 4ig .am, unul dintre fo tii sclavi de la Tara! 6ran/ DncearcE sE D i rEBbune so ia participJnd la
un raid al Qu Qlu7 Qlan"ului, Dn urma cEruia este Dmpu cat mortal! .carlett este astfel vEduva
pentru a doua oarE!
IuprinsE de teamE si de remu cEri, .carlett i se confeseaBE lui 8hett! Acesta profitE de ocaBie i
o cere in cEsEtorie , spunandu"i cE = i"a dorit intotdeauna sE o aibE, Dntr"un fel sau altul=! .carlett
Di declarE insE cE nu Dl iube te si cE nu vrea sE se recEsEtoreascE! Iu toate acestea, Dn urma unui
sErut pasional al lui 8hett i in acelasi timp atrasE de siguran a pe care i"o ofera noua cEsEtorie,
acceptE sE se mErite cu el! 9este un an, .carlett i 8hett D i anuntE logodna!
Festea viitoarei cEsEtorii se rEspJnde te rapid Dn ora ! <omnul i doamna 4utler D i petrec luna de
miere Dn Aew Crleans, cheltuind nebune te! La intoarcerea Dn Atlanta, cuplul se mutE Dntr"un
apartament de lu7 al unui hotel central din Atlanta a teptJnd terminarea construc iei noii lor case!
.carlett D i doreste o casE modernE , asemEnEtoare celei vaBute Dntr"o revistE, cu tapet ro u,
covoare groase ro ii si mobilE neagra de nuc! 8hett considera stilul oribil, dar acceptE pentru a"i
face plEcere lui .carlett! La scurt timp dupE ce familia 4utler se mutE Dn noua casE, .carlett Dl
anun E furioasE cE vor avea un copil, pe care ea personal nu i"l dore te! #ade are apte ani Dn
10&5 cJnd vine pe lume sora lui, ugenie Fictoria, care poartE numele a doua regine! Are ochi
alba tri ca Gerald C-1ara si Melanie o porecle te =4onnie 4lue= , fEcJnd referire la steagul
4onnie 4lue al Ionfedera iei!
121
IJnd .carlett se reface dupE na tere, revine la gater unde se intJlneste cu Ashley, pe care Dl
gEse te singur Dn birou! In timpul conversa iei , aMunge la concluBia cE Ashley o mai iube te i cE
ar putea fi gelos pe 8hett, ceea ce Di dE din nou speran e! 8evenind acasa, .carlett Dl anuntE pe
8hett cE nu mai vrea sE aibE alti copii! <in acel moment, .carlett si 8hett au dormitoare separate
iar 4onnie doarme Dntr"un pEtut langE patul lui 8hett, cu lumina aprinsE, fiindca Di este teamE de
Dntuneric! 8hett D i DndreaptE toatE dragostea i energia cEtre 4onnie, se ocupE de educa ia ei, o
rEsfa E i D i schimbE pJna i obiceiurile pentru a nu"i afecta mai tJrBiu reputa ia fetitei!
Melanie organiBeaBE o petrecere surpriBE cu ocaBia Bilei de na tere a lui Ashley! .carlett merge la
gater pentru a"l re ine acolo pJnE la inceperea petrecerii, o rarE oportunitate pentru ea de a fi
singurE cu Ashley! Hn momentul Dn care Dl vede, are brusc senBatia cE s"a Dntors Dn timp i are din
nou aispreBece ani, iar Ashley remarcE de asemenea cJt de frumoasE a rEmas in pofida
incercErilor prin care a trecut! I i amintesc apoi cu nostalgie de trecutul i de lumea lor apusE i
ochii lui .carlett se umplu de lacrimi iar Ashley o strJnge Dn bra e ca pe un copil ca sE o
consoleBe! Hn acel moment, u a se deschide i apare India #il/es, sora lui Ashley care nu pierde
ocaBia sE DnceapE sE rEspandeasca Bvonuri de adulter Dnca Dnainte de Dnceperea petrecerii, Bvonuri
care aMung bineDn eles i la urechile lui 8hett si Melanie! Iu distinc ia sa desEvJrsitE, Melanie
refuBE sa asculte orice bJrfE legata de cumnata sa cEreia Di datoreaBa atat de mult i Di cere Indiei
#il/es, sE pErEseasca casa, cu riscul unei rupturi Dn familie!
8hett vine acasE mai beat ca niciodatE i o invitE pe .carlett sE bea impreuna cu el! <orind sE D i
ascundE teama pe care i"o genereaBE starea lui, .carlett acceptE sE bea un pahar i DncearcE apoi
sE se retragE repede Dn camera ei! 8hett o opre te i Di mErturise te cE este gelos pe Ashley
acuBand"o pe .carlett cE viseaBa cu ochii deschi i Dn privin a dragostei ei pentru Ashley! Hi spune
de asemenea cE ar fi putut sa fi ferici i DmpreunE, =pentru cE el o iube te a a cum este ea Dn
realitate=! <upa aceea, o duce Dn bra e Dn dormitor unde petrec o noapte de dragoste!
A doua Bi 8hett pleacE din Atlanta cu 4onnie si 9rissy i revine doar peste trei luni! .carlett Di
simte lipsa i este nesigurE de iubirea lui, con tientE fiind cE declara ia sa fusese facutE la be ie!
Afla de asemenea cE a rEmas insErcinata din nou!
IJnd 8hett se Dntoarce acasE i aflE cE aceasta e DnsErcinatE, o DnterabE, sarcastic, dacE e copilul
lui Ashley i remarcE cE cu pu in noroc o sE piardE sarcina! 8EnitE i MignitE, aceasta se repede la
el, dar 8hett se dE la o parte i ea alunecE i cade pe scEri, rupJndu" i ni te coaste i pierBJnd
copilul! 8hett e cuprins de remu cEri, creBJnd cE a omorJt"o, i se duce la Melanie, cEreia Di
mErturise te cE e gelos i cE o iube te cu adevErat pe .carlett! Aceasta pleacE la Tara, ca sE se
refaca, luJndu"i pe #ade i lla cu ea! IJnd se Dntoarce, Di vinde afacerea lui Ashley! Atitudinea
lui 8hett se schimbE perceptibil, el fiind mult mai politicos, amabil i aparent neinteresat!
Hn 107), 4onnie are patru ani! TatEl ei Di cumpErE un ponei, pe care aceasta Dl nume te K<omnul
4utlerL! C Dnva E sE cElEreascE, apoi plEte te un bEiat sE Dnve e poneiul sE sarE! 4onnie Dncepe sE
petreacE foarte mult timp, sErind peste obstacole, i, Dntr"o Bi, reu e te sE Dl convingE pe tatEl ei sE
ridice bara mai sus! 9regEtindu"se sE sarE, aceasta strigE =MamE, prive te"mE cum o iau pe astaX=,
repetJnd cuvintele spuse de bunicul ei Dnainte de moarte! .carlett DncearcE fErE succes sE o
opreascE, dar aceasta sare, poneiul se DmpiedicE i 4onnie cade din a i moare!
Hn Bilele si lunile care urmeaBE, 8hett este Dn permanen E beat i neconsolat, dar .carlett, care
suferE la fel de mult ca el, reu e te totu i sE D i infrangE durerea mai bine! Au mult dupa aceea
intervine moartea nea teptatE a lui Melanie, care Dl determinE pe 8hett sE pErEseascE Atlanta si sE
rEtEceascE in lume Dn cEutarea lini tei si demnitE ii senine a .udului de altEdatE! Hn acela i timp ,
.carlett realiBeaBE cE nu Dl mai iube te pe Ashley de mult timp si cE este DndrEgostitE de fapt de
8hett! <escoperE cu durere cE acesta a plecat, dar potrivit caracterului sEu D i propune sE nu
122
abandoneBe speran a i sE Dl recucereascE! Hn final decide sE plece la Tara pentru a" i recEpEta
energia i se consoleaBE ca Dntotdeauna la gJndul cE2 K i mJine o BiL!
Chara)ter 6ist

)eathcli* - ?n or*han bro#$ht to live at "#therin$ %ei$hts b+ 0r- (arnshaw&

%eath)li/ alls into an intense& #nbrea,able love with 0r- (arnshaw>s !a#$hter
Catherine- ?ter 0r- (arnshaw !ies& his resent#l son %in!le+ ab#ses %eath)li/ an!
treats hi' as a servant- @e)a#se o her !esire or so)ial *ro'inen)e& Catherine
'arries (!$ar 6inton instea! o %eath)li/- %eath)li/>s h#'iliation an! 'iser+
*ro'*t hi' to s*en! 'ost o the rest o his lie see,in$ reven$e on %in!le+& his
belove! Catherine& an! their res*e)tive )hil!ren ;%areton an! +o#n$ Catherine<- ?
*ower#l& 3er)e& an! oten )r#el 'an& %eath)li/ a)A#ires a ort#ne an! #ses his
extraor!inar+ *owers o will to a)A#ire both "#therin$ %ei$hts an! Thr#sh)ross
4ran$e& the estate o (!$ar 6inton-
8ead an in"depth analysis of 1eathcliff!
Catherine - The !a#$hter o 0r- (arnshaw an! his wie& Catherine alls *ower#ll+
in love with %eath)li/& the or*han 0r- (arnshaw brin$s ho'e ro' 6iver*ool-
Catherine loves %eath)li/ so intensel+ that she )lai's the+ are the sa'e *erson-
%owever& her !esire or so)ial a!van)e'ent 'otivates her to 'arr+ (!$ar 6inton
instea!- Catherine is ree-s*irite!& bea#ti#l& s*oile!& an! oten arro$ant- 7he is
$iven to 3ts o te'*er& an! she is torn between her wil! *assion or %eath)li/ an!
her so)ial a'bition- 7he brin$s 'iser+ to both o the 'en who love her-
8ead an in"depth analysis of Iatherine!
+,-ar .int!n - "ell-bre! b#t rather s*oile! as a bo+& (!$ar 6inton $rows into a
ten!er& )onstant& b#t )owar!l+ 'an- %e is al'ost the i!eal $entle'anB Catherine
a))#ratel+ !es)ribes hi' as Chan!so'e&D C*leasant to be with&D C)heer#l&D an!
Cri)h-D %owever& this #ll assort'ent o $entle'anl+ )hara)teristi)s& alon$ with his
)iviliEe! virt#es& *roves #seless in (!$ar>s )lashes with his oil& %eath)li/& who $ains
*ower over his wie& sister& an! !a#$hter-
Nell/ Dean - .ell+ =ean ;,nown or'all+ as (llen =ean< serves as the )hie
narrator o Wuthering Heights- ? sensible& intelli$ent& an! )o'*assionate wo'an&
she $rew #* essentiall+ alon$si!e %in!le+ an! Catherine (arnshaw an! is !ee*l+
involve! in the stor+ she tells- 7he has stron$ eelin$s or the )hara)ters in her
stor+& an! these eelin$s )o'*li)ate her narration-
.!c01!!, - 6o),woo!>s narration or's a ra'e aro#n! .ell+>s1 he serves as an
inter'e!iar+ between .ell+ an! the rea!er- ? so'ewhat vain an! *res#'*t#o#s
$entle'an& he !eals ver+ )l#'sil+ with the inhabitants o "#therin$ %ei$hts-
6o),woo! )o'es ro' a 'ore !o'esti)ate! re$ion o (n$lan!& an! he 3n!s hi'sel
at a loss when he witnesses the stran$e ho#sehol!>s !isre$ar! or the so)ial
)onventions that have alwa+s str#)t#re! his worl!- ?s a narrator& his vanit+ an!
#na'iliarit+ with the stor+ o))asionall+ lea! hi' to 'is#n!erstan! events-
2!3n- Catherine - 2or )larit+>s sa,e& this 7*ar,.ote reers to the !a#$hter o
(!$ar 6inton an! the 3rst Catherine as C+o#n$ Catherine-D The 3rst Catherine
be$ins her lie as Catherine (arnshaw an! en!s it as Catherine 6inton1 her !a#$hter
123
be$ins as Catherine 6inton an!& ass#'in$ that she 'arries %areton ater the en! o
the stor+& $oes on to be)o'e Catherine (arnshaw- The 'other an! the !a#$hter
share not onl+ a na'e& b#t also a ten!en)+ towar! hea!stron$ behavior&
i'*et#o#sness& an! o))asional arro$an)e- %owever& (!$ar>s in9#en)e see's to
have te'*ere! +o#n$ Catherine>s )hara)ter& an! she is a $entler an! 'ore
)o'*assionate )reat#re than her 'other-
)aret!n +arnsha1 - The son o %in!le+ an! 2ran)es (arnshaw& %areton is
Catherine>s ne*hew- ?ter %in!le+>s !eath& %eath)li/ ass#'es )#sto!+ o %areton&
an! raises hi' as an #ne!#)ate! 3el!3el! wor,er& F#st as %in!le+ ha! !one to
%eath)li/ hi'sel- Th#s %eath)li/ #ses %areton to see, reven$e on %in!le+- 8lliterate
an! A#i),-te'*ere!& %areton is easil+ h#'iliate!& b#t shows a $oo! heart an! a
!ee* !esire to i'*rove hi'sel- ?t the en! o the novel& he 'arries +o#n$
Catherine-
.int!n )eathcli* - %eath)li/>s son b+ 8sabella- "ea,& snivelin$& !e'an!in$& an!
)onstantl+ ill& 6inton is raise! in 6on!on b+ his 'other an! !oes not 'eet his ather
#ntil he is thirteen +ears ol!& when he $oes to live with hi' ater his 'other>s !eath-
%eath)li/ !es*ises 6inton& treats hi' )onte'*t#o#sl+& an!& b+ or)in$ hi' to 'arr+
the +o#n$ Catherine& #ses hi' to )e'ent his )ontrol over Thr#sh)ross 4ran$e ater
(!$ar 6inton>s !eath- 6inton hi'sel !ies not lon$ ater this 'arria$e-
)in,le/ +arnsha1 - Catherine>s brother& an! 0r- (arnshaw>s son- %in!le+ resents
it when %eath)li/ is bro#$ht to live at "#therin$ %ei$hts- ?ter his ather !ies an!
he inherits the estate& %in!le+ be$ins to ab#se the +o#n$ %eath)li/& ter'inatin$ his
e!#)ation an! or)in$ hi' to wor, in the 3el!s- "hen %in!le+>s wie 2ran)es !ies
shortl+ ater $ivin$ birth to their son %areton& he la*ses into al)oholis' an!
!issi*ation-
Isa4ella .int!n - (!$ar 6inton>s sister& who alls in love with %eath)li/ an! 'arries
hi'- 7he sees %eath)li/ as a ro'anti) 3$#re& li,e a )hara)ter in a novel- Glti'atel+&
she r#ins her lie b+ allin$ in love with hi'- %e never ret#rns her eelin$s an! treats
her as a 'ere tool in his A#est or reven$e on the 6inton a'il+-
5r. +arnsha1 - Catherine an! %in!le+>s ather- 0r- (arnshaw a!o*ts %eath)li/ an!
brin$s hi' to live at "#therin$ %ei$hts- 0r- (arnshaw *reers %eath)li/ to %in!le+
b#t nevertheless beA#eaths "#therin$ %ei$hts to %in!le+ when he !ies-
5rs. +arnsha1 - Catherine an! %in!le+>s 'other& who neither li,es nor tr#sts the
or*han %eath)li/ when he is bro#$ht to live at her ho#se- 7he !ies shortl+ ater
%eath)li/>s arrival at "#therin$ %ei$hts-
6!seh - ? lon$-win!e!& anati)all+ reli$io#s& el!erl+ servant at "#therin$ %ei$hts-
5ose*h is stran$e& st#bborn& an! #n,in!& an! he s*ea,s with a thi), :or,shire
a))ent-
7rances +arnsha1 - %in!le+>s si'*erin$& sill+ wie& who treats %eath)li/ )r#ell+-
7he !ies shortl+ ater $ivin$ birth to %areton-
5r. .int!n - (!$ar an! 8sabella>s ather an! the *ro*rietor o Thr#sh)ross 4ran$e
when %eath)li/ an! Catherine are )hil!ren- ?n establishe! 'e'ber o the $entr+&
he raises his son an! !a#$hter to be well-'annere! +o#n$ *eo*le-
124
5rs. .int!n - 0r- 6inton>s so'ewhat snobbish wie& who !oes not li,e %eath)li/ to
be allowe! near her )hil!ren& (!$ar an! 8sabella- 7he tea)hes Catherine to a)t li,e a
$entle-wo'an& thereb+ instillin$ her with so)ial a'bitions-
8illah - The ho#se,ee*er at "#therin$ %ei$hts !#rin$ the latter sta$es o the
narrative-
5r. Green - (!$ar 6inton>s law+er& who arrives too late to hear (!$ar>s 3nal
instr#)tion to )han$e his will& whi)h wo#l! have *revente! %eath)li/ ro' obtainin$
)ontrol over Thr#sh)ross 4ran$e-
%hemes
The'es are the #n!a'ental an! oten #niversal i!eas ex*lore! in a literar+ wor,-
%he 1es$!'c$i*eness #) a L#*e %ha$ 7e*e! +han&es
Iatherine and 1eathcliffPs passion for one another seems to be the center of @uthering Heights&
given that it is stronger and more lasting than any other emotion displayed in the novel, and that
it is the source of most of the maMor conflicts that structure the novelPs plot! As she tells
Iatherine and 1eathcliffPs story, Aelly criticiBes both of them harshly, condemning their passion
as immoral, but this passion is obviously one of the most compelling and memorable aspects of
the boo/! It is not easy to decide whether 4ronta intends the reader to condemn these lovers as
blameworthy or to idealiBe them as romantic heroes whose love transcends social norms and
conventional morality! The boo/ is actually structured around two parallel love stories, the first
half of the novel centering on the love between Iatherine and 1eathcliff, while the less dramatic
second half features the developing love between young Iatherine and 1areton! In contrast to
the first, the latter tale ends happily, restoring peace and order to #uthering 1eights and
Thrushcross Grange! The differences between the two love stories contribute to the readerPs
understanding of why each ends the way it does!
The most important feature of young Iatherine and 1aretonPs love story is that it involves
growth and change! arly in the novel 1areton seems irredeemably brutal, savage, and illiterate,
but over time he becomes a loyal friend to young Iatherine and learns to read! #hen young
Iatherine first meets 1areton he seems completely alien to her world, yet her attitude also
evolves from contempt to love! Iatherine and 1eathcliffPs love, on the other hand, is rooted in
their childhood and is mar/ed by the refusal to change! In choosing to marry dgar, Iatherine
see/s a more genteel life, but she refuses to adapt to her role as wife, either by sacrificing
1eathcliff or embracing dgar! In Ihapter `II she suggests to Aelly that the years since she was
twelve years old and her father died have been li/e a blan/ to her, and she longs to return to the
moors of her childhood! 1eathcliff, for his part, possesses a seemingly superhuman ability to
maintain the same attitude and to nurse the same grudges over many years!
Moreover, Iatherine and 1eathcliffPs love is based on their shared perception that they are
identical! Iatherine declares, famously, TI am 1eathcliff,L while 1eathcliff, upon IatherinePs
death, wails that he cannot live without his Tsoul,L meaning Iatherine! Their love denies
difference, and is strangely ase7ual! The two do not /iss in dar/ corners or arrange secret trysts,
as adulterers do! Given that Iatherine and 1eathcliffPs love is based upon their refusal to change
over time or embrace difference in others, it is fitting that the disastrous problems of their
generation are overcome not by some climactic reversal, but simply by the ine7orable passage of
time, and the rise of a new and distinct generation! :ltimately, @uthering Heights presents a
vision of life as a process of change, and celebrates this process over and against the romantic
intensity of its principal characters!
%he P!eca!i#'sness #) S#cial +lass
125
As members of the gentry, the arnshaws and the Lintons occupy a somewhat precarious place
within the hierarchy of late eighteenth" and early nineteenth"century 4ritish society! At the top of
4ritish society was the royalty, followed by the aristocracy, then by the gentry, and then by the
lower classes, who made up the vast maMority of the population! Although the gentry, or upper
middle class, possessed servants and often large estates, they held a nonetheless fragile social
position! The social status of aristocrats was a formal and settled matter, because aristocrats had
official titles! Members of the gentry, however, held no titles, and their status was thus subMect to
change! A man might see himself as a gentleman but find, to his embarrassment, that his
neighbors did not share this view! A discussion of whether or not a man was really a gentleman
would consider such >uestions as how much land he owned, how many tenants and servants he
had, how he spo/e, whether he /ept horses and a carriage, and whether his moneymoney came
from land or TtradeL@gentlemen scorned ban/ing and commercial activities!
Ionsiderations of class status often crucially inform the charactersP motivations in @uthering
Heights! IatherinePs decision to marry dgar so that she will be Tthe greatest woman of the
neighborhoodL is only the most obvious e7ample! The Lintons are relatively firm in their gentry
status but nonetheless ta/e great pains to prove this status through their behaviors! The
arnshaws, on the other hand, rest on much sha/ier ground socially! They do not have a carriage,
they have less land, and their house, as Loc/wood remar/s with great puBBlement, resembles that
of a Thomely, northern farmerL and not that of a gentleman! The shifting nature of social status is
demonstrated most stri/ingly in 1eathcliffPs traMectory from homeless waif to young gentleman"
by"adoption to common laborer to gentleman again $although the status"conscious Loc/wood
remar/s that 1eathcliff is only a gentleman in Tdress and mannersL*!
M#$i)s
0otis are re)#rrin$ str#)t#res& )ontrasts& an! literar+ !evi)es that )an hel* to
!evelo* an! inor' the text>s 'aFor the'es-
1#'/les
4ronta organiBes her novel by arranging its elements@characters, places, and themes@into
pairs! Iatherine and 1eathcliff are closely matched in many ways, and see themselves as
identical! IatherinePs character is divided into two warring sides2 the side that wants dgar and
the side that wants 1eathcliff! Iatherine and young Iatherine are both remar/ably similar and
stri/ingly different! The two houses, #uthering 1eights and Thrushcross Grange, represent
opposing worlds and values! The novel has not one but two distinctly different narrators, Aelly
and Mr! Loc/wood! The relation between such paired elements is usually >uite complicated, with
the members of each pair being neither e7actly ali/e nor diametrically opposed! 6or instance, the
Lintons and the arnshaws may at first seem to represent opposing sets of values, but, by the end
of the novel, so many intermarriages have ta/en place that one can no longer distinguish between
the two families!
Ree$i$i#n
8epetition is another tactic 4ronta employs in organiBing @uthering Heights! It seems that
nothing ever ends in the world of this novel! Instead, time seems to run in cycles, and the horrors
of the past repeat themselves in the present! The way that the names of the characters are
recycled, so that the names of the characters of the younger generation seem only to be
rescramblings of the names of their parents, leads the reader to consider how plot elements also
repeat themselves! 6or instance, 1eathcliffPs degradation of 1areton repeats 1indleyPs
degradation of 1eathcliff! Also, the young IatherinePs moc/ery of 3osephPs earnest evangelical
126
Bealousness repeats her motherPs! ven 1eathcliffPs second try at opening IatherinePs grave
repeats his first!
%he +#n)lic$ 8e$3een 7a$'!e an- +'l$'!e
In @uthering Heights& 4ronta constantly plays nature and culture against each other! Aature is
represented by the arnshaw family, and by Iatherine and 1eathcliff in particular! These
characters are governed by their passions, not by reflection or ideals of civility! Iorrespondingly,
the house where they live@#uthering 1eights@comes to symboliBe a similar wildness! Cn the
other hand, Thrushcross Grange and the Linton family represent culture, refinement, convention,
and cultivation!
#hen, in Ihapter FI, Iatherine is bitten by the LintonsP dog and brought into Thrushcross
Grange, the two sides are brought onto the collision course that structures the maMority of the
novelPs plot! At the time of that first meeting between the Linton and arnshaw households,
chaos has already begun to erupt at #uthering 1eights, where 1indleyPs cruelty and inMustice
reign, whereas all seems to be fine and peaceful at Thrushcross Grange! 1owever, the influence
of #uthering 1eights soon proves overpowering, and the inhabitants of Thrushcross Grange are
drawn into Iatherine, 1indley, and 1eathcliffPs drama! Thus the reader almost may interpret
#uthering 1eightsPs impact on the Linton family as an allegory for the corruption of culture by
nature, creating a curious reversal of the more traditional story of the corruption of nature by
culture! 1owever, 4ronta tells her story in such a way as to prevent our interest and sympathy
from straying too far from the wilder characters, and often portrays the more civiliBed characters
as despicably wea/ and silly! This method of characteriBation prevents the novel from flattening
out into a simple privileging of culture over nature, or vice versa! Thus in the end the reader must
ac/nowledge that the novel is no mere allegory!
S.m/#ls
7+'bols are obFe)ts& )hara)ters& 3$#res& an! )olors #se! to re*resent abstra)t i!eas
or )on)e*ts-
M##!s
The constant emphasis on landscape within the te7t of @uthering Heights endows the setting
with symbolic importance! This landscape is comprised primarily of moors2 wide, wild e7panses,
high but somewhat soggy, and thus infertile! Moorland cannot be cultivated, and its uniformity
ma/es navigation difficult! It features particularly waterlogged patches in which people could
potentially drown! $This possibility is mentioned several times in @uthering Heights!* Thus, the
moors serve very well as symbols of the wild threat posed by nature! As the setting for the
beginnings of Iatherine and 1eathcliffPs bond $the two play on the moors during childhood*, the
moorland transfers its symbolic associations onto the love affair!
5h#s$s
Ghosts appear throughout @uthering Heights& as they do in most other wor/s of GothicGothic
fiction, yet 4ronta always presents them in such a way that whether they really e7ist remains
ambiguous! Thus the world of the novel can always be interpreted as a realistic one! Iertain
ghosts@such as IatherinePs spirit when it appears to Loc/wood in Ihapter III@may be
e7plained as nightmares! The villagersP alleged sightings of 1eathcliffPs ghost in Ihapter
```IF could be dismissed as unverified superstition! #hether or not the ghosts are Treal,L they
symboliBe the manifestation of the past within the present, and the way memory stays with
people, permeating their day"to"day lives!
8. %h#mas ha!-.> %ess #) $he -:D/e!*illes
Context
127

Thomas 1ardy was born on 3une %, 104;, in 1igher 4oc/hampton in <orset, a rural region of
southwestern ngland that was to become the focus of his fiction! The child of a builder, 1ardy
was apprenticed at the age of si7teen to 3ohn 1ic/s, an architect who lived in the city of
<orchester! The location would later serve as the model for 1ardyPs fictional Iasterbridge!
Although he gave serious thought to attending university and entering the church, a struggle he
would dramatiBe in his novel Jude the ;s$ure& declining religious faith and lac/ of
moneymoney led 1ardy to pursue a career in writing instead! 1e spent nearly a doBen years
toiling in obscurity and producing unsuccessful novels and poetry! 8ar %rom the Madding Cro?d&
published in 1074, was the authorPs first critical and financial success! 6inally able to support
himself as a writer, 1ardy married mma Lavinia Gifford later that year!
Although he built a reputation as a successful novelist, 1ardy considered himself first and
foremost a poet! To him, novels were primarily a means of earning a living! Li/e many of his
contemporaries, he first published his novels in periodic installments in magaBines or serial
Mournals, and his wor/ reflects the conventions of serialiBation! To ensure that readers would buy
a serialiBed novel, writers often structured each installment to be something of a cliffhanger,
which e7plained the convoluted, often incredible plots of many such Fictorian novels! 4ut 1ardy
cannot solely be labeled a Fictorian novelist! Aor can he be categoriBed simply as a Modernist,
in the tradition of writers li/e Firginia #oolf or <! 1! Lawrence, who were determined to
e7plode the conventions of nineteenth"century literature and build a new /ind of novel in its
place! In many respects, 1ardy was trapped in the middle ground between the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries, between Fictorian sensibilities and more modern ones, and between tradition
and innovation!
.oon after !ess o% the d#:r;ervilles $1051* was published, its sales assured 1ardyPs financial
future! 4ut the novel also aroused a substantial amount of controversy! In !ess o% the
d#:r;ervilles and other novels, 1ardy demonstrates his deep sense of moral sympathy for
nglandPs lower classes, particularly for rural women! 1e became famous for his compassionate,
often controversial portrayal of young women victimiBed by the self"righteous rigidity of nglish
social morality! 9erhaps his most famous depiction of such a young woman is in !ess o% the
d#:r;ervilles7 This novel and the one that followed it, Jude the ;s$ure $105'*, engendered
widespread public scandal with their comparatively fran/ loo/ at the se7ual hypocrisy of nglish
society!
1ardy lived and wrote in a time of difficult social change, when ngland was ma/ing its slow
and painful transition from an old"fashioned, agricultural nation to a modern, industrial one!
4usinessmen and entrepreneurs, or Tnew moneymoney ,L Moined the ran/s of the social elite, as
some families of the ancient aristocracy, or Told moneymoney ,L faded into obscurity! TessPs
family in !ess o% the d#:r;ervilles illustrates this change, as TessPs parents, the <urbeyfields,
lose themselves in the fantasy of belonging to an ancient and aristocratic family, the
dP:rbervilles! 1ardyPs novel strongly suggests that such a family history is not only meaningless
but also utterly undesirable! 1ardyPs views on the subMect were appalling to conservative and
status"conscious 4ritish readers, and !ess o% the d#:r;ervilles was met in ngland with
widespread controversy!
1ardy was frustrated by the controversy caused by his wor/, and he finally abandoned novel"
writing altogether following Jude the ;s$ure7 1e spent the rest of his career writing poetry!
Though today he is remembered somewhat more for his novels, he was an acclaimed poet in his
128
time and was buried in the prestigious 9oetPs Iorner of #estminster Abbey following his death
in 15%0!
9lot Cverview

The poor peddler 3ohn <urbeyfield is stunned to learn that he is the descendent of an ancient
noble family, the dP:rbervilles! Meanwhile, Tess, his eldest daughter, Moins the other village girls
in the May <ay dance, where Tess briefly e7changes glances with a young man! Mr! <urbeyfield
and his wife decide to send Tess to the dP:rberville mansion, where they hope Mrs! dP:rberville
will ma/e TessPs fortune! In reality, Mrs! dP:rberville is no relation to Tess at all2 her husband,
the merchant .imon .to/es, simply changed his name to dP:rberville after he retired! 4ut Tess
does not /now this fact, and when the lascivious Alec dP:rberville, Mrs! dP:rbervillePs son,
procures Tess a Mob tending fowls on the dP:rberville estate, Tess has no choice but to accept,
since she blames herself for an accident involving the familyPs horse, its only means of income!
Tess spends several months at this Mob, resisting AlecPs attempts to seduce her! 6inally, Alec ta/es
advantage of her in the woods one night after a fair! Tess /nows she does not love Alec! .he
returns home to her family to give birth to AlecPs child, whom she christens .orrow! .orrow dies
soon after he is born, and Tess spends a miserable year at home before deciding to see/ wor/
elsewhere! .he finally accepts a Mob as a mil/maid at the Talbothays <airy!
At Talbothays, Tess enMoys a period of contentment and happiness! .he befriends three of her
fellow mil/maids@IBB, 8etty, and Marian@and meets a man named Angel Ilare, who turns out
to be the man from the May <ay dance at the beginning of the novel! Tess and Angel slowly fall
in love! They grow closer throughout TessPs time at Talbothays, and she eventually accepts his
proposal of marriage! .till, she is troubled by pangs of conscience and feels she should tell Angel
about her past! .he writes him a confessional note and slips it under his door, but it slides under
the carpet and Angel never sees it!
After their wedding, Angel and Tess both confess indiscretions2 Angel tells Tess about an affair
he had with an older woman in London, and Tess tells Angel about her history with Alec! Tess
forgives Angel, but Angel cannot forgive Tess! 1e gives her some moneymoney and boards a
ship bound for 4raBil, where he thin/s he might establish a farm! 1e tells Tess he will try to
accept her past but warns her not to try to Moin him until he comes for her!
Tess struggles! .he has a difficult time finding wor/ and is forced to ta/e a Mob at an unpleasant
and unprosperous farm! .he tries to visit AngelPs family but overhears his brothers discussing
AngelPs poor marriage, so she leaves! .he hears a wandering preacher spea/ and is stunned to
discover that he is Alec dP:rberville, who has been converted to Ihristianity by AngelPs father,
the 8everend Ilare! Alec and Tess are each sha/en by their encounter, and Alec appallingly begs
Tess never to tempt him again! .oon after, however, he again begs Tess to marry him, having
turned his bac/ on his "religious ways!
Tess learns from her sister LiBa"Lu that her mother is near death, and Tess is forced to return
home to ta/e care of her! 1er mother recovers, but her father une7pectedly dies soon after! #hen
the family is evicted from their home, Alec offers help! 4ut Tess refuses to accept, /nowing he
only wants to obligate her to him again!
At last, Angel decides to forgive his wife! 1e leaves 4raBil, desperate to find her! Instead, he
finds her mother, who tells him Tess has gone to a village called .andbourne! There, he finds
Tess in an e7pensive boardinghouse called The 1erons, where he tells her he has forgiven her
and begs her to ta/e him bac/! Tess tells him he has come too late! .he was unable to resist and
went bac/ to Alec dP:rberville! Angel leaves in a daBe, and, heartbro/en to the point of madness,
129
Tess goes upstairs and stabs her lover to death! #hen the landlady finds AlecPs body, she raises
an alarm, but Tess has already fled to find Angel!
Angel agrees to help Tess, though he cannot >uite believe that she has actually murdered Alec!
They hide out in an empty mansion for a few days, then travel farther! #hen they come to
.tonehenge, Tess goes to sleep, but when morning brea/s shortly thereafter, a search party
discovers them! Tess is arrested and sent to Mail! Angel and LiBa"Lu watch as a blac/ flag is raised
over the prison, signaling TessPs e7ecution!
?)Hi#nea In)e*e *e )Jn! Tess este !oar o )o*ilK& iar *KrinHii ei o tri'it sK
lo)#ieas)K Li sK '#n)eas)K la er'a !e *KsKri a 'a'ei !o'n#l#i
?le) !MGrberville& #n tJnKr *e )are a'ilia l#i Tess Il )onsi!erK !es)en!ent al
a'iliei lor !e'#lt a*#se- 2ata ILi In!e*lineLte 'isi#nea !e a avea $riFK !e
*KsKri oarte bine& !ar ?le) se In!rK$osteLte !e ea Li Intr-o noa*te& *e )Jn!
se a9a# In *li'bare Intr-o *K!#re a)esta o violeaEK-
NntoarsK a)asK& ata va !a naLtere In #r'Ktoarea varK #n#i )o*il )are n#
trKieLte !e)Jt )Jteva sK*tK'Jni& !in )a#Ea r#Linii !e a naLte #n )o*il Inaara
)KsKtoriei& Tess& *etre)e 'are *arte a ti'*#l#i In)hisK In )a'era ei-
=#*K )JHiva ani !e la in)i!ent& Tess& a)#' In vJrstK !e !o#KEe)i !e ani este
*re$KtitK *entr# o no#K viaHK-7e an$aFeaEK )a '#l$Ktoare la er'a !o'n#l#i
Cri),& Intr-#n sat Inve)inat-?)olo Il IntJlneLte *e ?n$el Clare& #n tJnKr *e )are
Tess Il 'ai IntJlnise In ti'*#l #n#i !ans In sat#l natal- Cei !oi se
In!rK$ostes)& !#*K )e ?n$el ILi viEiteaEK *KrinHii Li Ii InLtiinHeaEK In le$Kt#rK
)# !orinHa l#i !e a-Li !es)hi!e o er'K *ro*rie Li !e a se Ins#ra )# o atK !e
la HarK ;el 3in! 3# !e *reot<& se Intoar)e la Tess Li o ia !e soHie-
Toate 'er$ bine& !ar Tess are tot#Li o *iatrK *e ini'K Li hotKrKLte sK-i
'Krt#riseas)K soH#l#i ei )e s-a *etre)#t In tre)#t )# ?le)- Nn stare !e Lo)&
?n$el n# o *oate ierta *entr# tre)#t#l ei& )hiar !a)K el Ins#Li se a)e vinovat
!e #n ase'enea *K)at Li o *KrKseLte- Plea)K In @raEilia Li Ii interEi)e l#i Tess
sK Il 'ai )a#te-
C# ini'a rJntK& ata se Intoar)e la *KrinHi Li a9K )K starea lor !e sKnKtate
n# e b#nK& se si'te !atoare sK aibK $riFK !e raHii Li s#rorile 'ai 'i)i- 7oarta&
sa# in$enioEitatea a#tor#l#i a)e )a Tess sK !ea *rin an#'ite I'*reF#rKri !e
?le) !MGrberville- ?)esta o orHeaEK *e tJnKrK sK-i a))e*te aF#tor#l- Nntre
ti'*& tatKl ei se *rK*K!eLte Li *robabil !in naivitate !K )reEare s*#selor l#i
?le) )are a3r'a )K ?n$el a *KrKsit-o *entr# to!ea#na Li )K lJn$K el ata va
avea o viaHK '#lt 'ai b#nK-
=#*K )e ?n$el )iteLte s)risorile *e )are Tess i le-a tri'is hotKrKLte sK o
)a#te In sat#l ei natal& #n!e a9K !e la 'a'a ei )K Tess s-a '#tat la oraL-
?)olo o $KseLte s#b n#'ele !e !MGrberville Li a9K )K lo)#ieLte la o vilK
In)hiriatK- O )a#tK la !o'i)ili#l ei& ata Ii )ere sK o lase In *a)e Li sK n#-i
rKstKl'K)eas)K viaHa-
130
=#*K )e ?n$el *lea)K& Tess Il an#nHK Li *e ?le) !e a*t#l )K soH#l ei a )K#tat-
o& !ar a)esta o ia In rJs Li ILi bate Fo) !e ?n$el& Intr-#n ex)es !e nervi la
ve!erea *#rtKrii& Tess Il o'oarK *e ?le) Li *lea)K )# ?n$el-
Cei !oi *etre) noa*tea la 7tonehen$e #n!ei Ii $KseLte *oliHia& o aresteaEK *e
Tess iar ?n$el rK'Jne sK Ii *oarte !e $riFK 6#iEei 6#- sora 'ai 'i)K a l#i Tess&
)a #tli'a ei !orinHK- 2inal#l 'i se *are #n#l !es)his Li )are IHi lasK In #r'K #n
$#st a'Kr#i-
7inal
Cei doi spectatori se ghemuir la pmnt, mui ca ntr-o rugciune,
i sttur neclintii vreme ndelungat.Drapelul contiuna s future
ntr-o tcere absolut.Cnd cptar puterea de a se mica, cei doi
se ridicar i pornir mai departe mn n mn.
Chara)ter 6ist

Tess D3r4e/9el, - The novel>s *rota$onist- Tess is a bea#ti#l& lo+al +o#n$

wo'an livin$ with her i'*overishe! a'il+ in the villa$e o 0arlott- Tess has
a ,een sense o res*onsibilit+ an! is )o''itte! to !oin$ the best she )an or
her a'il+& altho#$h her inex*erien)e an! la), o wise *arentin$ leave her
extre'el+ v#lnerable- %er lie is )o'*li)ate! when her ather !is)overs a lin,
to the noble line o the !>Grbervilles& an!& as a res#lt& Tess is sent to wor, at
the !>Grberville 'ansion- Gnort#natel+& her i!eals )annot *revent her ro'
sli!in$ #rther an! #rther into 'isort#ne ater she be)o'es *re$nant b+
?le) !>Grberville- The terrible iron+ is that Tess an! her a'il+ are not reall+
relate! to this bran)h o the !>Grbervilles at allB ?le)>s ather& a 'er)hant
na'e! 7i'on 7to,es& si'*l+ ass#'e! the na'e ater he retire!-
8ead an in"depth analysis of Tess <urbeyfield!
An-el Clare - ?n intelli$ent +o#n$ 'an who has !e)i!e! to be)o'e a
ar'er to *reserve his intelle)t#al ree!o' ro' the *ress#res o )it+ lie-
?n$el>s ather an! his two brothers are res*e)te! )ler$+'en& b#t ?n$el>s
reli$io#s !o#bts have ,e*t hi' ro' Foinin$ the 'inistr+- %e 'eets Tess when
she is a 'il,'ai! at the Talbotha+s =air+ an! A#i),l+ alls in love with her-
8ead an in"depth analysis of Angel Ilare!
Alec ,:Ur4er;ille - The han!so'e& a'oral son o a wealth+ 'er)hant
na'e! 7i'on 7to,es- ?le) is not reall+ a !>GrbervilleOhis ather si'*l+ too,
on the na'e o the an)ient noble a'il+ ater he b#ilt his 'ansion an!
retire!- ?le) is a 'ani*#lative& sinister +o#n$ 'an who !oes ever+thin$ he
)an to se!#)e the inex*erien)e! Tess when she )o'es to wor, or his a'il+-
"hen he 3nall+ has his wa+ with her& o#t in the woo!s& he s#bseA#entl+ tries
to hel* her b#t is #nable to 'a,e her love hi'-
8ead an in"depth analysis of Alec dP:rberville!
131
5r. 6!hn D3r4e/9el, - Tess>s ather& a laE+ *e!!ler in 0arlott- 5ohn is
nat#rall+ A#i),& b#t he hates wor,- "hen he learns that he !es)en!s ro'
the noble line o the !>Grbervilles& he is A#i), to 'a,e an atte'*t to
*ro3t*ro3t ro' the )onne)tion-
5rs. 6!an D3r4e/9el, - Tess>s 'other- 5oan has a stron$ sense o *ro*riet+
an! ver+ *arti)#lar ho*es or Tess>s lie- 7he is )ontin#all+ !isa**ointe! an!
h#rt b+ the wa+ in whi)h her !a#$hter>s lie a)t#all+ *ro)ee!s- @#t she is also
so'ewhat si'*le'in!e! an! nat#rall+ or$ivin$& an! she is #nable to re'ain
an$r+ with TessO*arti)#larl+ on)e Tess be)o'es her *ri'ar+ 'eans o
s#**ort-
5rs. ,:Ur4er;ille - ?le)>s 'other& an! the wi!ow o 7i'on 7to,es- 0rs-
!>Grberville is blin! an! oten ill- 7he )ares !ee*l+ or her ani'als& b#t not
or her 'ai! (liEabeth& her son ?le)& nor Tess when she )o'es to wor, or
her- 8n a)t& she never sees Tess as an+thin$ 'ore than an i'*overishe! $irl-
5arian< I== )3ett< an, Rett/ Pri,,le - 0il,'ai!s who' Tess berien!s at
the Talbotha+s =air+- 0arian& 8EE& an! Pett+ re'ain )lose to Tess thro#$ho#t
the rest o her lie- The+ are all in love with ?n$el an! are !evastate! when
he )hooses Tess over the'B 0arian t#rns to !rin,& Pett+ atte'*ts s#i)i!e&
an! 8EE nearl+ r#ns o/ to @raEil with ?n$el when he leaves Tess-
.evertheless& the+ re'ain hel*#l to Tess- 0arian hel*s her 3n! a Fob at a
ar' )alle! 2lint)o'b-?sh& an! 0arian an! 8EE write ?n$el a *laintive letter
en)o#ra$in$ hi' to $ive Tess another )han)e-
Re;eren, Clare - ?n$el>s ather& a so'ewhat intra)table b#t *rin)i*le!
)ler$+'an in the town o (''inster- 0r- Clare )onsi!ers it his !#t+ to
)onvert the *o*#la)e- One o his 'ost !iQ)#lt )ases *roves to be none other
than ?le) !>Grberville-
5rs. Clare - ?n$el>s 'other& a lovin$ b#t snobbish wo'an who *la)es $reat
sto), in so)ial )lass- 0rs- Clare wants ?n$el to 'arr+ a s#itable wo'an&
'eanin$ a wo'an with the *ro*er so)ial& 3nan)ial& an! reli$io#s ba),$ro#n!-
0rs- Clare initiall+ loo,s !own on Tess as a Csi'*leD an! i'*overishe! $irl&
b#t later $rows to a**re)iate her-
Re;eren, 7elix Clare - ?n$el>s brother& a villa$e )#rate-
Re;eren, C3th4ert - Clare ?n$el>s brother& a )lassi)al s)holar an! !ean at
Ca'bri!$e- C#thbert& who )an )on)entrate onl+ on #niversit+ 'atters&
'arries 0er)+ Chant-
+li=a .!3isa D3r4e/9el, - Tess>s +o#n$er sister- Tess believes 6iEa-6# has
all o Tess>s own $oo! A#alities an! none o her ba! ones& an! she
en)o#ra$es ?n$el to loo, ater an! even 'arr+ 6iEa-6# ater Tess !ies-
132
S!rr!1 - Tess>s son with ?le) !>Grberville- 7orrow !ies in his earl+ inan)+&
ater Tess )hristens hi' hersel- 7he later b#ries hi' hersel as well& an!
!e)orates his $rave-
5erc/ Chant - The !a#$hter o a rien! o the Peveren! Clare- 0r- Clare
ho*es ?n$el will 'arr+ 0er)+& b#t ater ?n$el 'arries Tess& 0er)+ be)o'es
en$a$e! to his brother C#thbert instea!-
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
%he InE's$ice #) E6is$ence
:nfairness dominates the lives of Tess and her family to such an e7tent that it begins to seem li/e
a general aspect of human e7istence in !ess o% the d#:r;ervilles7 Tess does not mean to /ill
9rince, but she is punished anyway, Must as she is unfairly punished for her own rape by Alec!
Aor is there Mustice waiting in heaven! Ihristianity teaches that there is compensation in the
afterlife for unhappiness suffered in this life, but the only devout Ihristian encountered in the
novel may be the reverend, Mr! Ilare, who seems more or less content in his life anyway! 6or
others in their misery, Ihristianity offers little solace of heavenly Mustice! Mrs! <urbeyfield never
mentions otherworldly rewards! The converted Alec preaches heavenly Mustice for earthly
sinners, but his faith seems shallow and insincere! Generally, the moral atmosphere of the novel
is not Ihristian Mustice at all, but pagan inMustice! The forces that rule human life are absolutely
unpredictable and not necessarily well"disposed to us! The pre"Ihristian rituals practiced by the
farm wor/ers at the opening of the novel, and TessPs final rest at .tonehenge at the end, remind
us of a world where the gods are not Must and fair, but whimsical and uncaring! #hen the narrator
concludes the novel with the statement that TY3usticeP was done, and the 9resident of the
Immortals $in the Aeschylean phrase* had ended his sport with Tess,L we are reminded that
Mustice must be put in ironic >uotation mar/s, since it is not really Must at all! #hat passes for
T3usticeL is in fact one of the pagan gods enMoying a bit of Tsport,L or a frivolous game!
+han&in& I-eas #) S#cial +lass in ,ic$#!ian En&lan-
!ess o% the d#:r;ervilles presents comple7 pictures of both the importance of social class in
nineteenth"century ngland and the difficulty of defining class in any simple way! Iertainly the
<urbeyfields are a powerful emblem of the way in which class is no longer evaluated in
Fictorian times as it would have been in the Middle Ages@that is, by blood alone, with no
attention paid to fortune or worldly success! Indubitably the <urbeyfields have purity of blood,
yet for the parson and nearly everyone else in the novel, this fact amounts to nothing more than a
piece of genealogical trivia! In the Fictorian conte7t, cash matters more than lineage, which
e7plains how .imon .to/es, AlecPs father, was smoothly able to use his large fortune to purchase
a lustrous family name and transform his clan into the .to/e"dP:rbervilles! The dP:rbervilles
pass for what the <urbeyfields truly are@authentic nobility@simply because definitions of class
have changed! The issue of class confusion even affects the Ilare clan, whose most promising
son, Angel, is intent on becoming a farmer and marrying a mil/maid, thus bypassing the
traditional privileges of a Iambridge education and a parsonage! 1is willingness to wor/ side by
side with the farm laborers helps endear him to Tess, and their ac>uaintance would not have been
possible if he were a more traditional and elitist aristocrat! Thus, the three main characters in the
Angel"Tess"Alec triangle are all strongly mar/ed by confusion regarding their respective social
classes, an issue that is one of the main concerns of the novel!
Men 1#mina$in& W#men
133
Cne of the recurrent themes of the novel is the way in which men can dominate women, e7erting
a power over them lin/ed primarily to their maleness! .ometimes this command is purposeful, in
the manPs full /nowledge of his e7ploitation, as when Alec ac/nowledges how bad he is for
seducing Tess for his own momentary pleasure! AlecPs act of abuse, the most life"altering event
that Tess e7periences in the novel, is clearly the most serious instance of male domination over a
female! 4ut there are other, less blatant e7amples of womenPs passivity toward dominant men!
#hen, after Angel reveals that he prefers Tess, TessPs friend 8etty attempts suicide and her friend
Marian becomes an alcoholic, which ma/es their earlier schoolgirl"type crushes on Angel seem
disturbing! This devotion is not merely fanciful love, but unhealthy obsession! These girls appear
utterly dominated by a desire for a man who, we are told e7plicitly, does not even realiBe that
they are interested in him! This sort of unconscious male domination of women is perhaps even
more unsettling than AlecPs outward and self"conscious cruelty!
ven AngelPs love for Tess, as pure and gentle as it seems, dominates her in an unhealthy way!
Angel substitutes an idealiBed picture of TessPs country purity for the real"life woman that he
continually refuses to get to /now! #hen Angel calls Tess names li/e T<aughter of AatureL and
TArtemis,L we feel that he may be denying her true self in favor of a mental image that he
prefers! Thus, her identity and e7periences are suppressed, albeit un/nowingly! This pattern of
male domination is finally reversed with TessPs murder of Alec, in which, for the first time in the
novel, a woman ta/es active steps against a man! Cf course, this act only leads to even greater
suppression of a woman by men, when the crowd of male police officers arrest Tess at
.tonehenge! Aevertheless, for Must a moment, the accepted pattern of submissive women bowing
to dominant men is interrupted, and TessPs act seems heroic!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform
the te7tPs maMor themes!
8i!-s
Images of birds recur throughout the novel, evo/ing or contradicting their traditional spiritual
association with a higher realm of transcendence! 4oth the Ihristian dove of peace and the
8omantic songbirds of Qeats and .helley, which symboliBe sublime heights, lead us to e7pect
that birds will have positive meaning in this novel! Tess occasionally hears birdcalls on her
fre>uent hi/es across the countryside? their free e7pressiveness stands in star/ contrast to TessPs
silent and constrained e7istence as a wronged and disgraced girl! #hen Tess goes to wor/ for
Mrs! dP:rberville, she is surprised to find that the old womanPs pet finches are fre>uently
released to fly free throughout the room! These birds offer images of hope and liberation! Wet
there is irony attached to birds as well, ma/ing us doubt whether these images of hope and
freedom are illusory! Mrs! dP:rbervillePs birds leave little white spots on the upholstery, which
presumably some servant@perhaps Tess herself@will have to clean! It may be that freedom for
one creature entails hardship for another, Must as AlecPs free enMoyment of TessPs body leads her to
a lifetime of suffering! In the end, when Tess encounters the pheasants maimed by hunters and
lying in agony, birds no longer seem free, but rather oppressed and submissive! These pheasants
are no 8omantic songbirds hovering far above the arth@they are victims of earthly violence,
condemned to suffer down below and never fly again!
%he 8##k #) 5enesis
The Genesis story of Adam and ve in the Garden of den is evo/ed repeatedly throughout !ess
o% the d#:r;ervilles& giving the novel a broader metaphysical and philosophical dimension! The
roles of ve and the serpent in paradise are clearly delineated2 Angel is the noble Adam newly
134
born, while Tess is the indecisive and troubled ve! #hen Tess gaBes upon Angel in Ihapter
``FII, Tshe regarded him as ve at her second wa/ing might have regarded Adam!L Alec, with
his open avowal that he is bad to the bone, is the conniving .atan! 1e seduces Tess under a tree,
giving her se7ual /nowledge in return for her lost innocence! The very name of the forest where
this seduction occurs, the Ihase, suggests how ve will be chased from den for her sins! This
guilt, which will never be erased, is /nown in Ihristian theology as the original sin that all
humans have inherited! 3ust as 3ohn <urbeyfield is told in Ihapter I that Tyou donPt live
anywhere,L and his family is evicted after his death at the end of the novel, their homelessness
evo/es the human e7ile from den! Criginal sin suggests that humans have fallen from their once
great status to a lower station in life, Must as the dP:rbervilles have devolved into the modern
<urbeyfields! This .tory of the 6all@or of the T9ure <rop,L to recall the name of a pub in TessPs
home village@is much more than a social fall! It is an e7planation of how all of us humans@not
only Tess@never >uite seem to live up to our e7pectations, and are never able to inhabit the
places of grandeur we feel we deserve!
,a!ian$ 7ames
The transformation of the dP:rbervilles into the <urbeyfields is one e7ample of the common
phenomenon of renaming, or variant naming, in the novel! Aames matter in this novel! Tess
/nows and accepts that she is a lowly <urbeyfield, but part of her still believes, as her parents
also believe, that her aristocratic original name should be restored! 3ohn <urbeyfield goes a step
further than Tess, and actually renames himself .ir 3ohn, as his tombstone epitaph shows!
Another character who renames himself is .imon .to/es, AlecPs father, who purchased a family
tree and made himself .imon .to/e"dP:rberville! The >uestion raised by all these cases of name
changing, whether successful or merely imagined, is the e7tent to which an altered name brings
with it an altered identity! Alec acts notoriously ungentlemanly throughout the novel, but by the
end, when he appears at the dP:rberville family vault, his lordly and commanding bearing ma/e
him seem almost deserving of the name his father has bought, li/e a spoiled medieval nobleman!
1ardyPs interest in name changes ma/es reality itself seem changeable according to whims of
human perspective! The village of 4la/emore, as we are reminded twice in Ihapters I and II, is
also /nown as 4lac/moor, and indeed 1ardy famously renames the southern nglish countryside
as T#esse7!L 1e imposes a fictional map on a real place, with names altered correspondingly!
8eality may not be as solid as the names people confer upon it!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
P!ince
#hen Tess doBes off in the wagon and loses control, the resulting death of the <urbeyfield horse,
9rince, spurs Tess to see/ aid from the dP:rbervilles, setting the events of the novel in motion!
The horsePs demise is thus a powerful plot motivator, and its name a potent symbol of TessPs own
claims to aristocracy! Li/e the horse, Tess herself bears a high"class name, but is doomed to a
lowly life of physical labor! Interestingly, 9rincePs death occurs right after Tess dreams of ancient
/nights, having Must heard the news that her family is aristocratic! Moreover, the horse is pierced
by the forward"Mutting piece of metal on a mail coach, which is reminiscent of a wound one
might receive in a medieval Moust! In an odd way, TessPs dream of medieval glory comes true, and
her horse dies a heroic death! Wet her dream of meeting a prince while she /ills her own 9rince,
and with him her familyPs only means of financial sustenance, is a tragic foreshadowing of her
135
own story! The death of the horse symboliBes the sacrifice of real"world goods, such as a useful
animal or even her own honor, through e7cessive fantasiBing about a better world!
%he -:D!/e!*ille (amil. ,a'l$
A double"edged symbol of both the maMestic grandeur and the lifeless hollowness of the
aristocratic family name that the <urbeyfields learn they possess, the dP:rberville family vault
represents both the glory of life and the end of life! .ince Tess herself moves from passivity to
active murder by the end of the novel, attaining a /ind of personal grandeur even as she brings
death to others and to herself, the double symbolism of the vault ma/es it a powerful site for the
culminating meeting between Alec and Tess! Alec brings Tess both his lofty name and, indirectly,
her own death later? it is natural that he meets her in the vault in dP:rberville Aisle, where she
reads her own name inscribed in stone and feels the presence of death! Wet the vault that sounds
so glamorous when rhapsodiBed over by 3ohn <urbeyfield in Ihapter I seems, by the end,
strangely hollow and meaningless! #hen Alec stomps on the floor of the vault, it produces only a
hollow echo, as if its basic emptiness is a complement to its visual grandeur! #hen Tess is
e7ecuted, her ancestors are said to snooBe on in their crypts, as if uncaring even about the fate of
a member of their own maMestic family! 9erhaps the secret of the family crypt is that its
grandiosity is ultimately meaningless!
8!aAil
8ather surprising for a novel that seems set so solidly in rural ngland, the narration shifts very
briefly to 4raBil when Angel ta/es leave of Tess and heads off to establish a career in farming!
ven more e7otic for a Fictorian nglish reader than America or Australia, 4raBil is the country
in which 8obinson Irusoe made his fortune and it seems to promise a better life far from the
humdrum familiar world! 4raBil is thus more than a geographical entity on the map in this novel2
it symboliBes a fantasyland, a place where dreams come true! As AngelPs name suggests, he is a
lofty visionary who lac/s some e7perience with the real world, despite all his mechanical /now"
how in farm management! 1e may be able to mil/ cows, but he does not yet /now how to tell the
difference between an e7otic dream and an everyday reality, so inevitably his e7perience in the
imagined dream world of 4raBil is a disaster that he barely survives! 1is fiasco teaches him that
ideals do not e7ist in life, and this lesson helps him reevaluate his disappointment with TessPs
imperfections, her failure to incarnate the ideal he e7pected her to be! 6or Angel, 4raBil
symboliBes the impossibility of ideals, but also forgiveness and acceptance of life in spite of
those disappointed ideals!
MC<8A.IM %;
T1
IAT:8W 15;1"15';
4. =#seh +#n!a-> HEAR% 2( 1ARK7ESS
Ionte7t
O
3oseph Ionrad did not begin to learn nglish until he was twenty"one years old! 1e was born
3oBef Teodor Qonrad QorBeniows/i on <ecember ), 10'7, in the 9olish :/raine! #hen Ionrad
was >uite young, his father was e7iled to .iberia on suspicion of plotting against the 8ussian
government! After the death of the boyPs mother, IonradPs father sent him to his motherPs brother
in Qra/dw to be educated, and Ionrad never again saw his father! 1e traveled to Marseilles
when he was seventeen and spent the ne7t twenty years as a sailor! 1e signed on to an nglish
ship in 1070, and eight years later he became a 4ritish subMect! In 1005, he began his first novel,
136
Alma'er#s 8oll'& and began actively searching for a way to fulfill his boyhood dream of traveling
to the Iongo! 1e too/ command of a steamship in the 4elgian Iongo in 105;, and his
e7periences in the Iongo came to provide the outline for Heart o% Dar*ness7 IonradPs time in
Africa wrea/ed havoc on his health, however, and he returned to ngland to recover! 1e returned
to sea twice before finishing Alma'er#s 8oll' in 1054 and wrote several other boo/s, including
one about Marlow called )outhH A Narrative before beginning Heart o% Dar*ness in 1050! 1e
wrote most of his other maMor wor/s@including Lord Jim& which also features Marlow?
Nostromo> and !he Se$ret Agent& as well as several collaborations with 6ord Mado7 6ord@
during the following two decades! Ionrad died in 15%4!
IonradPs wor/s, Heart o% Dar*ness in particular, provide a bridge between Fictorian values and
the ideals of modernism! Li/e their Fictorian predecessors, these novels rely on traditional ideas
of heroism, which are nevertheless under constant attac/ in a changing world and in places far
from ngland! #omen occupy traditional roles as arbiters of domesticity and morality, yet they
are almost never present in the narrative? instead, the concepts of ThomeL and TciviliBationL e7ist
merely as hypocritical ideals, meaningless to men for whom survival is in constant doubt! #hile
the threats that IonradPs characters face are concrete ones@illness, violence, conspiracy@they
nevertheless ac>uire a philosophical character! Li/e much of the best modernist literature
produced in the early decades of the twentieth century, Heart o% Dar*ness is as much about
alienation, confusion, and profound doubt as it is about imperialism!
Imperialism is nevertheless at the center of Heart o% Dar*ness7 4y the 105;s, most of the worldPs
Tdar/ placesL had been placed at least nominally under uropean control, and the maMor
uropean powers were stretched thin, trying to administer and protect massive, far"flung
empires! Irac/s were beginning to appear in the system2 riots, wars, and the wholesale
abandonment of commercial enterprises all threatened the white men living in the distant corners
of empires! Things were clearly falling apart! Heart o% Dar*ness suggests that this is the natural
result when men are allowed to operate outside a social system of chec/s and balances2 power,
especially power over other human beings, inevitably corrupts! At the same time, this begs the
>uestion of whether it is possible to call an individual insane or wrong when he is part of a
system that is so thoroughly corrupted and corrupting! Heart o% Dar*ness& thus, at its most
abstract level, is a narrative about the difficulty of understanding the world beyond the self, about
the ability of one man to Mudge another!
Although Heart o% Dar*ness was one of the first literary te7ts to provide a critical view of
uropean imperial activities, it was initially read by critics as anything but controversial! #hile
the boo/ was generally admired, it was typically read either as a condemnation of a certain type
of adventurer who could easily ta/e advantage of imperialismPs opportunities, or else as a
sentimental novel reinforcing domestic values2 QurtBPs Intended, who appears at the novellaPs
conclusion, was roundly praised by turn"of"the"century reviewers for her maturity and
sentimental appeal! IonradPs decision to set the boo/ in a 4elgian colony and to have Marlow
wor/ for a 4elgian tradingtrading concern made it even easier for 4ritish readers to avoid
seeing themselves reflected in Heart o% Dar*ness7 Although these early reactions seem ludicrous
to a modern reader, they reinforce the novellaPs central themes of hypocrisy and absurdity!
9lot Cverview
O
1eart of <ar/ness centers around Marlow, an introspective sailor, and his Mourney up the Iongo
8iver to meet QurtB, reputed to be an idealistic man of great abilities! Marlow ta/es a Mob as a
riverboat captain with the Iompany, a 4elgian concern organiBed to trade in the Iongo! As he
137
travels to Africa and then up the Iongo, Marlow encounters widespread inefficiency and
brutality in the IompanyPs stations! The native inhabitants of the region have been forced into
the IompanyPs service, and they suffer terribly from overwor/ and ill treatment at the hands of
the IompanyPs agents! The cruelty and s>ualor of imperial enterprise contrasts sharply with the
impassive and maMestic Mungle that surrounds the white manPs settlements, ma/ing them appear to
be tiny islands amidst a vast dar/ness!
Marlow arrives at the Ientral .tation, run by the general manager, an unwholesome,
conspiratorial character! 1e finds that his steamship has been sun/ and spends several months
waiting for parts to repair it! 1is interest in QurtB grows during this period! The manager and his
favorite, the bric/ma/er, seem to fear QurtB as a threat to their position! QurtB is rumored to be
ill, ma/ing the delays in repairing the ship all the more costly! Marlow eventually gets the parts
he needs to repair his ship, and he and the manager set out with a few agents $whom Marlow
calls pilgrims because of their strange habit of carrying long, wooden staves wherever they go*
and a crew of cannibals on a long, difficult voyage up the river! The dense Mungle and the
oppressive silence ma/e everyone aboard a little Mumpy, and the occasional glimpse of a native
village or the sound of drums wor/s the pilgrims into a frenBy!
Marlow and his crew come across a hut with stac/ed firewood, together with a note saying that
the wood is for them but that they should approach cautiously! .hortly after the steamer has
ta/en on the firewood, it is surrounded by a dense fog! #hen the fog clears, the ship is attac/ed
by an unseen band of natives, who fire arrows from the safety of the forest! The African
helmsman is /illed before Marlow frightens the natives away with the shipPs steam whistle! Aot
long after, Marlow and his companions arrive at QurtBPs Inner .tation, e7pecting to find him
dead, but a half"craBed 8ussian tradertrader , who meets them as they come ashore, assures
them that everything is fine and informs them that he is the one who left the wood! The 8ussian
claims that QurtB has enlarged his mind and cannot be subMected to the same moral Mudgments as
normal people! Apparently, QurtB has established himself as a god with the natives and has gone
on brutal raids in the surrounding territory in search of ivory! The collection of severed heads
adorning the fence posts around the station attests to his Tmethods!L The pilgrims bring QurtB out
of the station"house on a stretcher, and a large group of native warriors pours out of the forest
and surrounds them! QurtB spea/s to them, and the natives disappear into the woods!
The manager brings QurtB, who is >uite ill, aboard the steamer! A beautiful native woman,
apparently QurtBPs mistress, appears on the shore and stares out at the ship! The 8ussian implies
that she is somehow involved with QurtB and has caused trouble before through her influence
over him! The 8ussian reveals to Marlow, after swearing him to secrecy, that QurtB had ordered
the attac/ on the steamer to ma/e them believe he was dead in order that they might turn bac/
and leave him to his plans! The 8ussian then leaves by canoe, fearing the displeasure of the
manager! QurtB disappears in the night, and Marlow goes out in search of him, finding him
crawling on all fours toward the native camp! Marlow stops him and convinces him to return to
the ship! They set off down the river the ne7t morning, but QurtBPs health is failing fast!
Marlow listens to QurtB tal/ while he pilots the ship, and QurtB entrusts Marlow with a pac/et of
personal documents, including an elo>uent pamphlet on civiliBing the savages which ends with a
scrawled message that says, T7terminate all the brutesXL The steamer brea/s down, and they
have to stop for repairs! QurtB dies, uttering his last words@TThe horrorX The horrorXL@in the
presence of the confused Marlow! Marlow falls ill soon after and barely survives! ventually he
returns to urope and goes to see QurtBPs Intended $his fiancRe*! .he is still in mourning, even
though it has been over a year since QurtBPs death, and she praises him as a paragon of virtue and
138
achievement! .he as/s what his last words were, but Marlow cannot bring himself to shatter her
illusions with the truth! Instead, he tells her that QurtBPs last word was her name!
De i la momentul la $are am $itit $Dr ulia lui Conrad am de$retat $D nu mi-a "lD$ut& a$um& du"D
$B iva ani ;uni& $Bnd Imi amintes$ unele detalii J i mD mir $D mi-au rDmas atBt de Inti"Drite In
minte J Imi dau seama $D totu i nima !ntuneri"ului este o $arte $are a lDsat $eva In su%letul
meu7 Intre;are $are i astDFi Imi "ersistD In minte& $are I i s$oate $urioasD semnul de Intre;are
din sertarul In $are memoria mea a a eFat-o7
KntBm"larile sunt "ovestite "rin "risma lui Marlo?& un $D"itan trimis In A%ri$a la o $om"anie
;elgianD de $omer 7 De i sar$inD lui e sD trans"orte %ilde "e rBu& o altD datorie este sD-l
readu$D "e KurtF& un $omer$iant de %ilde & din nou In $iviliFa ieL (ede i voi& KurtF Dsta devine
"ersonaAul "rin$i"al& $am la %el $um Holl' <olightl' devine eroina $Dr i lui !ruman Ca"ote7
KurtF are o re"uta ie de om $rud& neIndu"le$at& satani$ si demn de ori$e dis"re 7 Si totu i& $Bnd
Marlo? IntBlne te oameni $are l-au $unos$ut MvDrul lui& un Aurnalist i "e logadni$a luiN& are
im"resia $D %ie$are vor;e te des"re alt om de$Bt $el "e $are l-a $unos$ut In AunglD7 nima
!ntuneri"ului rDmBne o $arte des"re dualitatea umanD i des"re $um suntem "er$e"u i de $ei din
Aurul nostru& des"re im"resiile "e $are un om este $a"a;il sD le rDs"Bndeas$D7
Revenind la Intre;area des"re $are vD s"uneam mai sus& Imi stDruie In minte imaginea
logodni$ei lui KurtF "e $are o deseneaFa Conrad7 Kntr-o $amerD Intune$atD& toatD lumina "Drea
$D se $on$entreaFD "e %runtea a$este %emei %rumoase& $are Il iu;ea "e negustorul demoni$7 Mai
mult din $urioFitate& de$Bt "entru a- i e="rima $ondolean ele Indureratei logodni$e& Marlo?
vrea sa o $unoas$a "e $ea $are "utea iu;i un asemenea om7 Si ast%el mD Intre; i eu M i sunt
sigurD $D si voi uneoriN $um "oate %i un om rDu iu;it de $ineva- %i i el $a i KurtF& alt%el de$Bt
$e $unoa tem noi& alt%el de$Bt ni s-a arDtat nouD- Cum "o i sD $reFi $D un om "e $are Il tii rDu
"oate %i i ;un& i $um de e=istD $ineva "e lume& "oate la %el de "ur i luminos $a i logodni$a lui
KurtF& $are vede ;inele din el-
Iharacter List
O
Ma!l#3 " The protagonist of Heart o% Dar*ness7 Marlow is philosophical, independent"minded,
and generally s/eptical of those around him! 1e is also a master storyteller, elo>uent and able to
draw his listeners into his tale! Although Marlow shares many of his fellow uropeansP
preMudices, he has seen enough of the world and has encountered enough debased white men to
ma/e him s/eptical of imperialism!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Marlow!
K'!$A " The chief of the Inner .tation and the obMect of MarlowPs >uest! QurtB is a man of many
talents@we learn, among other things, that he is a gifted musician and a fine painter@the chief
of which are his charisma and his ability to lead men! QurtB is a man who understands the power
of words, and his writings are mar/ed by an elo>uence that obscures their horrifying message!
Although he remains an enigma even to Marlow, QurtB clearly e7erts a powerful influence on the
people in his life! 1is downfall seems to be a result of his willingness to ignore the hypocritical
rules that govern uropean colonial conduct2 QurtB has T/ic/ed himself loose of the earthL by
fraterniBing e7cessively with the natives and not /eeping up appearances? in so doing, he has
become wildly successful but has also incurred the wrath of his fellow white men!
8ead an in"depth analysis of QurtB!
139
5ene!al mana&e! " The chief agent of the Iompany in its African territory, who runs the
Ientral .tation! 1e owes his success to a hardy constitution that allows him to outlive all his
competitors! 1e is average in appearance and unremar/able in abilities, but he possesses a
strange capacity to produce uneasiness in those around him, /eeping everyone sufficiently
unsettled for him to e7ert his control over them!
8!ickmake! " The bric/ma/er, whom Marlow also meets at the Ientral .tation, is a favorite of
the manager and seems to be a /ind of corporate spy! 1e never actually produces any bric/s, as
he is supposedly waiting for some essential element that is never delivered! 1e is petty and
conniving and assumes that other people are too!
+hie) acc#'n$an$ " An efficient wor/er with an incredible habit of dressing up in spotless
whites and /eeping himself absolutely tidy despite the s>ualor and heat of the Cuter .tation,
where he lives and wor/s! 1e is one of the few colonials who seems to have accomplished
anything2 he has trained a native woman to care for his wardrobe!
Pil&!ims " The bumbling, greedy agents of the Ientral .tation! They carry long wooden staves
with them everywhere, reminding Marlow of traditional religious travelers! They all want to be
appointed to a station so that they can trade for ivory and earn a commission, but none of them
actually ta/es any effective steps toward achieving this goal! They are obsessed with /eeping up
a veneer of civiliBation and proper conduct, and are motivated entirely by self"interest! They hate
the natives and treat them li/e animals, although in their greed and ridiculousness they appear
less than human themselves!
+anni/als " Aatives hired as the crew of the steamer, a surprisingly reasonable and well"
tempered bunch! Marlow respects their restraint and their calm acceptance of adversity! The
leader of the group, in particular, seems to be intelligent and capable of ironic reflection upon his
situation!
R'ssian $!a-e! " A 8ussian sailor who has gone into the African interior as the trading
representative of a <utch company! 1e is boyish in appearance and temperament, and seems to
e7ist wholly on the glamour of youth and the audacity of adventurousness! 1is brightly patched
clothes remind Marlow of a harle>uin! 1e is a devoted disciple of QurtBPs!
Helmsman " A young man from the coast trained by MarlowPs predecessor to pilot the steamer!
1e is a serviceable pilot, although Marlow never comes to view him as much more than a
mechanical part of the boat! 1e is /illed when the steamer is attac/ed by natives hiding on the
riverban/s!
K'!$A:s A)!ican mis$!ess " A fiercely beautiful woman loaded with Mewelry who appears on the
shore when MarlowPs steamer arrives at and leaves the Inner .tation! .he seems to e7ert an
undue influence over both QurtB and the natives around the station, and the 8ussian trader points
her out as someone to fear! Li/e QurtB, she is an enigma2 she never spea/s to Marlow, and he
never learns anything more about her!
K'!$A:s In$en-e- " QurtBPs na_ve and long"suffering fiancRe, whom Marlow goes to visit after
QurtBPs death! 1er unsha/able certainty about QurtBPs love for her reinforces MarlowPs belief
that women live in a dream world, well insulated from reality!
140
A'n$ " MarlowPs doting relative, who secures him a position with the Iompany! .he believes
firmly in imperialism as a charitable activity that brings civiliBation and religion to suffering,
simple savages! .he, too, is an e7ample for Marlow of the na_vetR and illusions of women!
%he men a/#a!- $he 7ellie " MarlowPs friends, who are with him aboard a ship on the Thames
at the storyPs opening! They are the audience for the central story of Heart o% Dar*ness& which
Marlow narrates! All have been sailors at one time or another, but all now have important Mobs
ashore and have settled into middle"class, middle"aged lives! They represent the /ind of man
Marlow would have li/ely become had he not gone to Africa2 well meaning and moral but
ignorant as to a large part of the world beyond ngland! The narrator in particular seems to be
sha/en by MarlowPs story! 1e repeatedly comments on its obscurity and MarlowPs own
mysterious nature!
(!esle*en " MarlowPs predecessor as captain of the steamer! 6resleven, by all accounts a good"
tempered, nonviolent man, was /illed in a dispute over some hens, apparently after stri/ing a
village chief!
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
%he H.#c!is. #) Ime!ialism
Heart o% Dar*ness e7plores the issues surrounding imperialism in complicated ways! As Marlow
travels from the Cuter .tation to the Ientral .tation and finally up the river to the Inner .tation,
he encounters scenes of torture, cruelty, and near"slavery! At the very least, the incidental scenery
of the boo/ offers a harsh picture of colonial enterprise! The impetus behind MarlowPs
adventures, too, has to do with the hypocrisy inherent in the rhetoric used to Mustify imperialism!
The men who wor/ for the Iompany describe what they do as Ttrade,L and their treatment of
native Africans is part of a benevolent proMect of TciviliBation!L QurtB, on the other hand, is open
about the fact that he does not trade but rather ta/es ivory by force, and he describes his own
treatment of the natives with the words TsuppressionL and Te7terminationL2 he does not hide the
fact that he rules through violence and intimidation! 1is perverse honesty leads to his downfall,
as his success threatens to e7pose the evil practices behind uropean activity in Africa!
1owever, for Marlow as much as for QurtB or for the Iompany, Africans in this boo/ are mostly
obMects2 Marlow refers to his helmsman as a piece of machinery, and QurtBPs African mistress is
at best a piece of statuary! It can be argued that Heart o% Dar*ness participates in an oppression
of nonwhites that is much more sinister and much harder to remedy than the open abuses of
QurtB or the IompanyPs men! Africans become for Marlow a mere bac/drop, a human screen
against which he can play out his philosophical and e7istential struggles! Their e7istence and
their e7oticism enable his self"contemplation! This /ind of dehumaniBation is harder to identify
than colonial violence or open racism! #hile Heart o% Dar*ness offers a powerful condemnation
of the hypocritical operations of imperialism, it also presents a set of issues surrounding race that
is ultimately troubling!
Ma-ness as a Res'l$ #) Ime!ialism
Madness is closely lin/ed to imperialism in this boo/! Africa is responsible for mental
disintegration as well as physical illness! Madness has two primary functions! 6irst, it serves as
an ironic device to engage the readerPs sympathies! QurtB, Marlow is told from the beginning, is
mad! 1owever, as Marlow, and the reader, begin to form a more complete picture of QurtB, it
becomes apparent that his madness is only relative, that in the conte7t of the Iompany insanity is
141
difficult to define! Thus, both Marlow and the reader begin to sympathiBe with QurtB and view
the Iompany with suspicion! Madness also functions to establish the necessity of social fictions!
Although social mores and e7planatory Mustifications are shown throughout Heart o% Dar*ness to
be utterly false and even leading to evil, they are nevertheless necessary for both group harmony
and individual security! Madness, in Heart o% Dar*ness& is the result of being removed from
onePs social conte7t and allowed to be the sole arbiter of onePs own actions! Madness is thus
lin/ed not only to absolute power and a /ind of moral genius but to manPs fundamental
fallibility2 QurtB has no authority to whom he answers but himself, and this is more than any one
man can bear!
%he A/s'!-i$. #) E*il
This novella is, above all, an e7ploration of hypocrisy, ambiguity, and moral confusion! It
e7plodes the idea of the proverbial choice between the lesser of two evils! As the idealistic
Marlow is forced to align himself with either the hypocritical and malicious colonial bureaucracy
or the openly malevolent, rule"defying QurtB, it becomes increasingly clear that to try to Mudge
either alternative is an act of folly2 how can moral standards or social values be relevant in
Mudging evilS Is there such thing as insanity in a world that has already gone insaneS The number
of ridiculous situations Marlow witnesses act as reflections of the larger issue2 at one station, for
instance, he sees a man trying to carry water in a buc/et with a large hole in it! At the Cuter
.tation, he watches native laborers blast away at a hillside with no particular goalgoal in mind!
The absurd involves both insignificant silliness and life"or"death issues, often simultaneously!
That the serious and the mundane are treated similarly suggests a profound moral confusion and
a tremendous hypocrisy2 it is terrifying that QurtBPs homicidal megalomania and a lea/y buc/et
provo/e essentially the same reaction from Marlow!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform
the te7tPs maMor themes!
2/se!*a$i#n an- Ea*es-!#in&
Marlow gains a great deal of information by watching the world around him and by overhearing
othersP conversations, as when he listens from the dec/ of the wrec/ed steamer to the manager of
the Ientral .tation and his uncle discussing QurtB and the 8ussian trader! This phenomenon
spea/s to the impossibility of direct communication between individuals2 information must come
as the result of chance observation and astute interpretation! #ords themselves fail to capture
meaning ade>uately, and thus they must be ta/en in the conte7t of their utterance! Another good
e7ample of this is MarlowPs conversation with the bric/ma/er, during which Marlow is able to
figure out a good deal more than simply what the man has to say!
In$e!i#!s an- E6$e!i#!s
Iomparisons between interiors and e7teriors pervade Heart o% Dar*ness7 As the narrator states at
the beginning of the te7t, Marlow is more interested in surfaces, in the surrounding aura of a
thing rather than in any hidden nugget of meaning deep within the thing itself! This inverts the
usual hierarchy of meaning2 normally one see/s the deep message or hidden truth! The priority
placed on observation demonstrates that penetrating to the interior of an idea or a person is
impossible in this world! Thus, Marlow is confronted with a series of e7teriors and surfaces@the
riverPs ban/s, the forest walls around the station, QurtBPs broad forehead@that he must interpret!
These e7teriors are all the material he is given, and they provide him with perhaps a more
profound source of /nowledge than any falsely constructed interior T/ernel!L
1a!kness
142
<ar/ness is important enough conceptually to be part of the boo/Ps title! 1owever, it is difficult
to discern e7actly what it might mean, given that absolutely everything in the boo/ is cloa/ed in
dar/ness! Africa, ngland, and 4russels are all described as gloomy and somehow dar/, even if
the sun is shining brightly! <ar/ness thus seems to operate metaphorically and e7istentially
rather than specifically! <ar/ness is the inability to see2 this may sound simple, but as a
description of the human condition it has profound implications! 6ailing to see another human
being means failing to understand that individual and failing to establish any sort of sympathetic
communion with him or her!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
(#&
6og is a sort of corollary to dar/ness! 6og not only obscures but distorts2 it gives one Must enough
information to begin ma/ing decisions but no way to Mudge the accuracy of that information,
which often ends up being wrong! MarlowPs steamer is caught in the fog, meaning that he has no
idea where hePs going and no idea whether peril or open water lies ahead!
%he IWhi$e- Se'lch!eJ
The Twhited sepulchreL is probably 4russels, where the IompanyPs head>uarters are located! A
sepulchre implies death and confinement, and indeed urope is the origin of the colonial
enterprises that bring death to white men and to their colonial subMects? it is also governed by a
set of reified social principles that both enable cruelty, dehumaniBation, and evil and prohibit
change! The phrase Twhited sepulchreL comes from the biblical 4oo/ of Matthew! In the
passage, Matthew describes Twhited sepulchresL as something beautiful on the outside but
containing horrors within $the bodies of the dead*? thus, the image is appropriate for 4russels,
given the hypocritical 4elgian rhetoric about imperialismPs civiliBing mission! $4elgian colonies,
particularly the Iongo, were notorious for the violence perpetuated against the natives!*
W#men
4oth QurtBPs Intended and his African mistress function as blan/ slates upon which the values
and the wealthwealth of their respective societies can be displayed! Marlow fre>uently claims
that women are the /eepers of na_ve illusions? although this sounds condemnatory, such a role is
in fact crucial, as these na_ve illusions are at the root of the social fictions that Mustify economic
enterprise and colonial e7pansion! In return, the women are the beneficiaries of much of the
resulting wealth, and they become obMects upon which men can display their own success and
status!
%he Ri*e!
The Iongo 8iver is the /ey to Africa for uropeans! It allows them access to the center of the
continent without having to physically cross it? in other words, it allows the white man to remain
always separate or outside! Africa is thus reduced to a series of two"dimensional scenes that flash
by MarlowPs steamer as he travels upriver! The river also seems to want to e7pel uropeans from
Africa altogether2 its current ma/es travel upriver slow and difficult, but the flow of water ma/es
travel downriver, bac/ toward TciviliBation,L rapid and seemingly inevitable! MarlowPs struggles
with the river as he travels upstream toward QurtB reflect his struggles to understand the situation
in which he has found himself! The ease with which he Mourneys bac/ downstream, on the other
hand, mirrors his ac>uiescence to QurtB and his Tchoice of nightmares!L
L2R1 =IM
Ionte7t
143
O
3oseph Ionrad was born in the :/raine in 10'7! 1is father was a 9olish revolutionary, so 3oseph
spent his youth with several different relatives in several different places! In 1074, he first went
to sea! 6or the ne7t twenty years he made his living as a sailor, Moining the nglish merchant
service in 1070 and eventually becoming a ship captain! In his twenties, after Moining the nglish
fleet, Ionrad angliciBed his .lavic name and learned nglish! 1e did not begin to write until he
was in his forties! Lord Jim is the first of his maMor novels! It appeared in 15;;, the year after
Heart o% Dar*ness& which is perhaps his best"/nown wor/! Ionrad was only moderately
successful during his lifetime, although he moved in prominent literary circles and was friends
with people li/e 1enry 3ames and 6ord Mado7 6ord? with the latter he coauthored several wor/s!
Ionrad was writing at the very moment when the Fictorian Age was disappearing and the
modern era was emerging! Fictorian moral codes still influenced the plots of novels, but such
principles were no longer absolute! Aovelists and poets were beginning to e7periment with form!
The Mumbled time se>uence and elaborate narrative frames of Lord Jim are part of this
movement! As Ionrad wrote in the preface to !he Nigger o% the 'Nar$issus'& another of his
novels, fiction wanted to =strenuously aspire to the plasticity of sculpture, to the colour of
painting, and to the magic suggestiveness of music!= Lord Jim& with its insistence on the fre>uent
inability of language to communicate straightforwardly, opens itself to new ways of using words!
A term as elusive as =inscrutable= may contain within itself the immediately comprehensible
essence of the novel-s protagonist, while a simple word li/e =water= may fracture into a
multiplicity of meanings, each one available to only a single individual!
The sun hadn-t set yet on Fictoria-s empire, however? in fact, it was at its Benith! #hile this is one
of Ionrad-s novels least involved in the set of issues surrounding colonialism, Lord Jim
nevertheless situates itself in a world where national differences are often reduced to the
dichotomy of =us= and =them,= where the term =us= can encompass a surprisingly heterogeneous
group! 4oth economic and racial versions of the colonial dynamic come into play in this novel!
#hen Ionrad died in 15%4, the first #orld #ar had come and gone, and modernism dominated
literature! The new world was one in which a novel li/e Lord Jim& in which an older set of ideals
about heroism do combat with a modern sense of troubled personal identity, could no longer be
written with serious intent! #or/s li/e !he <reat <ats;' and !he Sound and the 8ur'& which
feature the same sort of conflict, present the struggle as absurd and futile, and no longer
profound! Lord Jim comes out of a uni>ue and very specific moment in time!
.ummary
O
Lord Jim is the story of a man named Marlow-s struggle to tell and to understand the life story of
a man named 3im! 3im is a promising young man who goes to sea as a youth! 1e rises >uic/ly
through the ran/s and soon becomes chief mate! 8aised on popular sea literature, 3im constantly
daydreams about becoming a hero, yet he has never faced any real danger! 6inally, his chance
comes! 1e is serving aboard a vessel called the Patna& carrying Muslim pilgrims to Mecca, when
the ship stri/es an underwater obMect and springs a lea/! #ith a storm approaching, the crew
abandons her and her passengers to their fate! 3im, not thin/ing clearly, abandons the ship with
the rest of the crew! The Patna does not sin/, however, and 3im, along with the rest of the
officers, is subMected to an official in>uiry by his fellow seamen! It is at this in>uiry, where 3im is
stripped of his officer-s certification, that he first meets Marlow!
.eeing something in 3im that he recogniBes, or perhaps fears, in himself, Marlow stri/es up a
tortured friendship with 3im! 3im tells him his story, and Marlow helps him obtain a series of
144
Mobs! The Patna incident haunts him, though? each time it is mentioned, 3im flees his current
situation, enlisting Marlow-s help once again! 6inally, with the help of .tein, an e7patriate
tradertrader , Marlow gets 3im situated as post manager in the remote territory of 9atusan! 3im is
initially captured by one of the warring factions of the area, but soon escapes and finally
becomes a hero by defeating a local bandit! 1e falls in love with 3ewel, the beautiful, half"native
stepdaughter of the previous trading post manager, a bitter little man called Iornelius! 3im
becomes the spiritual leader of 9atusan! Its citiBens place their trust in him and rely on him to
enforce Mustice!
Cne day, Gentleman 4rown, a pirate, shows up in 9atusan with his crew in search of provisions!
A s/irmish ensues, and 4rown holes up atop a hill! Iornelius, annoyed by 3im-s success and his
own failures, secretly meets with 4rown and a conspiracy, including a dissenting 9atusan faction,
is formed against 3im! 3im, unaware of the plot, agrees to let 4rown leave the area peacefully
$4rown guesses at 3im-s dishonorable past, and 3im decides it would be still more dishonorable
to /ill 4rown simply because 4rown /nows the truth about him*! Iornelius guides 4rown down
an alternate river channel, which leads him to the camp of <ain #aris, the son of 3im-s closest
ally, <oramin! 4rown and his men ambush the camp, /illing <ain #aris! 3im, realiBing that he
has still not been able to escape his initial failure aboard the Patna& ignores 3ewel-s pleas and
goes to <oramin-s compound, where the grieving father shoots and /ills him!
Much of the novel is concerned with Marlow-s attempts to piece together 3im-s story from a
variety of sources! 6inally, he recounts the story to a group of ac>uaintances! At this point in
time, though, 4rown has not yet come to 9atusan, and the story remains unfinished! Cnce events
are completed, Marlow writes them down in manuscript form, which he then sends to a member
of the audience of the first part of the story! The novel fragments time, and Marlow Mu7taposes
different, non"chronological pieces of 3im-s story for ma7imum effect, all the while see/ing to
discover the source of his own fascination with 3im and the meaning behind the story!
Iharacters
O
=im " Also /nown as =Lord 3im,= or =Tuan 3im!= The hero of our story, 3im is a young man who,
inspired by popular literature, goes to sea dreaming of becoming a hero! 1e gets his chance when
the ship he is aboard gets damaged, and fails utterly by abandoning ship with the rest of the crew!
1aunted by his failure and stripped of his officer-s certificate, he wanders from Mob to Mob, finally
becoming the manager of a remote trading post! 1e falls in love with 3ewel, a beautiful, half"
native girl, and, by defeating a local bandit, becomes leader of the people! 1is dreams of heroism
lead to his failure to /ill a marauding white pirate, Gentleman 4rown, which in turn leads to the
death of <ain #aris, his best friend and son of <oramin, the local chief! 3im allows <oramin to
shoot him in retribution!
Ma!l#3 " The narrator of this story and a ship-s captain! Marlow first encounters 3im at the
in>uiry where 3im loses his certification! 6eeling that 3im is =one of us,= he ta/es an interest in
him, first helping him find employment as a water cler/ and as a trading post manager for .tein,
then compulsively piecing together 3im-s story and perpetuating it through various retellings! It is
Marlow who filters and interprets most of the narrative for the reader!
=e3el " <aughter of the <utch"Malay woman and stepdaughter of Iornelius! .he and 3im fall in
love, and she ma/es him promise never to leave her! .he is a pragmatic woman and encourages
3im to fight to survive after <ain #aris-s death! Marlow encounters her after 3im-s death at
145
.tein-s, where she, bro/en and saddened, reminds Marlow that her prediction of 3im-s infidelity
has come true!
S$ein " The owner of a large tradingtrading post, he sends first Iornelius and then 3im to
9atusan! .tein was forced to flee urope as a young man after becoming involved in
revolutionary activities! 1aving made his way to the ast Indies, he has become successful as a
tradertrader ! A thoughtful, analytical man who immediately =diagnoses= 3im for Marlow, he
collects butterflies and beetles!
5en$leman 8!#3n " A white pirate who, having barely escaped .panish officials in the
9hilippines, comes to 9atusan hoping to steal some provisions! 1e is rather famous in this part of
the world, and is used as the stoc/ bad guy whenever locals are telling stories! 1e is proud,
terrified of confinement! 1e and his men are attac/ed upon arrival in 9atusan by <ain #aris and
his band, who have had advance warning of their coming! Although he had initially wanted to
con>uer and lootloot 9atusan, he realiBes he is outnumbered and negotiates with 3im! In those
negotiations, 4rown shows that he is aware that 3im has a dar/ past, thereby appealing to 3im-s
tortured sense of ideals and receiving permission to retreat in safety! 4rown has been conspiring
with Iornelius and the 8aMah Allang, though, and on his way bac/ to his ship, he surprises <ain
#aris and his men at their camp! <ain #aris is /illed, which will lead to 3im-s death! 4rown and
his men are shipwrec/ed soon after! 4rown is the only survivor, although he dies soon afterward!
Marlow visits him on his deathbed and gets part of the story from him! 4rown is an important
contrast to 3im, as a man who lives a romantic life, but one that is far from moral or idealiBed!
:nli/e 3im, 4rown is >uic/ to own up to his past and his fears!
+#!neli's " 1usband of the <utch"Malay woman, he is the previous manager of .tein-s 9atusan
post! A bitter, conniving man, he betrays 3im to Gentleman 4rown and causes the death of <ain
#aris! 1e is 3ewel-s stepfather, and treats her badly, even as/ing for 3im to give him
moneymoney in e7change for her!
1'$ch-Mala. 3#man " A woman with a mysterious past, she is 3ewel-s mother and Iornelius-s
wife $although Iornelius is not 3ewel-s father*! As a favor to her, .tein gives Iornelius a post in
9atusan! .he dies a horrible death with Iornelius, who has always tormented her, trying to brea/
down the door to her room!
+!e3 #) $he #atna " 3im-s fellow officers aboard the Patna& they immediately begin to try to
leave the damaged ship after the collision! A physically repulsive and dishonorable lot, they flee
before the in>uiry! Cne of them, the third engineer, dies of a heart attac/ on board and is found
by rescuers! Marlow meets with another of them in a hospital! The man is delirious from the
effects of alcoholism and is hallucinating pin/ toads, but he tells Marlow that he personally
watched the Patna sin/ $the ship did not actually sin/*! The captain is an enormous, disgusting
man who bullies 3im! 3im encounters another of the engineers in the wor/place of his first post"
Patna employer, which causes him $3im* to s/ip town!
+a$ain 8!ie!l. " Cne of the most decorated and respected ship-s captains in the area! 1e is on
the board of in>uiry that tries 3im! .ecretly, he ma/es Marlow an offer of money to help 3im run
146
away! Aot long after the in>uiry, he commits suicide, motivated by some secret shame! 1e is
implicitly contrasted with 3im!
+hes$e! an- R#/ins#n " Two disreputable characters who offer 3im, through Marlow, a Mob
ta/ing a wrec/ of a ship to a desolate island to collect guano! 4oth have >uestionable pasts and
can be compared with both 3im and Gentleman 4rown! The guano"collecting mission, under
someone else-s command, leaves port and is never heard from again? it is thought to have been
wiped out by a hurricane!
(!ench lie'$enan$ " Marlow meets the 6rench lieutenant in a .ydney cafR many years after the
events of the novel! The lieutenant was the man who stayed aboard the damaged Patna as his
gunboat towed her bac/ into port! Although his act was heroic, he seems to have been motivated
more by duty and professionalism! 1is prosaic attitude and his failure to describe the mystery of
the e7perience ade>uately in words disappoints and even disgusts Marlow!
1#!amin " Ihief of the 4ugis? a wise, /ind old man and a =war"comrade= of .tein-s! .tein gives
3im a silver ring as a to/en of introduction to <oramin! <oramin saves 3im after his escape from
the 8aMah Allang, who had been holding him prisoner! <oramin is the father of <ain #aris, 3im-s
closest friend! #hen <ain #aris is /illed because of 3im-s misMudgment, <oramin shoots and
/ills 3im, who has offered himself up as a sacrifice!
1ain Wa!is " <oramin-s son and 3im-s best friend! The two are soul mates, and <ain #aris
serves as 3im-s second"in"command! 1e leads the initial attac/ on Gentleman 4rown, but is not
entirely successful, lac/ing 3im-s charisma as a leader of men! 1e is /illed when Iornelius leads
4rown down the river channel behind his camp, after 3im foolishly frees 4rown and his men!
8'&is " A group of traders from Ielebes who immigrate to 9atusan many years before 3im
arrives there! They are constantly embroiled in conflict with the 8aMah Allang, who wants to shut
down their trading activities and enMoy a monopoly for himself! <oramin is their chief!
%am/"I$am " A Malay who came to 9atusan and was enslaved by the 8aMah Allang! 6reed by
<oramin, he becomes 3im-s loyal servant and adviser! 1e escapes with 3ewel after 3im-s death
and is the one to give Marlow the most complete account of 3im-s final days!
RaEah Allan& " Also /nown as Tun/u Allang! The corrupt, unofficial ruler of 9atusan? the uncle
of the legitimate but underage and possibly mentally"incompetent .ultan! 1e tries to enforce a
monopoly on trade in the area! Allang captures 3im upon his arrival in 9atusan! 1e also secretly
allies with Gentleman 4rown against 3im!
She!i) Ali " A fanatic Muslim bandit who terroriBes 9atusan from a stronghold in the hills! 3im
defeats Ali to become a hero in 9atusan!
L#!- =im S.m/#lism< Ima&e!. K Alle&#!.
.ometimes, therePs more to Lit than meets the eye!
8!ie!l."s P#cke$3a$ch
#hen 4rierly commits suicide by Mumping ship, he leaves his poc/etwatch hanging on the rail!
Let-s ta/e a loo/ at that scene2-There-s a funny thing! I don-t li/e to touch it!- It was Iaptain
4rierl!!!
147
Ima&ina$i#n
The fear grows shadowy? and Imagination, the enemy of men, the father of all terrors,
unstimulated, sin/s to rest in the dullness of e7hausted emotion! 3im saw nothing but the disorder
of his tosse!!!
8'$$e!)lies
.tein collects butterflies, which may seem li/e Must a passing hobby! 4ut we thin/ there Must
might be something more to it! Let-s ta/e a loo/ at .tein-s description of his favorite pasttime2
=#hen!!!
Wa$e! Ima&e!.
#e-ve got a novel about sailors in Lord 3im, which means that water and the sea are li/e
characters in and of themselves! Marlow spends a fair amount of time pondering the sea and its
moods, person!!!
1a!kness Ima&e!.
It seems li/e half this novel ta/es place at night! The 9atna sin/s at night, 3im confesses his
shameful actions to Marlow under the cover of dar/ness, Marlow relates his story to an audience
over!!!
G. 6orster, ! M!2
A Passage to +ndia
Ionte7t
O
dward Morgan 6orster was born into a comfortable London family in 1075! 1is father, an
architect, died when 6orster was very young, leaving the boy to be raised by his mother and
great"aunt! 6orster proved to be a bright student, and he went on to attend Iambridge :niversity,
graduating in 15;1! 1e spent much of the ne7t decade traveling and living abroad, dividing his
time between wor/ing as a Mournalist and writing short stories and novels!
Many of 6orsterPs observations and e7periences from this time figure in his fiction, most notably
A Room ?ith a (ie? $15;0*, which chronicles the e7periences of a group of nglish people
vacationing in Italy! Two years after A Room ?ith a (ie?& the novel Ho?ards End $151;*, in
which 6orster criticiBed the class divisions and preMudices of dwardian ngland, solidified his
reputation as a social critic and a master of incisively observational fiction!
Long before 6orster first visited India, he had already gained a vivid picture of its people and
places from a young Indian Muslim named .yed 8oss Masood, whom 6orster began tutoring in
ngland starting in 15;&! 6orster and Masood became very close, and Masood introduced
6orster to several of his Indian friends! choes of the friendship between the two can be seen in
the characters of 6ielding and ABiB in A Passage to +ndia7 4y the time 6orster first visited India,
in 151%, the nglishman was well prepared for his travels throughout the country!
148
At the time of 6orsterPs visit, the 4ritish government had been officially ruling India since 10'0,
after the failed .epoy 8ebellion in 10'7, in which Indians attempted to regain rule from the
4ritish ast India Iompany! The ast India Iompany, a privately owned trading concern, had
been gaining financial and political power in India since the seventeenth century! 4y the time of
6orsterPs visit, 4ritainPs control over India was complete2 nglish governors headed each
province and were responsible to 9arliament! Though ngland had promised the Indian people a
role in government in e7change for their aid during #orld #ar I, India did not win independence
until three decades later, in 1545!
6orster spent time with both nglishmen and Indians during his visit, and he >uic/ly found he
preferred the company of the latter! 1e was troubled by the racial oppression and deep cultural
misunderstandings that divided the Indian people and the 4ritish colonists, or, as they are called
in A Passage to +ndia& Anglo"Indians! The prevailing attitude among the 4ritish in India was that
the colonists were assuming the Twhite manPs burdenL@novelist 8udyard QiplingPs phrase@of
governing the country, because the Indians could not handle the responsibility themselves!
6orster, a homose7ual living in a society and era largely unsympathetic to his lifestyle, had long
e7perienced preMudice and misunderstanding firsthand! It is no surprise, then, that 6orster felt
sympathetic toward the Indian side of the colonial argument! Indeed, 6orster became a lifelong
advocate for tolerance and understanding among people of different social classes, races, and
bac/grounds!
6orster began writing A Passage to +ndia in 151), Must after his first visit to India! The novel was
not revised and completed, however, until well after his second stay in India, in 15%1, when he
served as secretary to the MaharaMah of <ewas .tate .enior! 9ublished in 15%4, A Passage to
+ndia e7amines the racial misunderstandings and cultural hypocrisies that characteriBed the
comple7 interactions between Indians and the nglish toward the end of the 4ritish occupation
of India!
6orsterPs style is mar/ed by his sympathy for his characters, his ability to see more than one side
of an argument or story, and his fondness for simple, symbolic tales that neatly encapsulate
large"scale problems and conditions! These tendencies are all evident in A Passage to +ndia,
which was immediately acclaimed as 6orsterPs masterpiece upon its publication! It is a traditional
social and political novel, unconcerned with the technical innovation of some of 6orsterPs
modernist contemporaries such as Gertrude .tein or T!.! liot! A Passage to +ndia is concerned,
however, with representing the chaos of modern human e7perience through patterns of imagery
and form! In this regard, 6orsterPs novel is similar to modernist wor/s of the same time period,
such as 3ames 3oycePs :l'sses $15%%* and Firginia #oolfPs Mrs7 Dallo?a' $15%'*!
A Passage to +ndia was the last in a string of 6orsterPs novels in which his craft improved
mar/edly with each new wor/! After the novelPs publication, however, 6orster never again
attained the level of craft or the depth of observation that characteriBed his early wor/! In his
later life, he contented himself primarily with writing critical essays and lectures, most notably
As"e$ts o% the Novel $15%7*! In 154&, 6orster accepted a fellowship at Iambridge, where he
remained until his death in 157;!
9lot Cverview
O
Two englishwomen, the young Miss Adela Vuested and the elderly Mrs! Moore, travel to India!
Adela e7pects to become engaged to Mrs! MoorePs son, 8onny, a 4ritish magistrate in the Indian
city of Ihandrapore! Adela and Mrs! Moore each hope to see the real India during their visit,
rather than cultural institutions imported by the 4ritish!
149
At the same time, ABiB, a young Muslim doctor in India, is increasingly frustrated by the poor
treatment he receives at the hands of the nglish! ABiB is especially annoyed with MaMor
Iallendar, the civil surgeon, who has a tendency to summon ABiB for frivolous reasons in the
middle of dinner! ABiB and two of his educated friends, 1amidullah and Mahmoud Ali, hold a
lively conversation about whether or not an Indian can be friends with an nglishman in India!
That night, Mrs! Moore and ABiB happen to run into each other while e7ploring a local mos>ue,
and the two become friendly! ABiB is moved and surprised that an nglish person would treat him
li/e a friend!
Mr! Turton, the collector who governs Ihandrapore, hosts a party so that Adela and Mrs! Moore
may have the opportunity to meet some of the more prominent and wealthy Indians in the city! At
the event, which proves to be rather aw/ward, Adela meets Iyril 6ielding, the principal of the
government college in Ihandrapore! 6ielding, impressed with AdelaPs open friendliness to the
Indians, invites her and Mrs! Moore to tea with him and the 1indu professor Godbole! At AdelaPs
re>uest, 6ielding invites ABiB to tea as well!
At the tea, ABiB and 6ielding immediately become friendly, and the afternoon is overwhelmingly
pleasant until 8onny 1easlop arrives and rudely interrupts the party! Later that evening, Adela
tells 8onny that she has decided not to marry him! 4ut that night, the two are in a car accident
together, and the e7citement of the event causes Adela to change her mind about the marriage!
Aot long afterward, ABiB organiBes an e7pedition to the nearby Marabar Iaves for those who
attended 6ieldingPs tea! 6ielding and 9rofessor Godbole miss the train to Marabar, so ABiB
continues on alone with the two ladies, Adela and Mrs! Moore! Inside one of the caves, Mrs!
Moore is unnerved by the enclosed space, which is crowded with ABiBPs retinue, and by the
uncanny echo that seems to translate every sound she ma/es into the noise Tboum!L
ABiB, Adela, and a guide go on to the higher caves while Mrs! Moore waits below! Adela,
suddenly realiBing that she does not love 8onny, as/s ABiB whether he has more than one wife@
a >uestion he considers offensive! ABiB storms off into a cave, and when he returns, Adela is
gone! ABiB scolds the guide for losing Adela, and the guide runs away! ABiB finds AdelaPs bro/en
field"glasses and heads down the hill! 4ac/ at the picnic site, ABiB finds 6ielding waiting for him!
ABiB is unconcerned to learn that Adela has hastily ta/en a car bac/ to Ihandrapore, as he is
overMoyed to see 6ielding! 4ac/ in Ihandrapore, however, ABiB is une7pectedly arrested! 1e is
charged with attempting to rape Adela Vuested while she was in the caves, a charge based on a
claim Adela herself has made!
6ielding, believing ABiB to be innocent, angers all of 4ritish India by Moining the Indians in
ABiBPs defense! In the wee/s before the trial, the racial tensions between the Indians and the
nglish flare up considerably! Mrs! Moore is distracted and miserable because of her memory of
the echo in the cave and because of her impatience with the upcoming trial! Adela is emotional
and ill? she too seems to suffer from an echo in her mind! 8onny is fed up with Mrs! MoorePs
lac/ of support for Adela, and it is agreed that Mrs! Moore will return to ngland earlier than
planned! Mrs! Moore dies on the voyage bac/ to ngland, but not before she realiBes that there is
no Treal IndiaL@but rather a comple7 multitude of different Indias!
At ABiBPs trial, Adela, under oath, is >uestioned about what happened in the caves! .hoc/ingly,
she declares that she has made a mista/e2 ABiB is not the person or thing that attac/ed her in the
cave! ABiB is set free, and 6ielding escorts Adela to the Government Iollege, where she spends
the ne7t several wee/s! 6ielding begins to respect Adela, recogniBing her bravery in standing
150
against her peers to pronounce ABiB innocent! 8onny brea/s off his engagement to Adela, and
she returns to ngland!
ABiB, however, is angry that 6ielding would befriend Adela after she nearly ruined ABiBPs life,
and the friendship between the two men suffers as a conse>uence! Then 6ielding sails for a visit
to ngland! ABiB declares that he is done with the nglish and that he intends to move to a place
where he will not have to encounter them!
Two years later, ABiB has become the chief doctor to the 8aMah of Mau, a 1indu region several
hundred miles from Ihandrapore! 1e has heard that 6ielding married Adela shortly after
returning to ngland! ABiB now virulently hates all nglish people! Cne day, wal/ing through an
old temple with his three children, he encounters 6ielding and his brother"in"law! ABiB is
surprised to learn that the brother"in"lawPs name is 8alph Moore? it turns out that 6ielding
married not Adela Vuested, but .tella Moore, Mrs! MoorePs daughter from her second marriage!
ABiB befriends 8alph! After he accidentally runs his rowboat into 6ieldingPs, ABiB renews his
friendship with 6ielding as well! The two men go for a final ride together before 6ielding leaves,
during which ABiB tells 6ielding that once the nglish are out of India, the two will be able to be
friends! 6ielding as/s why they cannot be friends now, when they both want to be, but the s/y
and the earth seem to say TAo, not yet! ! ! ! Ao, not there!L
Iharacter List
O
1!. AAiA " An intelligent, emotional Indian doctor in Ihandrapore! ABiB attempts to ma/e friends
with Adela Vuested, Mrs! Moore, and Iyril 6ielding! Later, Adela falsely accuses ABiB of
attempted rape after an e7pedition to the Marabar Iaves, but the charges are dropped after
AdelaPs testimony at the trial! ABiB enMoys writing and reciting poetry! 1e has three children? his
wife died several years before the beginning of the novel!
8ead an in"depth analysis of <r! ABiB!
+.!il (iel-in& " The principal of the government college near Ihandrapore! 6ielding is an
independent man who believes in educating the Indians to be individuals@a much more
sympathetic attitude toward the native population than that held by most nglish in India!
6ielding befriends <r! ABiB, ta/ing the doctorPs side against the rest of the nglish in
Ihandrapore when ABiB is accused of attempting to rape Adela Vuested!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Iyril 6ielding!
Miss A-ela 4'es$e- " A young, intelligent, in>uisitive, but somewhat repressed
nglishwoman! Adela travels to India with Mrs! Moore in order to decide whether or not to
marry Mrs! MoorePs son 8onny! Miss Vuested begins with an openminded desire to get to /now
Indians and see the real India! Later, she falsely accuses ABiB of attempting to rape her in the
Marabar Iaves!
M!s. M##!e " An elderly nglishwoman who voyages to India with Adela Vuested! Mrs!
Moore wishes to see the country and hopes that Adela will marry her son 8onny! Mrs! Moore
befriends <r! ABiB, as she feels some spiritual connection with him! .he has an unsettling
e7perience with the biBarre echoes in the Marabar Iaves, which cause her to feel a sense of
dread, especially about human relationships! Mrs! Moore hurries bac/ to ngland, and she dies at
sea during the Mourney!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Mrs! Moore!
151
R#nn. Heasl# " Mrs! MoorePs son, the magistrate at Ihandrapore! 8onny, though well
educated and open"minded at heart, has become preMudiced and intolerant of Indians ever since
he moved to India@as is standard for most nglishmen serving there! 8onny is briefly engaged
to Adela Vuested, though he does not appear particularly passionate about her!
8ead an in"depth analysis of 8onny 1easlop!
M!. %'!$#n " The collector, the man who governs Ihandrapore! Mr! Turton is officious and
stern, though more tactful than his wife!
M!s. %'!$#n " TurtonPs wife! In her interactions with Indians, Mrs! Turton embodies the novelPs
stereotype of the snobby, rude, and preMudiced nglish colonial wife!
M!. Mc8!.-e " The superintendent of police in Ihandrapore, who has an elaborate theory that
he claims e7plains the inferiority of dar/"s/inned races to light"s/inned ones! Mc4ryde, though
condescending, actually shows more tolerance toward Indians than most nglish do! Aot
surprisingly, he and 6ielding are friendly ac>uain"tances! Mc4ryde himself stands up against the
group mentality of the nglish at Ihandrapore when he divorces his wife after having an affair
with Miss <ere/!
MaE#! +allen-a! " The civil surgeon at Ihandrapore, <r! ABiBPs superior! MaMor Iallendar is a
boastful, cruel, intolerant, and ridiculous man!
P!#)ess#! 5#-/#le " A 4rahman 1indu who teaches at 6ieldingPs college! Godbole is very
spiritual and reluctant to become involved in human affairs!
Hami-'llah " <r! ABiBPs uncle and friend! 1amidullah, who was educated at Iambridge,
believes that friendship between the nglish and Indians is more li/ely possible in ngland than
in India! 1amidullah was a close friend of 6ielding before 6ielding and ABiB met!
Mahm#'- Ali " A lawyer friend of <r! ABiB who is deeply pessimistic about the nglish!
%he 7a3a/ 8aha-'! " The leading loyalist in Ihandrapore! The Aawab 4ahadur is wealthy,
generous, and faithful to the nglish! After ABiBPs trial, however, he gives up his title in protest!
1!. Panna Lal " A low"born 1indu doctor and ABiBPs rival! <r! 9anna Lal intends to testify
against ABiB at the trial, but he begs forgiveness after ABiB is set free!
S$ella M##!e " Mrs! MoorePs daughter from her second marriage! .tella marries 6ielding
toward the end of the novel!
Ralh M##!e " Mrs! MoorePs son from her second marriage, a sensitive young man!
Miss 1e!ek " A young nglishwoman who wor/s for a wealthy Indian family and often steals
their car! Miss <ere/ is easygoing and has a fine sense of humor, but many of the nglish at
Ihandrapore resent her, considering her presence unseemly!
Am!i$!a# " The lawyer who defends ABiB at his trial! Amritrao is a highly anti"4ritish man!
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
%he 1i))ic'l$. #) En&lish-In-ian (!ien-shi
A Passage to +ndia begins and ends by posing the >uestion of whether it is possible for an
nglishman and an Indian to ever be friends, at least within the conte7t of 4ritish colonialism!
6orster uses this >uestion as a framewor/ to e7plore the general issue of 4ritainPs political
152
control of India on a more personal level, through the friendship between ABiB and 6ielding! At
the beginning of the novel, ABiB is scornful of the nglish, wishing only to consider them
comically or ignore them completely! Wet the intuitive connection ABiB feels with Mrs! Moore in
the mos>ue opens him to the possibility of friendship with 6ielding! Through the first half of the
novel, 6ielding and ABiB represent a positive model of liberal humanism2 6orster suggests that
4ritish rule in India could be successful and respectful if only nglish and Indians treated each
other as 6ielding and ABiB treat each other@as worthy individuals who connect through
fran/ness, intelligence, and good will!
Wet in the aftermath of the novelPs clima7@AdelaPs accusation that ABiB attempted to assault her
and her subse>uent disavowal of this accusation at the trial@ABiB and 6ieldingPs friendship falls
apart! The strains on their relationship are e7ternal in nature, as ABiB and 6ielding both suffer
from the tendencies of their cultures! ABiB tends to let his imagination run away with him and to
let suspicion harden into a grudge! 6ielding suffers from an nglish literalism and rationalism
that blind him to ABiBPs true feelings and ma/e 6ielding too stilted to reach out to ABiB through
conversations or letters! 6urthermore, their respective Indian and nglish communities pull them
apart through their mutual stereotyping! As we see at the end of the novel, even the landscape of
India seems to oppress their friendship! 6orsterPs final vision of the possibility of nglish"Indian
friendship is a pessimistic one, yet it is >ualified by the possibility of friendship on nglish soil,
or after the liberation of India! As the landscape itself seems to imply at the end of the novel,
such a friendship may be possible eventually, but Tnot yet!L
%he Dni$. #) All Li*in& %hin&s
Though the main characters of A Passage to +ndia are generally Ihristian or Muslim, 1induism
also plays a large thematic role in the novel! The aspect of 1induism with which 6orster is
particularly concerned is the religionPs ideal of all living things, from the lowliest to the highest,
united in love as one! This vision of the universe appears to offer redemption to India through
mysticism, as individual differences disappear into a peaceful collectivity that does not recogniBe
hierarchies! Individual blame and intrigue is forgone in favor of attention to higher, spiritual
matters! 9rofessor Godbole, the most visible 1indu in the novel, is 6orsterPs mouthpiece for this
idea of the unity of all living things! Godbole alone remains aloof from the drama of the plot,
refraining from ta/ing sides by recogniBing that all are implicated in the evil of Marabar! Mrs!
Moore, also, shows openness to this aspect of 1induism! Though she is a Ihristian, her
e7perience of India has made her dissatisfied with what she perceives as the smallness of
Ihristianity! Mrs! Moore appears to feel a great sense of connection with all living creatures, as
evidenced by her respect for the wasp in her bedroom!
Wet, through Mrs! Moore, 6orster also shows that the vision of the oneness of all living things
can be terrifying! As we see in Mrs! MoorePs e7perience with the echo that negates everything
into TboumL in Marabar, such oneness provides unity but also ma/es all elements of the universe
one and the same@a realiBation that, it is implied, ultimately /ills Mrs! Moore! Godbole is not
troubled by the idea that negation is an inevitable result when all things come together as one!
Mrs! Moore, however, loses interest in the world of relationships after envisioning this lac/ of
distinctions as a horror! Moreover, though 6orster generally endorses the 1indu idea of the
oneness of all living things, he also suggests that there may be inherent problems with it! ven
Godbole, for e7ample, seems to recogniBe that something@if only a stone@must be left out of
the vision of oneness if the vision is to cohere! This problem of e7clusion is, in a sense, merely
another manifestation of the individual difference and hierarchy that 1induism promises to
overcome!
153
%he IM'--leJ #) In-ia
6orster ta/es great care to stri/e a distinction between the ideas of TmuddleL and TmysteryL in A
Passage to +ndia7 TMuddleL has connotations of dangerous and disorienting disorder, whereas
TmysteryL suggests a mystical, orderly plan by a spiritual force that is greater than man! 6ielding,
who acts as 6orsterPs primary mouthpiece in the novel, admits that India is a Tmuddle,L while
figures such as Mrs! Moore and Godbole view India as a mystery! The muddle that is India in the
novel appears to wor/ from the ground up2 the very landscape and architecture of the countryside
is formless, and the natural life of plants and animals defies identification! This muddled >uality
to the environment is mirrored in the ma/eup of IndiaPs native population, which is mi7ed into a
muddle of different religious, ethnic, linguistic, and regional groups!
The muddle of India disorients Adela the most? indeed, the events at the Marabar Iaves that
trouble her so much can be seen as a manifestation of this muddle! 4y the end of the novel, we
are still not sure what actually has happened in the caves! 6orster suggests that AdelaPs feelings
about 8onny become e7ternaliBed and muddled in the caves, and that she suddenly e7periences
these feelings as something outside of her! The muddle of India also affects ABiB and 6ieldingPs
friendship, as their good intentions are derailed by the chaos of cross"cultural signals!
Though 6orster is sympathetic to India and Indians in the novel, his overwhelming depiction of
India as a muddle matches the manner in which many #estern writers of his day treated the ast
in their wor/s! As the noted critic dward .aid has pointed out, these authorsP TorientaliBingL of
the ast made #estern logic and capability appear self"evident, and, by e7tension, portrayed the
#estPs domination of the ast as reasonable or even necessary!
%he 7e&li&ence #) 8!i$ish +#l#nial 5#*e!nmen$
Though A Passage to +ndia is in many ways a highly symbolic, or even mystical, te7t, it also
aims to be a realistic documentation of the attitudes of 4ritish colonial officials in India! 6orster
spends large sections of the novel characteriBing different typical attitudes the nglish hold
toward the Indians whom they control! 6orsterPs satire is most harsh toward nglishwomen,
whom the author depicts as overwhelmingly racist, self"righteous, and viciously condescending
to the native population! .ome of the nglishmen in the novel are as nasty as the women, but
6orster more often identifies nglishmen as men who, though condescending and unable to
relate to Indians on an individual level, are largely well"meaning and invested in their Mobs! 6or
all 6orsterPs criticism of the 4ritish manner of governing India, however, he does not appear to
>uestion the right of the 4ritish mpire to rule India! 1e suggests that the 4ritish would be well
served by becoming /inder and more sympathetic to the Indians with whom they live, but he
does not suggest that the 4ritish should abandon India outright! ven this lesser criti>ue is never
overtly stated in the novel, but implied through biting satire!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform
the te7tPs maMor themes!
%he Ech#
The echo begins at the Marabar Iaves2 first Mrs! Moore and then Adela hear the echo and are
haunted by it in the wee/s to come! The echoPs sound is TboumL@a sound it returns regardless
of what noise or utterance is originally made! This negation of difference embodies the
frightening flip side of the seemingly positive 1indu vision of the oneness and unity of all living
things! If all people and things become the same thing, then no distinction can be made between
good and evil! Ao value system can e7ist! The echo plagues Mrs! Moore until her death, causing
154
her to abandon her beliefs and cease to care about human relationships! Adela, however,
ultimately escapes the echo by using its message of impersonality to help her realiBe ABiBPs
innocence!
Eas$e!n an- Wes$e!n A!chi$ec$'!e
6orster spends time detailing both astern and #estern architecture in A Passage to +ndia7 Three
architectural structures@though one is naturally occurring@provide the outline for the boo/Ps
three sections, TMos>ue,L TIaves,L and TTemple!L 6orster presents the aesthetics of astern and
#estern structures as indicative of the differences of the respective cultures as a whole! In India,
architecture is confused and formless2 interiors blend into e7terior gardens, earth and buildings
compete with each other, and structures appear unfinished or drab! As such, Indian architecture
mirrors the muddle of India itself and what 6orster sees as the IndiansP characteristic inattention
to form and logic! Cccasionally, however, 6orster ta/es a positive view of Indian architecture!
The mos>ue in 9art I and temple in 9art III represent the promise of Indian openness, mysticism,
and friendship! #estern architecture, meanwhile, is described during 6ieldingPs stop in Fenice on
his way to ngland! FenicePs structures, which 6ielding sees as representative of #estern
architecture in general, honor form and proportion and complement the earth on which they are
built! 6ielding reads in this architecture the self"evident correctness of #estern reason@an order
that, he laments, his Indian friends would not recogniBe or appreciate!
5#-/#le:s S#n&
At the end of 6ieldingPs tea party, Godbole sings for the nglish visitors a 1indu song, in which
a mil/maid pleads for God to come to her or to her people! The songPs refrain of TIomeX comeL
recurs throughout A Passage to +ndia, mirroring the appeal for the entire country of salvation
from something greater than itself! After the song, Godbole admits that God never comes to the
mil/maid! The song greatly disheartens Mrs! Moore, setting the stage for her later spiritual
apathy, her simultaneous awareness of a spiritual presence and lac/ of confidence in spiritualism
as a redeeming force! Godbole seemingly intends his song as a message or lesson that
recognition of the potential e7istence of a God figure can bring the world together and erode
differences@after all, Godbole himself sings the part of a young mil/maid! 6orster uses the
refrain of GodbolePs song, TIomeX come,L to suggest that IndiaPs redemption is yet to come!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
%he Ma!a/a! +a*es
The Marabar Iaves represent all that is alien about nature! The caves are older than anything else
on the earth and embody nothingness and emptiness@a literal void in the earth! They defy both
nglish and Indians to act as guides to them, and their strange beauty and menace unsettles
visitors! The cavesP alien >uality also has the power to ma/e visitors such as Mrs! Moore and
Adela confront parts of themselves or the universe that they have not previously recogniBed! The
all"reducing echo of the caves causes Mrs! Moore to see the dar/er side of her spirituality@a
waning commitment to the world of relationships and a growing ambivalence about God! Adela
confronts the shame and embarrassment of her realiBation that she and 8onny are not actually
attracted to each other, and that she might be attracted to no one! In this sense, the caves both
destroy meaning, in reducing all utterances to the same sound, and e7pose or narrate the
unspea/able, the aspects of the universe that the cavesP visitors have not yet considered!
%he 5!een 8i!-
3ust after Adela and 8onny agree for the first time, in Ihapter FII, to brea/ off their engagement,
they notice a green bird sitting in the tree above them! Aeither of them can positively identify the
155
bird! 6or Adela, the bird symboliBes the unidentifiable >uality of all of India2 Must when she
thin/s she can understand any aspect of India, that aspect changes or disappears! In this sense,
the green bird symboliBes the muddle of India! In another capacity, the bird points to a different
tension between the nglish and Indians! The nglish are obsessed with /nowledge, literalness,
and naming, and they use these tools as a means of gaining and maintaining power! The Indians,
in contrast, are more attentive to nuance, undertone, and the emotions behind words! #hile the
nglish insist on labeling things, the Indians recogniBe that labels can blind one to important
details and differences! The unidentifiable green bird suggests the incompatibility of the nglish
obsession with classification and order with the shifting >uality of India itself@the land is, in
fact, a Thundred IndiasL that defy labeling and understanding!
%he Was
The wasp appears several times in A Passage to +ndia& usually in conMunction with the 1indu
vision of the oneness of all living things! The wasp is usually depicted as the lowest creature the
1indus incorporate into their vision of universal unity! Mrs! Moore is closely associated with the
wasp, as she finds one in her room and is gently appreciative of it! 1er peaceful regard for the
wasp signifies her own openness to the 1indu idea of collectivity, and to the mysticism and
indefinable >uality of India in general! 1owever, as the wasp is the lowest creature that the
1indus visualiBe, it also represents the limits of the 1indu vision! The vision is not a panacea,
but merely a possibility for unity and understanding in India!
A 8CCM #IT1 A FI#
Ionte7t
O
dward Morgan 6orster was born on 3anuary 1, 1075, in London, into an upper middle class
family! 1is father, an architect, died two years later, and the young 6orster was raised by his
mother and his great aunt! These women remained influential over 6orster for much of his life,
which sheds some light on his preference for strong female characters in his novels!
6orster graduated from Qing-s Iollege, Iambridge, in 15;1 and resolved to pursue his writing!
1e traveled in Italy and Greece with his mother, and wor/ed as a tutor in Germany in 15;'! In
the same year he published his first novel, @here Angels 8ear to !read7 !he Longest Journe'
$15;7* and A Room ?ith a (ie? $15;0* soon followed! 6orster wrote the first half of A Room
?ith a (ie? during a stay in Italy with his mother! The novel shows his support for the new,
liberal social behaviors of the dwardian age, in contrast to the more sober ideals prevalent
during Vueen Fictoria-s reign! ven in his early wor/, 6orster-s style distinguished itself as
lighter and more conversational in diction than the nglish novelists who preceded him! 1is
critical yet sympathetic views of people and their interactions mar/ed him as a master of
character and societal analysis! In 151;, his novel Ho?ard's End was published to great public
acclaim! A Passage to +ndia $15%4* was published in 15%4, and is /nown as his most comple7
and mature wor/!
The years between the turn of the century and #orld #ar I were an optimistic time for ngland!
As liberal dwardian ideals slowly moved in over the old Fictorian ways, a general optimism
began to prevail, manifested in the belief that man might be made better through a more liberal
education! Throughout his life, 6orster stressed the importance of individuality and good will,
emphasiBing his belief in humanity-s potential for self"improvement! 6orster became an active
member of a movement of writers and thin/ers /nown as the 4loomsbury Group, a number of
intellectuals defined in part tby their radical opposition to Fictorian traditions and manners!
Included among the other members of the group were Firginia #oolf and 3ohn Maynard Qeynes!
156
Iambridge offered 6orster a fellowship in 154&, and he remained there until his death on 3une 7,
157;! 1e accepted an Crder of Merit in 15&5! Along with his novels, 6orster also published short
stories, essays, and the famous critical wor/, As"e$ts o% the Novel7 1e also collaborated with ric
IroBier on the libretto to the opera ,ill' ,udd& Sailor& composed by 4enMamin 4ritten! 1is novel
Mauri$e& about a homose7ual man, was published, according to his wishes, after his death, in
1571!
.ummary
O
Lucy 1oneychurch, a young upper middle class woman, visits Italy under the charge of her older
cousin Iharlotte! At their pension, or guesthouse, in 6lorence, they are given rooms that loo/
into the courtyard rather than out over the river Arno! Mr! merson, a fellow guest, generously
offers them the rooms belonging to himself and his son George! Although Iharlotte is offended
by Mr! merson-s lac/ of tact and propriety, she finally does agree to the switch! Lucy is an avid
young pianist! Mr! 4eebe, watches her passionate playing and predicts that someday she will live
her life with as much gusto as she plays the piano!
Lucy-s visit to Italy is mar/ed by several significant encounters with the mersons! In .anta
Iroce church, George complains that his father means well, but always offends everyone! Mr!
merson tells Lucy that his son needs her in order to overcome his youthful melancholy! Later,
Lucy is wal/ing in the 9iaBBa .ignoria, feeling dull, when she comes in close contact with two
>uarreling Italian men! Cne man stabs the other, and she faints, to be rescued by George! Cn
their return trip home, he /isses her, much to her surprise! .he /eeps his rash behavior a secret!
Cn a country outing in the hills, Lucy wanders in search of Mr! 4eebe and the supercilious
chaplain, Mr! ager! 1owever, the Italian cab driver leads her instead to George, who is standing
on a terrace covered with blue violets! George sees her and again /isses her, but this time
Iharlotte sees him and chastises him after they have resurnedreturned to the pension! .he leaves
with Lucy for 8ome the ne7t day!
The second half of the boo/ centers on Lucy-s home in .urrey, where she lives with her mother,
Mrs! 1oneychurch, and her brother, 6reddy! A man she met in 8ome, the snobbish Iecil Fyse,
proposes marriage to her for the third time, and she accepts him! 1e disapproves of her family
and the country people she /nows, finding them coarse and unsophisticated! There is a small,
ugly villa available for rent in the town, and as a Mo/e, Iecil offers it to the mersons, whom he
meets by chance in a museum! They ta/e him up on the offer and move in, much to Lucy-s initial
horror!
George plays tennis with the 1oneychurches on a .unday when Iecil is at his most intolerable!
After the game, Iecil reads from a boo/ by Miss Lavish, a woman who also stayed with Lucy
and Iharlotte at the pension in 6lorence! The novel records a /iss among violets, and Lucy
realiBes that Iharlotte let the secret out! In a moment alone, George /isses her again! Lucy tells
him to leave, but George insists that Iecil is not the right man for her, characteriBing Iecil as
controlling and appreciative of things rather than people! Lucy sees Iecil in a new light, and
brea/s off her engagement that night!
1owever, Lucy will not believe that she loves George? she wants to stay unmarried and travel to
Greece with some elderly women she met in Italy, the Miss Alans! .he meets old Mr! merson
by chance, who insists that she loves George and should marry him, because it is what her soul
truly wants! Lucy realiBes he is right, and though she must fly against convention, she marries
George, and the boo/ ends with the happy couple staying together in the 6lorence pension again,
in a room with a view!
157
Anal.sis
The boo/ depicts Lucy-s struggles as she emerges as her own woman, growing from indecision
to fulfillment! .he struggles between strict, old"fashioned Fictorian values and newer, more
liberal mores! In this struggle Lucy-s own idea of what is true evolves and matures! 1er trip to
Italy opens her sheltered eyes to ideas and people unli/e those she has /nown growing up in the
nglish countryside! .he also notices how freely Italian classes seem to mi7, and realiBes that the
social boundaries she has always regarded as fi7ed are actually arbitrary! 1er e7perience with the
mersons shows her that there can be beauty in the things that are considered improper, and
Iharlotte-s betrayal shows her that propriety is not always the best Mudge of what is true!
1aving more clearly found herself in Italy, Lucy-s real test lies at home, where she must confront
her old familiar surroundings! .he is still uncertain, however, and confused about what to thin/
about her new e7periences! That she missteps and becomes engaged to the pretentious and
domineering Iecil shows her susceptibility to the pressures of society! As her bold piano playing
suggests, she is cut out for a more daring life, if only she could cut herself away from the
restricting social boundaries that engulf her! The mersons, as free"thin/ing, modern, truth"
loving people, are her deliverers from the grips of society! It is this freedom that allows her to see
beyond the dictates of propriety that forbid her marriage to the lower"class George and,
therefore, to follow her heart!
George is troubled by e7istential worries in Italy! 1e doesn-t understand how life can be truly
Moyful and worthwhile when it is always shadowed by enigma, symboliBed by the >uestion mar/
that he hangs on the wall of his hotelhotel ! Lucy, though cautious, is loving by nature and
enMoys life even when it challenges her understanding! The two are united by a shared
appreciation for beauty, which might be captured in their love of views2 Lucy adores the view of
the Arno through the pension window, while George-s first memory is of himself and his parents
gaBing at a view! ach possesses what the other needs2 George finds simple Moys staying with the
1oneychurch family, while Lucy finds the courage to recogniBe her own individuality through
her contact with the mersons!
A Room ?ith a (ie? is one of 6orster-s early wor/s, and is not as comple7 as the more mature
Ho?ard's End and Passage to +ndia7 1owever, its strength lies in its vivid cast of characters,
humorous dialogue, and comedic play upon the manners of the day, and in 6orster-s engaging,
sympathetic e7ploration of Lucy-s character!
CamerD $u vedere este un roman clasic al maturiBErii! 6orster ne"o preBintE pe Lucy
1oneychurch care, Dnso^itE de Iharlotte 4artlett, mEtu]a sa an7ioasE ]i mult prea griMulie, face
turul Italiei Dn prima sa luare de contact cu o lume mai vastE ]i mult diferitE de peisaMul rural
engleBesc al copilEriei! Lucy cJntE bine la pian ]i interpretarea unei lucrEri de 4eethoven este o
primE aten^ionare a cititorului privind profunBimea spiritului ei!

<ilema acestui roman prive]te alegerea pe care o va face Lucy2 o camerE cu vedere sau spa^iul
DngrEdit al conven^iilor socialeS Fariantele sunt Dntruchipate de doi concuren^i la afec^iunea ei!
George merson este atent ]i pasional? el Dn^elege ]i apreciaBE la Musta valoare ceea ce vede, fie
cE este vorba despre italieni sau Lucy! Hn schimb, sofisticatul ]i arogantul Iecil Fyse o trateaBE
pe Lucy ca pe o operE de artE Dn devenire, ]i nu ca pe o fiin^E! ste un roman despre durerile ]i
alternativele maturiBErii, despre tenta^ia autoamEgirii, desprinderea de familie ]i dorin^ele
personale!

158
8omanul lui 6orster oferE o satirE strElucitE a clasei miMlocii engleBe de la Dnceputul veacului ``
]i a conven^iilor sale sociale riguros respectate! ste ]i o operE remarcabil de senBualE2 peisaMul
italian ]i cel engleBesc debordeaBE de detalii viBuale pline de via^E, iar cJnd Lucy cJntE la pian
sau se apropie furtuna aproape cE auBim ritmul Dn crescendo al notelor sau al tunetului! C lecturE
pur ]i simplu DncJntEtoare!
Iharacters
O
L'c. H#ne.ch'!ch " A young woman from .urrey who doesn-t /now what she wants! 1er
piano s/ills show that she has potential for great passions and the ability to recogniBe truth even
if it means brea/ing the social codes that are e7pected of her! .he grows into a woman through
the course of the boo/, choosing to follow the true instincts of love $as represented by George*
over the tedious falsities perpetuated by pretentious upper class society $as represented in Iecil*!
+ha!l#$$e 8a!$le$$ " Lucy-s older, poorer cousin and an old maid, Iharlotte accompanies Lucy
to Italy as a chaperone, and attempts to uphold what is =proper!= .he has old"fashioned notions
and does not approve of the mersons! .he seems to conspire against the happiness of everyone
with her tiresome and cloying manner, but in the end, she mysteriously assists Lucy to pass into
final marital happiness!
5e#!&e Eme!s#n " A young man with a passionate desire for truth, and at the beginning of the
boo/, a faltering hopelessness that life is not actually worth living! Though he is of a lower social
class, he falls in love with Lucy in Italy, and she becomes a beacon of hope to him in his search
for Moy and meaning! 1e encourages her not to marry Iecil and helps her to follow the true ways
of her heart!
M!. Eme!s#n " <escribed, alternately, as being both ungentlemanly and beautiful, Mr! merson
means well but constantly offends proper societal conventions with his abrupt manner of
spea/ing and his blatant honestly! An avid reader, he espouses liberal values, and also plays a
role in helping Lucy to surrender herself to her true desires even if it means violating social
taboos! 1is wife is dead!
+ecil ,.se " The disli/able man who becomes Lucy-s fiance for a short period of time! Iecil is
pretentious and despises all the country people of Lucy-s town, finding them unsophisticated and
coarse in comparison to the affluent London society he is used to! 1e sees Lucy not for herself
but as an abstract vision that he has hung upon her! 1e treats people without /indness or respect!
Iecil tries to be authoritarian and manly, but is actually aw/ward and self"conscious!
M!s. H#ne.ch'!ch " Lucy-s cheerful, tal/ative, good"natured, and warm"hearted mother, who
always says what-s on her mind! 1er husband is dead!
M!. 8ee/e " The rector in Lucy-s town, a tactful and pleasant man who aims to use his influence
to help various characters! 1e ta/es a li/ing to those who are honest, but sees the good in almost
everyone! 1e supports Lucy all through the boo/ until she decides to marry George, when he
oddly turns against the idea!
(!e--. " Lucy-s younger brother, who is energetic and loves tennis, swimming, and the study of
anatomy! 1e disli/es Iecil and li/es George!
159
%he Miss Alans " :sually referred to in the plural, these two old spinster sisters, Iatharine and
Teresa Alan, stay at the same pension as Lucy and the others in 6lorence! They are mild"
mannered and very proper, but they have an adventurous strea/ that will eventually ta/e them
traveling all over the world!
Miss La*ish " An ostentatious writer who also stays in the same pension in 6lorence, and hopes
to write novels about Italian life! .he is outspo/en and clever, but also abrasive! .he despises
nglish people traveling abroad and believes she alone /nows the =true= Italy? however, her
unconventionality falls very close to conventional ideas!
M!. Ea&e! " The 4ritish chaplain in 6lorence! 1e is rude to Italians, un/ind to the mersons,
and perpetuates a false rumor that Mr! merson murdered his wife!
Minnie " Mr! 4eebe-s rambunctious 1)"year"old niece, who stays with the 1oneychurches
during a diphtheria epidemic!
Si! Ha!!. 2$3a. " A local in Lucy-s town who buys the two villas, Iissie and Albert,
subse>uently letting one out to the mersons!
12. Joyce James:
A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
Context

3ames 3oyce was born on 6ebruary %, 100%, in the town of 8athgar, near <ublin, Ireland! 1e was
the oldest of ten children born to a well"meaning but financially inept father and a solemn, pious
mother! 3oyce-s parents managed to scrape together enough money to send their talented son to
the Ilongowes #ood Iollege, a prestigious boarding school, and then to 4elvedere Iollege,
where 3oyce e7celled as an actor and writer! Later, he attended :niversity Iollege in <ublin,
where he became increasingly committed to language and literature as a champion of
Modernism! In 15;%, 3oyce left the university and moved to 9aris, but briefly returned to Ireland
in 15;) upon the death of his mother! .hortly after his mother-s death, 3oyce began wor/ on the
story that would later become A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man7
9ublished in serial form in 1514(151', A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man draws on many
details from 3oyce-s early life! The novel-s protagonist, .tephen <edalus, is in many ways 3oyce-s
fictional double@3oyce had even published stories under the pseudonym =.tephen <aedalus=
before writing the novel! Li/e 3oyce himself, .tephen is the son of an impoverished father and a
highly devout Iatholic mother! Also li/e 3oyce, he attends Ilongowes #ood, 4elvedere, and
:niversity Iolleges, struggling with >uestions of faith and nationality before leaving Ireland to
ma/e his own way as an artist! Many of the scenes in the novel are fictional, but some of its most
powerful moments are autobiographical2 both the Ihristmas dinner scene and .tephen-s first
se7ual e7perience with the <ublin prostitute closely resemble actual events in 3oyce-s life!
In addition to drawing heavily on 3oyce-s personal life, A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man
also ma/es a number of references to the politics and religion of early"twentieth"century Ireland!
#hen 3oyce was growing up, Ireland had been under 4ritish rule since the si7teenth century, and
tensions between Ireland and 4ritain had been especially high since the potato blight of 104'! In
addition to political strife, there was considerable religious tension2 the maMority of Irish,
including the 3oyces, were Iatholics, and strongly favored Irish independence! The 9rotestant
minority, on the other hand, mostly wished to remain united with 4ritain!
160
Around the time 3oyce was born, the Irish nationalist Iharles .tewart 9arnell was spearheading
the movement for Irish independence! In 105;, however, 9arnell-s longstanding affair with a
married woman was e7posed, leading the Iatholic Ihurch to condemn him and causing many of
his former followers to turn against him! Many Irish nationalists blamed 9arnell-s death, which
occurred only a year later, on the Iatholic Ihurch! Indeed, we see these strong opinions about
9arnell surface in A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man during an emotional Ihristmas dinner
argument among members of the <edalus family! 4y 15;;, the Irish people felt largely united in
demanding freedom from 4ritish rule! In A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man& the young
.tephen-s friends at :niversity Iollege fre>uently confront him with political >uestions about
this struggle between Ireland and ngland!
After completing A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man in curich in 151', 3oyce returned to
9aris, where he wrote two more maMor novels, :l'sses and 8innegans @a*e& over the course of
the ne7t several years! These three novels, along with a short story collection, Du;liners& form
the core of his remar/able literary career! 1e died in 1541!
Today, 3oyce is celebrated as one of the great literary pioneers of the twentieth century! 1e was
one of the first writers to ma/e e7tensive and convincing use of stream of consciousness, a
stylistic form in which written prose see/s to represent the characters- stream of inner thoughts
and perceptions rather than render these characters from an obMective, e7ternal perspective! This
techni>ue, used in A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man mostly during the opening sections
and in Ihapter ', sometimes ma/es for difficult reading! #ith effort, however, the seemingly
Mumbled perceptions of stream of consciousness can crystalliBe into a coherent and sophisticated
portrayal of a character-s e7perience!
Another stylistic techni>ue for which 3oyce is noted is the epiphany, a moment in which a
character ma/es a sudden, profound realiBation@whether prompted by an e7ternal obMect or a
voice from within@that creates a change in his or her perception of the world! 3oyce uses
epiphany most notably in Du;liners& but A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man is full of these
sudden moments of spiritual revelation as well! Most notable is a scene in which .tephen sees a
young girl wading at the beach, which stri/es him with the sudden realiBation that an
appreciation for beauty can be truly good! This moment is a classic e7ample of 3oyce-s belief that
an epiphany can dramatically alter the human spirit in a matter of Must a few seconds!
Plot Overview

A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man tells the story of .tephen <edalus, a boy growing up in
Ireland at the end of the nineteenth century, as he gradually decides to cast off all his social,
familial, and religious constraints to live a life devoted to the art of writing! As a young boy,
.tephen-s Iatholic faith and Irish nationality heavily influence him! 1e attends a strict religious
boarding school called Ilongowes #ood Iollege! At first, .tephen is lonely and homesic/ at the
school, but as time passes he finds his place among the other boys! 1e enMoys his visits home,
even though family tensions run high after the death of the Irish political leader Iharles .tewart
9arnell! This sensitive subMect becomes the topic of a furious, politically charged argument over
the family-s Ihristmas dinner!
.tephen-s father, .imon, is inept with moneymoney , and the family sin/s deeper and deeper
into debt! After a summer spent in the company of his :ncle Iharles, .tephen learns that the
family cannot afford to send him bac/ to Ilongowes, and that they will instead move to <ublin!
.tephen starts attending a prestigious day school called 4elvedere, where he grows to e7cel as a
161
writer and as an actor in the student theater! 1is first se7ual e7perience, with a young <ublin
prostitute, unleashes a storm of guilt and shame in .tephen, as he tries to reconcile his physical
desires with the stern Iatholic morality of his surroundings! 6or a while, he ignores his religious
upbringing, throwing himself with debauched abandon into a variety of sins@masturbation,
gluttony, and more visits to prostitutes, among others! Then, on a three"day religious retreat,
.tephen hears a trio of fiery sermons about sin, Mudgment, and hell! <eeply sha/en, the young
man resolves to rededicate himself to a life of Ihristian piety!
.tephen begins attending Mass every day, becoming a model of Iatholic piety, abstinence, and
self"denial! 1is religious devotion is so pronounced that the director of his school as/s him to
consider entering the priesthood! After briefly considering the offer, .tephen realiBes that the
austerity of the priestly life is utterly incompatible with his love for sensual beauty! That day,
.tephen learns from his sister that the family will be moving, once again for financial reasons!
An7iously awaiting news about his acceptance to the university, .tephen goes for a wal/ on the
beach, where he observes a young girl wading in the tide! 1e is struc/ by her beauty, and
realiBes, in a moment of epiphany, that the love and desire of beauty should not be a source of
shame! .tephen resolves to live his life to the fullest, and vows not to be constrained by the
boundaries of his family, his nation, and his religion!
.tephen moves on to the university, where he develops a number of strong friendships, and is
especially close with a young man named Iranly! In a series of conversations with his
companions, .tephen wor/s to formulate his theories about art! #hile he is dependent on his
friends as listeners, he is also determined to create an independent e7istence, liberated from the
e7pectations of friends and family! 1e becomes more and more determined to free himself from
all limiting pressures, and eventually decides to leave Ireland to escape them! Li/e his namesa/e,
the mythical <aedalus, .tephen hopes to build himself wings on which he can fly above all
obstacles and achieve a life as an artist!
3ames 3oyce nu e u]or de citit! 8omanele sale T:liseL ]i TFeghea lui 6inneganL sunt cea mai
buna dovadE cE este a]a! Insu]i scriitorul irlandeB recunoa]te cE are un stil dificil! Intr"un interviu
spunea cE a ales o asemenea abordare Dn romanele sale
O $a sD le dau de lu$ru $riti$ilor "e urmDtorii trei sute de aniP7
8omanul T9ortret al artistului Dn tinere^eL e altceva! $relativ* u]or de citit! 7plicabil, intr"un
fel, dacE ne gJndim cE Dntre T9ortret al artistuluieL ]i TFeghea lui 6inneganL au trecut mai mult
de douEBeci de ani!
In romanul pe care vi"l preBint aBi, 3oyce ne descrie evolu^ia unui tJnEr $.tephen <edalus* de la
primii ani de via^E, pJnE la maturitate! Iitindu"l pe 3oyce, regEsim candidele DntrebEri pe care ]i
noi ni le"am pus Dn copilErie!

O!oEi ;DieEii ii "Dreau %oarte $iudaEi7 !oEi aveau taEi Ci mame& Ci %ie$are avea alte haine Ci alt
glas7P
O!ot mai In$er$a sD gDseas$D rDs"unsul $ore$t7 Cum era ;ineH s-o sDruEi "e mama sau sD n-o
sDruEi- !u ridi$ai %aEa& aCa& $a sD s"ui noa"te ;unD Ci atun$i mama ICi a"le$a %aEa7 Asta era
sDrutul7 Mama ICi "unea ;uFele "e o;raFul tDu> ;uFele ei erau moi Ci-Ei umeFeau o;raFul& Ci
%D$eau un Fgomot mi$uEH Eo$7 De $e or %i %D$Bnd oamenii aCa $u %eEele lor-P
Micul .tephen cre]te ]i e trimis de pErin^i sE inve^e la Iolegiul Ilongowes, unde trebuie sE stea
la internat ]i sE se adapteBe regimului strict de acolo! 9edepsele corporale erau ceva obi]nuit!
Aici eroul romanului nu scapE de ele, de]i au fost primite pe nedrept! 8ecunoa]te DnsE cE au fost
ocaBii cJnd ar fi meritat sE fie pedepsit, dar n"a fost prinse
162
O "lesniturD %ier;inte& arFBnd&usturBnd& trosni Fgomotos Ci-i %D$u mBna tremurBndD sD se
FgBr$eas$D asemenea unei %runFe FvBrlite In %o$7 QLR !ot tru"ul Ii era FgBlEBit de s"aimD& ;raEul
Ii tremura& iar mBna $hir$itD& lividD Ci In$insD tremura $um tremura In aer o %runFD des"rinsD7P
9artea bunE a lucrurilor era cE perioadele petrecute la colegiu erau repede date uitErii Dn timpul
vacan^elor! Alternan^a ]coalE"vacan^E .tephen o vede Dn felul urmEtor2
O+ntBi venea va$anEa Ci "e urmD trimestrul urmDtor Ci "e urmD iar va$anEa Ci "e urmD iar alt
trimestru Ci "e urmD iar va$anEa7 Era $a un tren $are intrD In tunele Ci iese din tunele7P
In timpul rugEciunilor alEturi de colegii sEi, mintea neobositE a micului .tephen inventeaBE fel de
fel de situa^ii speciale2
OLmintea lui Cer"uia "rintre $iudatele "ro;leme $e i se "ro"uneau& s%redelindu-le Ci "DrDsindu-
le iar7 Da$D atun$i $Bnd ;oteaFD un lai$& a$esta toarnD a"D Inainte de a rosti $uvintele& este
$o"ilul ;oteFat- ,oteFul la $are s-ar %olosi a"a mineralD ar %i vala;il-P
9Ererea despre profesorii DntJlni^i la colegiu e favorabilE2
OLei Il InvDEaserD do$trina $reCtinD Ci-l Im;oldiserD sD du$D o viaED drea"tD& iar $Bnd $DFuse In
"D$at greu& ei Il aduseserD la starea de harP
Irescut Dntr"o atmosferE religioasE, eroul romanului D]i aminte]te de rugEciunile pe care le fEcea
alEturi de unchil sEu Iharles2
OSte"hen sta Ingenun$heat lDngD el& res"e$tBndu-i "ietatea %DrD s-o Im"DrtDCeas$D 7 Adesea se
Intre;a $u mirare $e Ii $erea $erului $u atBta gravitate ;DtrBnul sDu un$hi7 Poate se ruga "entru
su%letele din "urgatoriu sau "entru harul unei morEi uCoare sau "oate se ruga lui DumneFeu sD
se Indure a-i da Ina"oi o "arte din averea $ea mare "e $are o risi"ise la Cor*7P
Anii trec ]i .tephen Dncepe sE Dn^eleagE faptul cE2
OCeasul $Bnd Ci el avea sD ia "arte la viaEa a$estei lumi "Drea sD se a"ro"ie Ci& In tainD& In$e"ea
a se "regDti "entru rolul $el mare $e simEea $D-l aCtea"tD & a $Drui naturD n-o intuia de$Bt In
$hi" tul;ure7P
Apar, pe rJnd, primul flirt ]i apoi momentele firbin^i ale dragostei2
O!oatD Fiua nu se gBndise de$Bt la des"DrEirea lor "e tre"tele tramvaiului In Harold#s Cross& la
Cuvoiul de emoEie Ci mBhnire $e-l strD;Dtuse Ci la "oemul $e-l s$risese atun$i7 (e$hea melan$olie
Ci neliniCte Ii um"luse iar inima& QLR dar nu-Ci gDsise revDrsare In versuri7 +naintarea In vBrstD
Ci $unoaCtere a doi ani de adoles$enED sta Intre atun$i Ci a$um& neIngDduind o asemenea
revDrsare7P
Trecerea de la dragostea meditativE la cea carnalE nu se face u]or2
OSe Intoarse $Dtre alinarea a"rigelor doruri ale inimii lui& Inaintea $Drora tot restul era inutil Ci
strDin7 Pe lBngD sDl;ati$a dorinED din el de a Im"lini enormitDEile "e $are le $lo$ea gBndul lui&
nimi$ nu era s%Bnt7 Se Im"D$a $ini$ $u ruCinoasele amDnunte ale taini$elor lui des%rBuri& In $are
e=ulta "BngDrind $u rD;dare ori$e $hi" $e-i atrDsese "rivirea7P
Intr"o Bi, Ola IntBiul lui "D$at violent simEise o undD de vitalitate revDrsBndu-se din el Ci se
temuse $D-Ci va a%la tru"ul sau su%letul s$hilodit de e=$es7P
Ii este greu sE reBiste unor asemenea tenta^iie
OAvea sD trea$D "e lBngD ele $alm& aCte"tBnd o miC$are ;rus$D a voinEei sale sau o $hemare
;rus$D a $Drnii lor mDtDsoase Ci "ar%umate & trimisD su%letului sDu iu;itor de "D$at7P
AMuns la maturitate, .tephen percepe altfel toate trEirile ]i emo^iile copilEriei2
OSuieratul lui tai$D-sDu& ;odogDnelile mai$D-sii& Ei"Dtul unei smintite nevDFute erau a$um "entru
el tot atDtea glasuri $are Ii Aigneau mBndria tinereEii Ci ameninEau sD i-o umileas$D7P
I]i caracteriBeaBa tatEl astfel2
163
OStudent la medi$inD& as In $anotaA& tenor& a$tor amator& "oliti$ian Fgomotos& mi$ "ro"rietar& mi$
rentier& ;Dutor& ;Diat ;un& "ovestitor de ane$dote& se$retarul nu Ctiu $ui& nu Ctiu $e Intr-o
distilerie& "er$e"tor de im"oFite& %alit Ci In "reFent a"ologet al tre$utului sDu7P
Intrebat dacE se teme de <umneBeul romano"catolicilor dacE ar face o DmpErtE]anie nelegiuitE,
spune2
OLmD tem de rea$Eia $himi$D $e s-ar "rodu$e In su%letul meu "rintr-un omagiu %als adus unui
sim;ol IndDrDtul $Druia sunt a$umulate douDFe$i de se$ole de autoritate Ci veneraEie7P
Traseul vie^ii lui .tephen <edalus e, Dntr"o formE sau alta, al fiecEruia dintre noi! <e la perioada
copilEriei, cJnd faci ceea ce ^i se spune sE faci, la perioada adolescen^ei cJnd Dncepi sE veBi
lumea cu minta ta, la maturitate, cJnd calea pe care o vei urma in via^E e bine conturatE! IJt de
largE sau cJt de lungE e aceasta, depinde de activitatea noastrE Dn ]coalE ]i de atitudinea pErin^ilor
fa^E de noi Dn primii ani de via^E!
9JnE la urmE, .tephen D]i alege singur calea pe care s"o urmeBe Dn via^E! Cbserva^i cE numele lui
de familie e <edalus, nu Icarus! Au cred cE 3ames 3oyce a ales DntJmplEtor acest numeX


Chara)ter 6ist

Stehen De,al3s - The 'ain )hara)ter o A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.
4rowin$ #*& 7te*hen $oes thro#$h lon$ *hases o he!onis' an! !ee* reli$iosit+- %e
event#all+ a!o*ts a *hiloso*h+ o aestheti)is'& $reatl+ val#in$ bea#t+ an! art-
7te*hen is essentiall+ 5o+)eMs alter e$o& an! 'an+ o the events o 7te*henMs lie
'irror events ro' 5o+)eMs own +o#th-
8ead an in"depth analysis of .tephen <edalus!
Si>!n De,al3s - 7te*henMs ather& an i'*overishe! or'er 'e!i)al st#!ent with
a stron$ sense o 8rish *atriotis'- 7enti'ental abo#t his *ast& 7i'on =e!al#s
reA#entl+ re'inis)es abo#t his +o#th-
8ead an in"depth analysis of .imon <edalus!
5ar/ De,al3s - 7te*henMs 'other an! 7i'on =e!al#sMs wie- 0ar+ is ver+
reli$io#s& an! ar$#es with her son abo#t atten!in$ reli$io#s servi)es-
The De,al3s Chil,ren - Tho#$h his siblin$s !o not *la+ a 'aFor role in the novel&
7te*hen has several brothers an! sisters& in)l#!in$ 0a#ri)e& Rate+& 0a$$ie& an!
@oo!+-
+>>a Cler/ - 7te*henMs belove!& the +o#n$ $irl to who' he is 3er)el+ attra)te!
over the )o#rse o 'an+ +ears- 7te*hen )onstr#)ts (''a as an i!eal o e'ininit+&
even tho#$h he !oes not ,now her well-
8ead an in"depth analysis of mma Ilery!
5r. 6!hn Case/ - 7i'on =e!al#sMs rien!& who atten!s the Christ'as !inner at
whi)h +o#n$ 7te*hen is allowe! to sit with the a!#lts or the 3rst ti'e- 6i,e 7i'on&
0r- Case+ is a sta#n)h believer in 8rish nationalis'& an! at the !inner he ar$#es with
=ante=ante over the ate o Parnell-
Charles Ste1art Parnell - ?n 8rish *oliti)al lea!er who is not an a)t#al )hara)ter
in the novel& b#t whose !eath in9#en)es 'an+ o its )hara)ters- Parnell ha!
164
*ower#ll+ le! the 8rish .ational Part+ #ntil he was )on!e'ne! or havin$ an a/air
with a 'arrie! wo'an-
8ead an in"depth analysis of Iharles .tewart 9arnell!
DanteDante ?5rs. Ri!r,an@ - The extre'el+ ervent an! *io#sl+ Catholi)
$overness o the =e!al#s )hil!ren- =ante=ante & whose real na'e is 0rs- Pior!an&
be)o'es involve! in a lon$ an! #n*leasant ar$#'ent with 0r- Case+ over the ate
o Parnell !#rin$ Christ'as !inner-
Uncle Charles - 7te*henMs livel+ $reat #n)le- Charles lives with 7te*henMs a'il+-
=#rin$ the s#''er& the +o#n$ 7te*hen enFo+s ta,in$ lon$ wal,s with his #n)le an!
listenin$ to Charles an! 7i'on !is)#ss the histor+ o both 8relan! an! the =e!al#s
a'il+-
+ileen Aance - ? +o#n$ $irl who lives near 7te*hen when he is a +o#n$ bo+- "hen
7te*hen tells =ante=ante that he wants to 'arr+ (ileen& =ante is enra$e!
be)a#se (ileen is a Protestant-
7ather C!n>ee - The re)tor at Clon$owes "oo! Colle$e& where 7te*hen atten!s
s)hool as a +o#n$ bo+-
7ather D!lan - The )r#el *ree)t o st#!ies at Clon$owes "oo! Colle$e-
Bells - The b#ll+ at Clon$owes- "ells ta#nts 7te*hen or ,issin$ his 'other beore
he $oes to be!& an! one !a+ he *#shes 7te*hen into a 3lth+ )ess*ool& )a#sin$
7te*hen to )at)h a ba! ever-
Ath/ - ? rien!l+ bo+ who' 7te*hen 'eets in the in3r'ar+ at Clon$owes- ?th+
li,es 7te*hen =e!al#s be)a#se the+ both have #n#s#al na'es-
Cr!ther 5ichael - The ,in!l+ brother who ten!s to 7te*hen an! ?th+ in the
Clon$owes in3r'ar+ ater "ells *#shes 7te*hen into the )ess*ool-
7le>in- - One o 7te*henMs rien!s at Clon$owes-
7ather Arnall - 7te*henMs stern 6atin tea)her at Clon$owes- 6ater& when 7te*hen
is at @elve!ere Colle$e& 2ather ?rnall !elivers a series o le)t#res on !eath an! hell
that have a *roo#n! in9#en)e on 7te*hen-
5i0e 7l/nn - ? rien! o 7i'on =e!al#sMs who tries& with little s#))ess& to train
7te*hen to be a r#nner !#rin$ their s#''er at @la),ro),-
A34re/ 5ills - ? +o#n$ bo+ with who' 7te*hen *la+s i'a$inar+ a!vent#re $a'es
at @la),ro),-
Aincent )er!n - ? rival o 7te*henMs at @elve!ere-
C!lan, an, Nash - Two s)hool'ates o 7te*henMs at @elve!ere& who ta#nt an!
b#ll+ hi'-
Cranl/ - 7te*henMs best rien! at the #niversit+& in who' he )on3!es his tho#$hts
an! eelin$s- 8n this sense& Cranl+ re*resents a se)#lar )onessor or 7te*hen-
(vent#all+& Cranl+ be$ins to en)o#ra$e 7te*hen to )onor' to the wishes o his
a'il+ an! to tr+ har!er to 3t in with his *eersOa!vi)e that 7te*hen 3er)el+
resents-
8ead an in"depth analysis of Iranly!
Da;in - ?nother o 7te*henMs rien!s at the #niversit+- =avin )o'es ro' the 8rish
*rovin)es an! has a si'*le& soli! nat#re- 7te*hen a!'ires his talent or athleti)s&
165
b#t !isa$rees with his #nA#estionin$ 8rish *atriotis'& whi)h =avin en)o#ra$es
7te*hen to a!o*t-
./nch - ?nother o 7te*henMs rien!s at the #niversit+& a )oarse an! oten
#n*leasantl+ !r+ +o#n$ 'an- 6+n)h is *oorer than 7te*hen- 7te*hen ex*lains his
theor+ o aestheti)s to 6+n)h in Cha*ter 5-
5cCann - ? 3er)el+ *oliti)al st#!ent at the #niversit+ who tries to )onvin)e
7te*hen to be 'ore )on)erne! with *oliti)s-
Te>le - ? +o#n$ 'an at the #niversit+ who o*enl+ a!'ires 7te*henMs ,een
in!e*en!en)e an! tries to )o*+ his i!eas an! senti'ents-
Dean !D St3,ies - ? 5es#it *riest at Gniversit+ Colle$e-
6!hnn/ Cash>an - ? rien! o 7i'on =e!al#s-
%hemes
%he 1e*el#men$ #) In-i*i-'al +#nsci#'sness
9erhaps the most famous aspect of A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man is 3oyce-s innovative
use of stream of consciousness, a style in which the author directly transcribes the thoughts and
sensations that go through a character-s mind, rather than simply describing those sensations
from the e7ternal standpoint of an observer! 3oyce-s use of stream of consciousness ma/es A
Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man a story of the development of .tephen-s mind! In the first
chapter, the very young .tephen is only capable of describing his world in simple words and
phrases! The sensations that he e7periences are all Mumbled together with a child-s lac/ of
attention to cause and effect! Later, when .tephen is a teenager obsessed with religion, he is able
to thin/ in a clearer, more adult manner! 9aragraphs are more logically ordered than in the
opening sections of the novel, and thoughts progress logically! .tephen-s mind is more mature
and he is now more coherently aware of his surroundings! Aonetheless, he still trusts blindly in
the church, and his passionate emotions of guilt and religious ecstasy are so strong that they get
in the way of rational thought! It is only in the final chapter, when .tephen is in the university,
that he seems truly rational! 4y the end of the novel, 3oyce renders a portrait of a mind that has
achieved emotional, intellectual, and artistic adulthood!
The development of .tephen-s consciousness in A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man is
particularly interesting because, insofar as .tephen is a portrait of 3oyce himself, .tephen-s
development gives us insight into the development of a literary genius! .tephen-s e7periences
hint at the influences that transformed 3oyce himself into the great writer he is considered today2
.tephen-s obsession with language? his strained relations with religion, family, and culture? and
his dedication to forging an aesthetic of his own mirror the ways in which 3oyce related to the
various tensions in his life during his formative years! In the last chapter of the novel, we also learn that
genius, though in many ways a calling, also re>uires great wor/ and considerable sacrifice! #atching
.tephen-s daily struggle to puBBle out his aesthetic philosophy, we get a sense of the great tas/ that awaits
him!
%he Pi$)alls #) Reli&i#'s E6$!emism
4rought up in a devout Iatholic family, .tephen initially ascribes to an absolute belief in the morals of
the church! As a teenager, this belief leads him to two opposite e7tremes, both of which are harmful! At
first, he falls into the e7treme of sin, repeatedly sleeping with prostitutes and deliberately turning his bac/
on religion! Though .tephen sins willfully, he is always aware that he acts in violation of the church-s
rules! Then, when 6ather Arnall-s speech prompts him to return to Iatholicism, he bounces to the other
e7treme, becoming a perfect, near fanatical model of religious devotion and obedience! ventually,
however, .tephen realiBes that both of these lifestyles@the completely sinful and the completely devout
@are e7tremes that have been false and harmful! 1e does not want to lead a completely debauched life,
166
but also reMects austere Iatholicism because he feels that it does not permit him the full e7perience of
being human! .tephen ultimately reaches a decision to embrace life and celebrate humanity after seeing a
young girl wading at a beach! To him, the girl is a symbol of pure goodness and of life lived to the fullest!
%he R#le #) $he A!$is$
A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man e7plores what it means to become an artist! .tephen-s decision at
the end of the novel@to leave his family and friends behind and go into e7ile in order to become an artist
@suggests that 3oyce sees the artist as a necessarily isolated figure! In his decision, .tephen turns his
bac/ on his community, refusing to accept the constraints of political involvement, religious devotion, and
family commitment that the community places on its members!
1owever, though the artist is an isolated figure, .tephen-s ultimate goal is to give a voice to the very
community that he is leaving! In the last few lines of the novel, .tephen e7presses his desire to =forge in
the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race!= 1e recogniBes that his community will
always be a part of him, as it has created and shaped his identity! #hen he creatively e7presses his own
ideas, he will also convey the voice of his entire community! ven as .tephen turns his bac/ on the
traditional forms of participation and membership in a community, he envisions his writing as a service to
the community!
%he 7ee- )#! I!ish A'$#n#m.
<espite his desire to steer clear of politics, .tephen constantly ponders Ireland-s place in the world! 1e
concludes that the Irish have always been a subservient people, allowing outsiders to control them! In his
conversation with the dean of studies at the university, he realiBes that even the language of the Irish
people really belongs to the nglish! .tephen-s perception of Ireland-s subservience has two effects on his
development as an artist! 6irst, it ma/es him determined to escape the bonds that his Irish ancestors have
accepted! As we see in his conversation with <avin, .tephen feels an an7ious need to emerge from his
Irish heritage as his own person, free from the shac/les that have traditionally confined his country2 =<o
you fancy I am going to pay in my own life and person debts they madeS= .econd, .tephen-s perception
ma/es him determined to use his art to reclaim autonomy for Ireland! :sing the borrowed language of
nglish, he plans to write in a style that will be both autonomous from ngland and true to the Irish
people!
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the te7t-s
maMor themes!
M#$i)s
M'sic
Music, especially singing, appears repeatedly throughout A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man7
.tephen-s appreciation of music is closely tied to his love for the sounds of language! As a very young
child, he turns <ante-s threats into a song, = +A,pologise, pull out his eyes, pull out his eyes, apologise!=
.inging is more than Must language, however@it is language transformed by vibrant humanity! Indeed,
music appeals to the part of .tephen that wants to live life to the fullest! #e see this aspect of music near
the end of the novel, when .tephen suddenly feels at peace upon hearing a woman singing! 1er voice
prompts him to recall his resolution to leave Ireland and become a writer, reinforcing his determination to
celebrate life through writing!
(li&h$
.tephen <edalus-s very name embodies the idea of flight! .tephen-s namesa/e, <aedalus, is a figure from
Gree/ mythology, a renowned craftsman who designs the famed Labyrinth of Irete for Qing Minos!
Minos /eeps <aedalus and his son Icarus imprisoned on Irete, but <aedalus ma/es plans to escape by
using feathers, twine, and wa7 to fashion a set of wings for himself and his son! <aedalus escapes
successfully, but Icarus flies too high! The sun-s heat melts the wa7 holding Icarus-s wings together, and
he plummets to his death in the sea!
In the conte7t of A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung Man& we can see .tephen as representative of both
<aedalus and Icarus, as .tephen-s father also has the last name of <edalus! #ith this mythological
reference, 3oyce implies that .tephen must always balance his desire to flee Ireland with the danger of
overestimating his own abilities@the intellectual e>uivalent of Icarus-s flight too close to the sun! To
167
diminish the dangers of attempting too much too soon, .tephen bides his time at the university,
developing his aesthetic theory fully before attempting to leave Ireland and write seriously! The birds that
appear to .tephen in the third section of Ihapter ' signal that it is finally time for .tephen, now fully
formed as an artist, to ta/e flight himself!
P!a.e!s< Sec'la! S#n&s< an- La$in Ph!ases
#e can often tell .tephen-s state of mind by loo/ing at the fragments of prayers, songs, and Latin phrases
that 3oyce inserts into the te7t! #hen .tephen is a schoolboy, 3oyce includes childish, sincere prayers that
mirror the manner in which a child might devoutly believe in the church, even without understanding the
meaning of its religious doctrine! #hen .tephen prays in church despite the fact that he has committed a
mortal sin, 3oyce transcribes a long passage of the Latin prayer, but it is clear that .tephen merely spea/s
the words without believing them! Then, when .tephen is at the university, Latin is used as a Mo/e@his
friends translate collo>uial phrases li/e =peace over the whole bloody globe= into Latin because they find
the academic sound of the translation amusing! This Mocular use of Latin moc/s both the young men-s
education and the stern, serious manner in which Latin is used in the church! These linguistic Mo/es
demonstrate that .tephen is no longer serious about religion! 6inally, 3oyce includes a few lines from the
Irish fol/ song =8osie C-Grady= near the end of the novel! These simple lines reflect the peaceful feeling
that the song brings to .tephen and Iranly, as well as the traditional Irish culture that .tephen plans to
leave behind! Throughout the novel, such prayers, songs, and phrases form the bac/ground of .tephen-s
life!
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
S.m/#ls
5!een an- Ma!##n
.tephen associates the colors green and maroon with his governess, <ante<ante , and with two leaders
of the Irish resistance, Iharles 9arnell and Michael <avitt! In a dream after 9arnell-s death, .tephen sees
<ante dressed in green and maroon as the Irish people mourn their fallen leader! This vision indicates that
.tephen associates the two colors with the way Irish politics are played out among the members of his
own family!
Emma
mma appears only in glimpses throughout most of .tephen-s young life, and he never gets to /now her
as a person! Instead, she becomes a symbol of pure love, untainted by se7uality or reality! .tephen
worships mma as the ideal of feminine purity! #hen he goes through his devoutly religious phase, he
imagines his reward for his piety as a union with mma in heaven! It is only later, when he is at the
university, that we finally see a real conversation between .tephen and mma! .tephen-s diary entry
regarding this conversation portrays mma as a real, friendly, and somewhat ordinary girl, but certainly
not the goddess .tephen earlier ma/es her out to be! This more balanced view of mma mirrors
.tephen-s abandonment of the e7tremes of complete sin and complete devotion in favor of a
middle path, the devotion to the appreciation of beauty!
The Dubliners
Context

3ames 3oyce was born into a middle"class, Iatholic family in 8athgar, a suburb of <ublin, on
6ebruary %, 100%! The familyPs prosperity dwindled soon after 3oycePs birth, forcing them to
move from their comfortable home to the unfashionable and impoverished area of Aorth <ublin!
Aonetheless, 3oyce attended a prestigious 3esuit school and went on to study philosophy and
languages at :niversity Iollege, <ublin! 1e moved to 9aris after graduation in 15;% to pursue
medical school, but instead he turned his attention to writing! In 15;) he returned to <ublin,
where he met his future wife, Aora 4arnacle, the following year! 6rom then on, 3oyce made his
168
home in other countries! 6rom 15;' to 151' he and Aora lived in 8ome and Trieste, Italy, and
from 151' to 1515 they lived in curich, .witBerland! 4etween #orld #ar I and #orld #ar II,
they lived in 9aris! They returned to curich in 154;, where 3oyce died in 1541!
In 15;7, at the age of twenty"five, 3oyce published Cham;er Musi$, a collection of poetry!
9reviously, hePd also written a short"story collection, Du;liners, which was published in 1514!
Though 3oyce had written the boo/ years earlier, the stories contained characters and events that
were alarmingly similar to real people and places, raising concerns about libel! 3oyce indeed
based many of the characters in Du;liners on real people, and such suggestive details, coupled
with the boo/Ps historical and geographical precision and piercing e7amination of relationships,
flustered an7ious publishers! 3oycePs autobiographical novel A Portrait o% the Artist as a )oung
Man followed Du;liners in 151&, and a play, E=iles, followed in 1510! 3oyce is most famous for
his later e7perimental novels, :l'sses $15%%*, which maps the <ublin wanderings of its
protagonist in a single day, and 8innegans @a*e $15)5*! These two wor/s emblematiBe his
signature stream"of"consciousness prose style, which mirrors charactersP thoughts without the
limitations of traditional narrative, a style he didnPt use in Du;liners!
Ireland permeates all of 3oycePs writing, especially Ireland during the tumultuous early twentieth
century! The political scene at that time was uncertain but hopeful, as Ireland sought
independence from Great 4ritain! The nationalist Iharles .tewart 9arnell, who became active in
the 107;s, had reinvigorated Irish politics with his proposed 1ome 8ule 4ill, which aimed to
give Ireland a greater voice in 4ritish government! 9arnell, dubbed the T:ncrowned Qing of
Ireland,L was hugely popular in Ireland, both for his anti"nglish views and his support of land
ownership for farmers! In 1005, however, his political career collapsed when his adulterous affair
with the married Qitty CP.hea was made public! QittyPs husband had /nown for years about the
affair, but instead of ma/ing it public, he attempted to use it to his political and financial
advantage! 1e waited until he filed for divorce to e7pose the affair! 4oth Ireland and ngland
were scandaliBed, 9arnell refused to resign, and his career never recovered! 9arnell died in 1051,
when 3oyce was nine years old!
In the last part of the nineteenth century, after 9arnellPs death, Ireland underwent a dramatic
cultural revival! Irish citiBens struggled to define what it meant to be Irish, and a movement
began to reinvigorate Irish language and culture! The movement celebrated Irish literature and
encouraged people to learn the Irish language, which many people were forgoing in favor of the
more modern nglish language! :ltimately, the cultural revival of the late nineteenth century
gave the Irish a greater sense of pride in their identity!
<espite the cultural revival, the bitter publicity surrounding 9arnellPs affair, and later his death,
dashed all hopes of Irish independence and unity! Ireland splintered into factions of 9rotestants
and Iatholics, Ionservatives and Aationalists! .uch social forces form a comple7 conte7t for
3oycePs writing, which repeatedly taps into political and religious matters! .ince 3oyce spent little
of his later life in Ireland, he did not witness such debates firsthand! 1owever, despite living on
the continent, 3oyce retained his artistic interest in the city and country of his birth and ably
articulated the Irish e7perience in his writings!
Du;liners contains fifteen portraits of life in the Irish capitalcapital ! 3oyce focuses on children
and adults who s/irt the middle class, such as housemaids, office cler/s, music teachers,
students, shop girls, swindlers, and out"of"luc/ businessmen! 3oyce envisioned his collection as a
loo/ing glass with which the Irish could observe and study themselves! In most of the stories,
3oyce uses a detached but highly perceptive narrative voice that displays these lives to the reader
in precise detail! 8ather than present intricate dramas with comple7 plots, these stories s/etch
169
daily situations in which not much seems to happen@a boy visits a baBaar, a woman buys sweets
for holiday festivities, a man reunites with an old friend over a few drin/s! Though these events
may not appear profound, the charactersP intensely personal and often tragic revelations certainly
are! The stories in Du;liners peer into the homes, hearts, and minds of people whose lives
connect and intermingle through the shared space and spirit of <ublin! A character from one
story will mention the name of a character in another story, and stories often have settings that
appear in other stories! .uch subtle connections create a sense of shared e7perience and evo/e a
map of <ublin life that 3oyce would return to again and again in his later wor/s!
Plot Overview

I%he Sis$e!sJ
A boy grapples with the death of a priest, 6ather 6lynn! #ith his aunt, the boy views the corpse
and visits with the priestPs mourning sisters! As the boy listens, the sisters e7plain 6ather 6lynnPs
death to the aunt and share thoughts about 6ather 6lynnPs increasingly strange behavior!
IAn Enc#'n$e!J
6ed up with the restraints of school and inspired by adventure stories, two boys s/ip their classes
to e7plore <ublin! After wal/ing around the city for a while, the unnamed narrator and his friend,
Mahony, eventually rest in a field! A strange old man approaches and tal/s to them, and his
se7ual innuendos ma/e the narrator uncomfortable! :ltimately, the narrator and Mahony manage
to escape!
IA!a/.J
A young boy falls in love with his neighbor ManganPs sister! 1e spends his time watching her
from his house or thin/ing about her! 1e and the girl finally tal/, and she suggests that he visit a
baBaar called Araby, which she cannot attend! The boy plans to go and purchase something for
the girl, but he arrives late and buys nothing!
IE*elineJ
A young woman, veline, sits in her house and reviews her decision to elope with her lover,
6ran/, to Argentina! veline wonders if she has made the correct choice to leave her home and
family! As the moment of departure approaches, she reaffirms her decision, but changes her mind
at the doc/s and abandons 6ran/!
IA)$e! $he RaceJ
3immy <oyle spends an evening and night with his well"connected foreign friends after watching
a car race outside of <ublin! :pon returning to the city, they meet for a fancy meal and then
spend hours drin/ing, dancing, and playing card games! Into7icated and infatuated with the
wealthwealth and prestige of his companions, 3immy ends the celebrations bro/e!
I%3# 5allan$sJ
Lenehan and Iorley wal/ through <ublin and discuss their plot to swindle a housemaid who
wor/s at a wealthy residence! Iorley meets with the girl while Lenehan drifts through the city
and eats a cheap meal! Later in the night Lenehan goes to the residence as planned and sees the
girl retrieve something from the house for Iorley! 6inally Iorley reveals to Lenehan that she
procured a gold coincoin for him!
I%he 8#a!-in& H#'seJ
In the boarding house that she runs, Mrs! Mooney observes the courtship between her daughter,
9olly, and a tenant, Mr! <oran! Mrs! Mooney intercedes only when she /nows Mr! <oran must
propose to 9olly, and she schedules a meeting with Mr! <oran to discuss his intentions! Mr!
170
<oran an7iously anticipates the conversation and the potential lifestyle change that awaits him!
1e resolves that he must marry 9olly!
IA Li$$le +l#'-J
Cne evening after wor/ Little Ihandler reunites with his old friend, Gallaher! Little Ihandler
aspires to be a poet, and hearing about GallaherPs career in London ma/es Little Ihandler
envious and determined to change his life! Little Ihandler imagines freedom from his wife and
child, but he feels ashamed about his thoughts and accepts his situation!
I+#'n$e!a!$sJ
After an infuriating day at wor/, 6arrington embar/s on an evening of drin/ing with his friends!
ven though 6arrington pawns his watch to replenish his empty wallet, he finds himself
spending all of his moneymoney on drin/s for himself and his companions! Growing more and
more frustrated, 6arrington almost e7plodes when he loses an arm"wrestling match! At home
later that night, 6arrington vents his anger by beating his son!
I+la.J
Cn 1alloween night, Maria oversees festivities at the charity where she wor/s! Afterward, she
travels to the home of 3oe <onnelly, whom she nursed when he was a boy! Along the way Maria
purchases sweets and ca/es for 3oePs family! #hen she arrives at the house, she realiBes she has
somehow lost the special plum ca/e shePd bought! After tal/ing, eating, and playing 1alloween
games, Maria sings a song for the <onnellys!
IA Pain)'l +aseJ
Mr! <uffy develops a relationship with Mrs! .inico at a concert in <ublin! The two meet often
for long chats and become close, but Mr! <uffy cuts off the relationship when Mrs! .inico ma/es
the intimate but chaste gesture of ta/ing Mr! <uffyPs hand and putting it against her chee/! 6our
years later, Mr! <uffy reads in a newspaper that Mrs! .inico has died in a train accident! 1e feels
angry, sad, and uneasy as he remembers her, and he finally realiBes he lost perhaps his only
chance for love!
II*. 1a. in $he +#mmi$$ee R##mJ
A group of men wor/ing as street promoters for a mayoral candidate meet to discuss their Mobs
and escape from the rainy weather on Ivy <ay, which commemorates the death of Iharles .tuart
9arnell, the influential Irish politician! The men complain about their late paychec/s and debate
politics! Ionversation eventually turns to 9arnell and his political endeavors, and one of the men,
1ynes, recites a poem he wrote in memory of him!
IA M#$he!J
An Irish cultural society organiBes a concert series with the help of Mrs! Qearney, the mother of
one of the performers! Mrs! Qearney secures a contract with the societyPs secretary, Mr! 1olohan,
so that her daughter is ensured payment for her piano accompaniment! A series of logistical
changes and failed e7pectations infuriate Mrs! Qearney, and she hounds the officers of the
society for the money, ma/ing a spectacle of herself and her daughter!
I5!aceJ
After an embarrassing public accident, Tom Qernan is convinced by his friends to attend a
Iatholic retreat! The men hope that this event will help Mr! Qernan reform his problematic,
alcoholic lifestyle! At the service, the presiding priest preaches about the need for the admission
of sins and the ability of all people to attain forgiveness through GodPs grace!
I%he 1ea-J
#ith his wife, Gretta, Gabriel Ionroy attends the annual dancing party hosted by his two aging
aunts, 3ulia and Qate Mor/an, and their niece, Mary 3ane! At the party, Gabriel e7periences some
171
uncomfortable confrontations! 1e ma/es a personal comment to Lily, the housemaid, that
provo/es a sharp reply, and during a dance he endures the taunts of his partner, Miss Ivors!
6inally, Gabriel sees Gretta enraptured by a song sung toward the end of the party! Later, he
learns that she was thin/ing of a former lover who had died for her! 1e sadly contemplates his
life!
Chara)ter 6ist

I%he Sis$e!sJ
EThe SistersF narrat!r - The reserve! an! )onte'*lative bo+ who !eals with the
!eath o his rien!& 2ather 2l+nn- The narrator avoi!s showin$ o#twar! e'otions to
his a'il+ 'e'bers& b#t he !evotes his tho#$hts to the *riest>s 'e'or+- Others in
the stor+ see the narrator>s relationshi* with the *riest as ina**ro*riate an!
ex*loitative& an! the narrator hi'sel see's #ns#re o what the *riest 'eant to
hi'-
7ather 7l/nn - The *riest who !ies in CThe 7isters-D 2ather 2l+nn>s a'bi$#o#s
*resen)e in the stor+ as a *otential )hil! 'olester initiates a boo,-lon$ )ritiA#e o
reli$io#s lea!ers& )onsistentl+ *ortra+in$ the' as in)o'*etent-
Gl, C!tter - The a'il+ rien! in CThe 7istersD who inor's the narrator o 2ather
2l+nn>s !eath- Ol! Cotter voi)es )on)ern abo#t the *riest>s intentions with the
narrator& b#t he avoi!s 'a,in$ an+ !ire)t state'ents-
IAn Enc#'n$e!J
EAn +nc!3nterF narrat!r - The +o#n$ bo+ who en!#res an aw,war!
)onversation with a *erverte! ol! 'an while s,i**in$ s)hool- @ore! with the
!r#!$er+ o lessons& the narrator !rea's o es)a*e- "hen i'a$inar+ $a'es ail to
#l3ll his +earnin$ or a!vent#re& he e'bar,s on a real one with his rien! 0ahon+
b+ s,i**in$ s)hool an! s*en!in$ the !a+ in =#blin& onl+ to en)o#nter ear-
5ah!n/ - The narrator>s )o'*anion in C?n (n)o#nter-D "hen 0ahon+ an! the
narrator rest in a 3el!3el! & a stran$e ol! 'an a**roa)hes the'- ?t one *oint
0ahon+ r#ns aw a+ ater a )at& leavin$ the narrator an! the ol! 'an alone-
IA!a/.J
EAra4/F narrat!r - The a'oro#s bo+ who !evotes hi'sel to his nei$hbor
0an$an>s sister- 8'a$es an! tho#$hts o the $irl s#bs#'e the narrator>s !a+s& b#t
when he 3nall+ s*ea,s to her it is brie an! aw,war!- "hen 0an$an>s sister tells the
narrator abo#t a baEaar )alle! ?rab+& the narrator !e)i!es to $o there an! b#+
so'ethin$ or her- %owever& he arrives at the baEaar too late an! b#+s nothin$- The
narrator ill#strates the Fo+s an! r#strations o +o#n$ love- %is inabilit+ to *#rs#e his
!esires an$ers hi'-
8ead an in"depth analysis of TArabyL narrator!
5an-an:s sister - The love interest in C?rab+-D 0an$an>s sister 'entions the
?rab+ baEaar to the narrator& *ro'*tin$ hi' to travel there- 7he s#$$ests the
a'iliarit+ o =#blin& as well as the ho*e o love an! the exoti) a**eal o new
*la)es-
IE*elineJ
172
+;eline - The *rota$onist o the stor+ that shares her na'e- (veline 'a,es a bol!
an! ex)itin$ !e)ision to elo*e to ?r$entina with her lover& 2ran,& b#t #lti'atel+
shrin,s awa+ ro' it& ex)l#!in$ hersel ro' love- %er )onstant review o the *ros
an! )ons o her !e)ision !e'onstrates her willin$ness to *lease ever+one b#t
hersel& an! her 3nal resolve to sta+ in =#blin with her a'il+ )asts her as a wo'an
tra**e! in !o'esti) an! a'iliar !#ties an! arai! to e'bra)e the #n*re!i)table-
8ead an in"depth analysis of veline!
IA)$e! $he RaceJ
6i>>/ D!/le - The #*war!l+ 'obile *rota$onist o C?ter the Pa)e-D 8nat#ate!
with the *resti$e o his rien!s an! $i!!+ abo#t his in)l#sion in s#)h hi$h-so)iet+
)ir)les& 5i''+ )on!#)ts a lie o a)ile whi's an! ex)essive ex*en!it#re-
I%3# 5allan$sJ
.enehan - One hal o the *air o swin!lers in CTwo 4allants-D 6enehan ex#!es
ener$+ an! exha#stion at on)e- %e ex)ite!l+ *arta,es in the ex*loits o his rien!
Corle+ b#t also la'ents the ai'lessness o his har! livin$ an! la), o stabilit+-
Tho#$h he +earns to settle !own& he re'ains 3xe! to Corle+>s si!e as the
stereot+*i)al si!e,i),-
C!rle/ - The s)he'in$ rien! o 6enehan in CTwo 4allants-D Corle+>s b#l,+&
assertive *h+si)al *resen)e 'at)hes his $ran!iose bra$$in$ an! in)essant sel-
*ro'otion- ? *oli)e inor'ant an! s,ille! in ta,in$ a!vanta$e o wo'en& Corle+
*rovi!es one o the 'ost )riti)al an! #ns+'*atheti) *ortraits o betra+al in
Dubliners when he !#*es the ho#se'ai! into $ivin$ hi' a $ol! )oin)oin -
I%he 8#a!-in& H#'seJ
5rs. 5!!ne/ - The *ro*rietor an! 'other ro' CThe @oar!in$ %o#se-D 7e*arate!
ro' her h#sban! an! the owner o a b#siness& 0rs- 0oone+ 3r'l+ $overns her own
lie& as well as her !a#$hter Poll+>s- %er a**arentl+ s#))ess#l *lan to se)#re her
!a#$hter in a )o'ortable 'arria$e 'a,es her a 'orall+ a'bi$#o#s )hara)ter- 7he
!e'an!s eA#al treat'ent or 'en an! wo'en b#t also 'ani*#lates relationshi*s to
ri! hersel o her !a#$hter-
5r. D!ran - The lover o 0rs- 0oone+>s !a#$hter Poll+ in CThe @oar!in$ %o#se-D ?
s#))ess#l )ler,& 0r- =oran ears his a/air with the #n*olishe! !a#$hter will tarnish
his re*#tation an! be'oans the restraints o 'arria$e& b#t he resolves to 'arr+ her
o#t o so)ial ne)essit+ an! ear-
IA Li$$le +l#'-J
Gallaher - 6ittle Chan!ler>s ol! rien! who visits =#blin in C? 6ittle Clo#!-D 2or 6ittle
Chan!ler& 4allaher re*resents all that is enti)in$ an! !esirableB s#))ess in (n$lan!&
a writin$ )areer& orei$n travel& an! lai!-ba), ease with wo'en- %is $r#/ 'anners
an! orthri$ht behavior )ontrast with 6ittle Chan!ler>s !eli)a)+-
.ittle Chan,ler - The #nha**+ an! asti!io#s )ler, who re#nites with his rien!
4allaher in C? 6ittle Clo#!-D 6ittle Chan!ler>s *h+si)al attrib#tes 'at)h his na'eOhe
is s'all& ra$ile& an! !eli)atel+ $roo'e!- %is ten!en)+ to s#**ress his *oeti) !esires
s#$$ests that he also earns his title b+ livin$ A#ietl+ an! witho#t *assion- %e
9eetin$l+ rebels a$ainst his !o'esti) lie ater hearin$ abo#t 4allaher>s ex)itin$ lie&
then sha'e#ll+ re-e'bra)es it-
173
I+#'n$e!a!$sJ
7arrin-t!n - The b#rl+ an! a$$ressive )o*+ )ler, an! *rota$onist in
CCo#nter*arts-D "ith his wine-re! a)e an! #'in$ te'*er& 2arrin$ton 'oves
thro#$h =#blin as a ti'e bo'b o ra$e- 2arrin$ton>s Fob !oo's hi' to #nthin,in$l+
re*eat his a)tions& an! he transers his r#strations ro' one ex*erien)e to the next
witho#t !is)ern'ent- %is o#tlets in lie are !rin,in$ an! 3$htin$& a *h+si)al
en$a$e'ent with the worl! that t+*i3es his la), o )are an! tho#$ht- 2arrin$ton>s
son is one vi)ti' o his ra$e-
8ead an in"depth analysis of 6arrington!
5r. Alle/ne - 2arrin$ton>s boss in CCo#nter*arts-D (xas*erate! b+ 2arrin$ton>s *oor
wor,& 0r- ?lle+ne +ells at an! ins#lts 2arrin$ton #ntil 2arrin$ton e'barrasses hi' in
ront o the oQ)e sta/- %e serves 'ainl+ to exa)erbate 2arrin$ton>s r#strations an!
#el his an$er-
I+la.J
5aria - The A#iet an! *ri' 'ai! an! *rota$onist ro' CCla+D who $oes to visit 5oe
=onnell+& the 'an she n#rse! when he was a bo+- 0aria is *re)ise an! !e!i)ate! to
!etail- 7he 'oves thro#$h 'ost o the narrative with )ontent satisa)tion an!
la#$hter- %er ha**iness& however& a)es )hallen$es in the s'allest o events& an!
her !is*ro*ortionate rea)tions to s'all tro#bles s#$$est a re'ote !eta)h'ent ro'
lie-
6!e D!nnell/ - The 'an 0aria visits in CCla+-D 5oe>s brie a**earan)e in the stor+
*rovi!es a ba),!ro* or 0aria>s own )on)erns- 6i,e her& he worries abo#t '#n!ane
!etails& b#t he also hi!es a !ee*er wo#n! that the stor+ !oes not arti)#late- %e
thereore serves as a sa! 3$#re o #nha**iness-
IA Pain)'l +aseJ
5r. D3*/ - ? solitar+ an! obsessive 'an who es)hews inti'a)+ with 0rs- 7ini)o in
C? Pain#l Case-D =is!ain#l o ex)ess an! ti$htl+ sel-re$#late!& 0r- =#/+ lives
a))or!in$ to '#n!ane ro#tine& an! when a relationshi* evolves be+on! his )o'ort
level& he sA#el)hes it- %is re'orse over 0rs- 7ini)o>s !eath 'a,es hi' realiEe that
his *#rs#it o or!er an! )ontrol has le! onl+ to loneliness- %e is one o the 'ost
tra$i) *rota$onists o Dubliners-
5rs. Sinic! - 0r- =#/+>s )o'*anion in C? Pain#l Case-D ?ter bein$ sh#nne! b+
hi'& 0rs- 7ini)o be)o'es an al)oholi) an! !ies when she is hit b+ a train- 7he on)e
$ras*e! 0r- =#/+>s han! an! hel! it to her )hee,& an! this s'all& a/e)tionate
$est#re le! to the en! o their relationshi*-
II*. 1a. in $he +#mmi$$ee R##mJ
5at G:C!nn!r - One o the *oliti)al wor,ers ro' C8v+ =a+ in the Co''ittee
Poo'-D S#iet an! reserve!& O>Connor *a)es the 'en>s )onversation b+ te'*erin$
)on9i)t an! *raise abo#t the !ea! *oliti)ian Parnell& b#t he shows little interest in
his own *oliti)al wor,-
6!e )/nes - Pea!s the *oe' abo#t Parnell in C8v+ =a+ in the Co''ittee Poo'-D
7o'e o the 'en are hesitant abo#t his *resen)e in the roo' be)a#se %+nes is
)riti)al o the )an!i!ate or who' the+ wor,& b#t %+nes never wavers in his
state'ents or views-
174
6!hn )ench/ - The eA#ivo)atin$ *oliti)al *ro'oter ro' C8v+ =a+ in the Co''ittee
Poo'-D %en)h+ s#s*e)ts ever+one o betra+al- %e s#s*e)ts his boss o shir,in$ the
'en o#t o beer an! *a+)he),s& an! he s#s*e)ts %+nes o inor'in$ the o**osin$
)an!i!ate- %owever& he is the 'ost eA#ivo)al 3$#re in the stor+ an! )onstantl+
)han$es his own views to s#it the )ontext-
IA M#$he!J
5rs. Hearne/ - The )o''an!in$ *rota$onist o C? 0other-D One o the o#r e'ale
*rota$onists in Dubliners& 0rs- Rearne+ is a'bitio#s b#t also ha#$ht+- 7he
or)hestrates her !a#$hter>s #*brin$in$ as an exe'*lar+ *ro*onent o 8rish )#lt#re
an! *oise& b#t she has tro#ble !ealin$ with =#bliners o !i/erent ba),$ro#n!s an!
an+ )hallen$es to her a#thorit+-
5r. )!l!han - The be#!!le! se)retar+ who or$aniEes the '#si)al )on)erts in C?
0other-D 0r- %olohan is the s#bFe)t o 0rs- Rearne+>s ab#se& an! tho#$h he re'ains
A#iet thro#$ho#t the stor+& he is the onl+ )hara)ter who resists an! )o#nters her
)ritiA#es-
I5!aceJ
T!> Hernan - The o#t-o-l#), b#siness'an o C4ra)e-D ?ter a nast+& !r#n,en all&
Rernan Foins his rien!s in an atte'*t to reor' his lie- %e re'ains silent abo#t his
a))i!ent& never A#estionin$ the 'en who were his )o'*anions that ni$ht- %is
a))e*tin$ attit#!e lea!s hi' to $o alon$ with his rien!s> *lan to atten! a Catholi)
retreat& b#t he never 'a,es an a)tive !e)ision-
6ac0 P!1er - Rernan>s rien! in C4ra)e-D Power res)#es Rernan ater his a))i!ent
an! s#$$ests the Catholi) retreat- 0r- Power>s !e!i)ation to Rernan a**ears shallow
!es*ite his e/orts to reor' the 'an& as he is a)#tel+ aware o Rernan>s !win!lin$
so)ial stat#s in )o'*arison to his own b#r$eonin$ )areer-
I%he 1ea-J
Ga4riel C!nr!/ - The *rota$onist ro' CThe =ea!-D ? #niversit+-e!#)ate! tea)her
an! writer& 4abriel str#$$les with si'*le so)ial sit#ations an! )onversations& an!
strai$htorwar! A#estions )at)h hi' o/ $#ar!- %e eels o#t o *la)e !#e to his
hi$hbrow literar+ en!eavors- %is a#nts& 5#lia an! Rate 0or,an& t#rn to hi' to
*eror' the tra!itionall+ 'ale a)tivities o )arvin$ the $oose an! !eliverin$ a
s*ee)h at their ann#al )elebration- 4abriel re*resents a or)e o )ontrol in the stor+&
b#t his wie 4retta>s on! an! sa! re)olle)tions o a or'er !evote! lover 'a,e hi'
realiEe he has little $ras* on his lie an! that his 'arria$e la),s tr#e love-
Gretta C!nr!/ - 4abriel>s wie in CThe =ea!-D 4retta *la+s a relativel+ 'inor role
or 'ost o the stor+& #ntil the )on)l#sion where she is the o)#s o 4abriel>s
tho#$hts an! a)tions- 7he a**ears 'o#rn#l an! !istant when a s*e)ial son$ is
s#n$ at the *art+& an! she later *l#n$es into !es*air when she tells 4abriel the
stor+ o her )hil!hoo! love& 0i)hael 2#re+- %er *#re intentions an! lo+alt+ to this
bo+ #nnerve 4abriel an! $enerate his !es*airin$ tho#$hts abo#t lie an! !eath-
.il/ - The ho#se'ai! to the 0or,an sisters who reb#,es 4abriel in CThe =ea!-D
5!ll/ I;!rs - The nationalist wo'an who teases 4abriel !#rin$ a !an)e in CThe
=ea!-D
175
63lia 5!r0an - One o the a$in$ sisters who throw an ann#al !an)e *art+ in CThe
=ea!-D 5#lia has a $re+ an! s#llen a**earan)e that )o'bines with her re'ote&
wan!erin$ behavior to 'a,e her a 3$#re sa**e! o lie-
Hate 5!r0an - One o the a$in$ sisters who throw an ann#al !an)e *art+ in CThe
=ea!-D Rate is viva)io#s b#t )onstantl+ worries abo#t her sister& 5#lia& an! the
ha**iness o the $#ests-
5ichael 73re/ - 4retta Conro+>s )hil!hoo! love in CThe =ea!D who !ie! or her
lon$ a$o-
%hemes
The'es are the #n!a'ental an! oten #niversal i!eas ex*lore! in a literar+ wor,-
%he P!is#n #) R#'$ine
8estrictive routines and the repetitive, mundane details of everyday life mar/ the lives of 3oycePs
<ubliners and trap them in circles of frustration, restraint, and violence! 8outine affects
characters who face difficult predicaments, but it also affects characters who have little open
conflict in their lives! The young boy of TAn ncounterL yearns for a respite from the rather
innocent routine of school, only to find himself sitting in a fieldfield listening to a man recycle
disturbing thoughts! In TIounterparts,L 6arrington, who ma/es a living copying documents,
demonstrates the dangerous potential of repetition! 6arringtonPs wor/ mirrors his social and
home life, causing his anger@and abusive behavior@to worsen! 6arrington, with his e7plosive
physical reactions, illustrates more than any other character the brutal ramifications of a
repetitive e7istence!
The most consistent conse>uences of following mundane routines are loneliness and unre>uited
love! In TAraby,L a young boy wants to go to the baBaar to buy a gift for the girl he loves, but he
is late because his uncle becomes mired in the routine of his wor/day! In TA 9ainful IaseL Mr!
<uffyPs obsession with his predictable life costs him a golden chance at love! veline, in the
story that shares her name, gives up her chance at love by choosing her familiar life over an
un/nown adventure, even though her familiar routines are tinged with sadness and abuse! The
circularity of these <ublinersP lives effectively traps them, preventing them from being receptive
to new e7periences and happiness!
%he 1esi!e )#! Escae
The characters in Du;liners may be citiBens of the Irish capitalcapital , but many of them long
for escape and adventure in other countries! .uch longings, however, are never actually realiBed
by the storiesP protagonists! The schoolboy yearning for escape and #ild #est e7citement in TAn
ncounterL is relegated to the imagination and to the confines of <ublin, while velinePs hopes
for a new life in Argentina dissolve on the doc/s of the cityPs river! Little Ihandler enviously
fantasiBes about the London press Mob of his old friend and his travels to liberal cities li/e 9aris,
but the shame he feels about such desires stops him from ta/ing action to pursue similar goals!
More often than offering a literal escape from a physical place, the stories tell of opportunities to
escape from smaller, more personal restraints! veline, for e7ample, see/s release from domestic
duties through marriage! In TTwo Gallants,L Lenehan wishes to escape his life of schemes, but he
cannot ta/e action to do so! Mr! <oran wishes to escape marrying 9olly in TA 4oarding 1ouse,L
but he /nows he must relent! The impulse to escape from unhappy situations defines 3oycePs
<ubliners, as does the inability to actually underta/e the process!
%he In$e!sec$i#n #) Li)e an- 1ea$h
Du;liners opens with TThe .isters,L which e7plores death and the process of remembering the
dead, and closes with TThe <ead,L which invo/es the >uiet calm of snow that covers both the
176
dead and the living! These stories boo/end the collection and emphasiBe its consistent focus on
the meeting point between life and death! ncounters between the newly dead and the living,
such as in TThe .istersL and TA 9ainful Iase,L e7plicitly e7plore this meeting point, showing
what /ind of aftershoc/s a death can have for the living! Mr! <uffy, for e7ample, reevaluates his
life after learning about Mrs! .inicoPs death in TA 9ainful Iase,L while the narrator of TThe
.istersL doesnPt /now what to feel upon the death of the priest! In other stories, including
Tveline,L TIvy <ay in the Iommittee 8oom,L and TThe <ead,L memories of the dead haunt the
living and color every action! In TIvy <ay,L for e7ample, 9arnell hovers in the political tal/!
The dead cast a shadow on the present, drawing attention to the mista/es and failures that people
ma/e generation after generation! .uch overlap underscores 3oycePs interest in life cycles and
their repetition, and also his concern about those Tliving deadL figures li/e Maria in TIlayL who
move through life with little e7citement or emotion e7cept in reaction to everyday snags and
delays! The monotony of <ublin life leads <ubliners to live in a suspended state between life and
death, in which each person has a pulse but is incapable of profound, life"sustaining action!
M#$i)s
0otis are re)#rrin$ str#)t#res& )ontrasts& or literar+ !evi)es that )an hel* to
!evelo* an! inor' the text>s 'aFor the'es-
Pa!al.sis
In most of the stories in Du;liners, a character has a desire, faces obstacles to it, then ultimately
relents and suddenly stops all action! These moments of paralysis show the charactersP inability
to change their lives and reverse the routines that hamper their wishes! .uch immobility fi7es the
<ubliners in cycles of e7perience! The young boy in TArabyL halts in the middle of the dar/
baBaar, /nowing that he will never escape the tedious delays of <ublin and attain love! veline
freeBes li/e an animal, fearing the possible new e7perience of life away from home! These
moments evo/e the theme of death in life as they show characters in a state of inaction and
numbness! The opening story introduces this motif through the character of 6ather 6lynn, whose
literal paralysis traps him in a state suspended between life and death! Throughout the collection,
this stifling state appears as part of daily life in <ublin, which all <ubliners ultimately
ac/nowledge and accept!
Eihan.
Iharacters in Du;liners e7perience both great and small revelations in their everyday lives,
moments that 3oyce himself referred to as Tepiphanies,L a word with connotations of religious
revelation! These epiphanies do not bring new e7periences and the possibility of reform, as one
might e7pect such moments to! 8ather, these epiphanies allow characters to better understand
their particular circumstances, usually rife with sadness and routine, which they then return to
with resignation and frustration! .ometimes epiphanies occur only on the narrative level, serving
as signposts to the reader that a storyPs character has missed a moment of self"reflection! 6or
e7ample, in TIlay,L during the 1alloween game when Maria touches the clay, which signifies an
early death, she thin/s nothing of it, overloo/ing a moment that could have revealed something
about herself or the people around her! TAraby,L Tveline,L TA Little Iloud,L TA 9ainful Iase,L
and TThe <eadL all conclude with epiphanies that the characters fully register, yet these
epiphanies are tinged with frustration, sadness, and regret! At the end of TThe <ead,L GabrielPs
revelation clarifies the connection between the dead and the living, an epiphany that resonates
throughout Du;liners as a whole! The epiphany motif highlights the repeated routine of hope and
passive acceptance that mar/s each of these portraits, as well as the general human condition!
8e$!a.al
177
<eception, deceit, and treachery scar nearly every relationship in the stories in Du;liners,
demonstrating the unease with which people attempt to connect with each other, both
platonically and romantically! In TThe 4oarding 1ouse,L Mrs! Mooney traps Mr! <oran into
marrying her daughter 9olly, and Mr! <oran dreads the union but will meet his obligation to
pursue it! In TTwo Gallants,L Lenehan and Iorley both suspect each other of cheating and
scheming, though they Moin forces to swindle innocent housemaids out of their livelihoods!
Ioncerns about betrayal frame the conversations in TIvy <ay in the Iommittee 8oom,L
particularly as 9arnellPs supporters see his demise as the result of pro"4ritish treachery! :ntil his
affair was e7posed, 9arnell had been a popular and influential politician, and many Irish believe
the 4ritish were responsible for his downfall! All of the men in TIvy <ayL display wavering
beliefs that suggest betrayal looms in IrelandPs political present! In TThe <ead,L Gabriel feels
betrayed by his wifePs emotional outpouring for a former lover! This feeling evo/es not only the
sense of displacement and humiliation that all of these <ubliners fear but also the tendency for
people to categoriBe many acts as TbetrayalL in order to shift blame from themselves onto others!
Reli&i#n
8eferences to priests, religious belief, and spiritual e7perience appear throughout the stories in
Du;liners and ultimately paint an unflattering portrait of religion! In the first story, TThe .isters,L
6ather 6lynn cannot /eep a strong grip on the chalice and goes mad in a confessional bo7! This
story mar/s religionPs first appearance as a haunting but incompetent and dangerous component
of <ublin life! The strange man of TAn ncounterL wears the same clothing as 6ather 6lynn,
connecting his lascivious behavior, however remotely, to the Iatholic Ihurch! In TGrace,L 6ather
9urdon shares his name with <ublinPs red"light district, one of many subtle ironies in that story!
In TGrace,L Tom QernanPs fall and absent redemption highlight the pretension and inefficacy of
religion@religion is Must another daily ritual of repetition that advances no one! In other stories,
such as TAraby,L religion acts as a metaphor for dedication that dwindles! The presence of so
many religious references also suggests that religion traps <ubliners into thin/ing about their
lives after death!
S.m/#ls
7+'bols are obFe)ts& )hara)ters& 3$#res& or )olors #se! to re*resent abstra)t i!eas
or )on)e*ts-
Win-#3s
#indows in Du;liners consistently evo/e the anticipation of events or encounters that are about
to happen! 6or e7ample, the narrator in TThe .istersL loo/s into a window each night, waiting for
signs of 6ather 6lynnPs death, and the narrator in TArabyL watches from his parlor window for
the appearance of ManganPs sister! The suspense for these young boys centers in that space
separating the interior life from the e7terior life! #indows also mar/ the threshold between
domestic space and the outside world, and through them the characters in Du;liners observe
their own lives as well as the lives of others! 4oth veline and Gabriel turn to windows when
they reflect on their own situations, both of which center on the relationship between the
individual and the individualPs place in a larger conte7t!
1'sk an- 7i&h$$ime
3oycePs <ublin is perpetually dar/! Ao streams of sunlight or cheery landscapes illuminate these
stories! Instead, a spectrum of grey and blac/ underscores their somber tone! Iharacters wal/
through <ublin at dus/, an in"between time that hovers between the activity of day and the
stillness of night, and live their most profound moments in the dar/ness of late hours! These dar/
bac/drops evo/e the half"life or in"between state the characters in Du;liners occupy, both
physically and emotionally, suggesting the intermingling of life and d eath that mar/s every
178
story! In this state, life can e7ist and proceed, but the dar/ness renders <ublinersP e7periences
dire and doomed!
(##-
Aearly all of the characters in Du;liners eat or drin/, and in most cases food serves as a reminder
of both the threatening dullness of routine and the Moys and difficulties of togetherness! In TA
9ainful Iase,L Mr! <uffyPs solitary, duplicated meals are finally interrupted by the shoc/ing
newspaper article that reports Mrs! .inicoPs death! This interruption ma/es him realiBe that his
habits isolate him from the love and happiness of TlifePs feast!L The party meal in TThe <eadL
might evo/e conviviality, but the rigid order of the rich table instead suggests military battle! In
TTwo Gallants,L LenehanPs >uiet meal of peas and ginger beer allows him to dwell on his self"
absorbed life, so lac/ing in meaningful relationships and security, while the constant imbibing in
TAfter the 8aceL fuels 3immyPs attempts to convince himself he belongs with his upper"class
companions! 6ood in Du;liners allows 3oyce to portray his characters and their e7periences
through a substance that both sustains life yet also symboliBes its restraints!
11. 3ames, 1enry
%HE P2R%RAI% 2( A LA19
Ionte7t
O
1enry 3ames was born in Aew Wor/ Iity in 104) and was raised in Manhattan! 3ames-s father, a
prominent intellectual and social theorist, traveled a great deal to Geneva, 9aris, and London, so
1enry and his brother, #illiam, accompanied him and virtually grew up in those locations as
well! As a child, 3ames was shy, delicate, and had a difficult time mi7ing with other boys@his
brother, who was much more active, called him a sissy! #illiam 3ames, of course, went on to
become a great American philosopher, while 1enry became one of the nation-s preeminent
novelists!
The 3ames family moved to 4oston when 1enry was a teenager, and 1enry briefly attended
1arvard Law .chool! 4ut he soon dropped out in order to concentrate on his writing! 1e found
success early and often2 #illiam <ean 1owells, the editor of the Atlanti$ Monthl'& befriended
the young writer, and by his mid" twenties 3ames was considered one of the most s/illed writers
in America! In novels such as !he Ameri$an& !he Euro"eans& and Dais' Miller& 3ames perfected a
uni>ue brand of psychological realism, ta/ing as his primary subMect the social maneuverings of
the upper classes, particularly the situation of Americans living in urope! 6or 3ames, America
represented optimism and innocence, while urope represented decadence and social
sophistication? 3ames himself moved to urope early on in his professional career and was
naturaliBed as a 4ritish citiBen in 151' to protest America-s failure to enter #orld #ar I!
Throughout his career, 3ames earned criticism for the slow pacing and uneventful plotting of his
novels, as well as for his elliptical techni>ue, in which many of a wor/-s important scenes are not
narrated, but only implied by later scenes! 4ut as a stylist 3ames earned consistent admiration? he
is often considered to be a =writer-s writer,= and his prose is remar/able for its elegance of
balance, clarity, and precision!
6irst written in the 100;s and e7tensively revised in 15;0, !he Portrait o% a Lad' is often
considered to be 3ames-s greatest achievement! In it, he e7plored many of his most characteristic
themes, including the conflict between American individualism and uropean social custom and
the situation of Americans in urope! It also includes many of his most memorable characters,
179
including the lady of the novel-s title, Isabel Archer, the indomitable Mrs! Touchett, the wise and
funny 8alph Touchett, the fast"tal/ing 1enrietta .tac/pole, and the sinister villains, Gilbert
Csmond and Madame Merle!
#hile he was a dedicated observer of human beings in society, 3ames was a socially distant man
who formed few close friendships! 1e never married and openly claimed to practice celibacy!
9erhaps this gave him time to write2 in four decades of his writing career, he produced nearly
1;; boo/s, including such classics as !he <olden ,o?l& !he @ings o% the Dove& and the
immortal ghost story =The Turn of the .crew!= 1e died on 6ebruary %0, 151&, shortly after
receiving the nglish Crder of Merit for his dedication to the 4ritish cause in #orld #ar I!
9lot Cverview
O
Isabel Archer is a woman in her early twenties who comes from a genteel family in Albany, Aew
Wor/, in the late 10&;s! 1er mother died when she was a young girl, and her father raised her in a
haphaBard manner, allowing her to educate herself and encouraging her independence! As a
result, the adult Isabel is widely read, imaginative, confident in her own mind, and slightly
narcissistic? she has the reputation in Albany for being a formidable intellect, and as a result she
often seems intimidating to men! .he has had few suitors, but one of them is Iaspar Goodwood,
the powerful, charismatic son of a wealthy 4oston mill owner! Isabel is drawn to Iaspar, but her
commitment to her independence ma/es her fear him as well, for she feels that to marry him
would be to sacrifice her freedom!
.hortly after Isabel-s father dies, she receives a visit from her indomitable aunt, Mrs! Touchett, an
American who lives in urope! Mrs! Touchett offers to ta/e Isabel on a trip to urope, and Isabel
eagerly agrees, telling Iaspar that she cannot tell him whether she wishes to marry him until she
has had at least a year to travel in urope with her aunt! Isabel and Mrs! Touchett leave for
ngland, where Mrs! Touchett-s estranged husband is a powerful ban/er! Isabel ma/es a strong
impression on everyone at Mr! Touchett-s county manor of Gardencourt2 her cousin 8alph,
slowly dying of a lung disorder, becomes deeply devoted to her, and the Touchetts- aristocratic
neighbor Lord #arburton falls in love with her! #arburton proposes, but Isabel declines? though
she fears that she is passing up a great social opportunity by not marrying #arburton, she still
believes that marriage would damage her treasured independence! As a result, she pledges to
accomplish something wonderful with her life, something that will Mustify her decision to reMect
#arburton!
Isabel-s friend 1enrietta .tac/pole, an American Mournalist, believes that urope is changing
Isabel, slowly eroding her American values and replacing them with romantic idealism! 1enrietta
comes to Gardencourt and secretly arranges for Iaspar Goodwood to meet Isabel in London!
Goodwood again presses Isabel to marry him? this time, she tells him she needs at least t?o years
before she can answer him, and she promises him nothing! .he is thrilled to have e7ercised her
independence so forcefully! Mr! Touchett-s health declines, and 8alph convinces him that when
he dies, he should leave half his wealthwealth to Isabel2 this will protect her independence and
ensure that she will never have to marry for moneymoney ! Mr! Touchett agrees shortly before
he dies! Isabel is left with a large fortune for the first time in her life! 1er inheritance pi>ues the
interest of Madame Merle, Mrs! Touchett-s polished, elegant friend? Madame Merle begins to
lavish attention on Isabel, and the two women become close friends!
Isabel travels to 6lorence with Mrs! Touchett and Madame Merle? Merle introduces Isabel to a
man named Gilbert Csmond, a man of no social standing or wealthwealth , but whom Merle
describes as one of the finest gentlemen in urope, wholly devoted to art and aesthetics!
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Csmond-s daughter 9ansy is being brought up in a convent? his wife is dead! In secret, Csmond
and Merle have a mysterious relationship? Merle is attempting to manipulate Isabel into marrying
Csmond so that he will have access to her fortune! Csmond is pleased to marry Isabel, not only
for her money, but also because she ma/es a fine addition to his collection of art obMects!
veryone in Isabel-s world disapproves of Csmond, especially 8alph, but Isabel chooses to
marry him anyway! .he has a child the year after they are married, but the boy dies si7 months
after he is born! Three years into their marriage, Isabel and Csmond have come to despise one
another? they live with 9ansy in a palaBBo in 8ome, where Csmond treats Isabel as barely a
member of the family2 to him, she is a social hostess and a source of wealthwealth , and he is
annoyed by her independence and her insistence on having her own opinions! Isabel chafes
against Csmond-s arrogance, his selfishness, and his sinister desire to crush her individuality, but
she does not consider leaving him! 6or all her commitment to her independence, Isabel is also
committed to her social duty, and when she married Csmond, she did so with the intention of
transforming herself into a good wife!
A young American art collector who lives in 9aris, dward 8osier, comes to 8ome and falls in
love with 9ansy? 9ansy returns his feelings! 4ut Csmond is insistent that 9ansy should marry a
nobleman, and he says that 8osier is neither rich nor highborn enough! Matters grow
complicated when Lord #arburton arrives on the scene and begins to court 9ansy! #arburton is
still in love with Isabel and wants to marry 9ansy solely to get closer to her! 4ut Csmond
desperately wants to see 9ansy married to #arburton! Isabel is torn about whether to fulfill her
duty to her husband and help him arrange the match between #arburton and 9ansy, or to fulfill
the impulse of her conscience and discourage #arburton, while helping 9ansy find a way to
marry 8osier!
At a ball one night, Isabel shows #arburton the deMected"loo/ing 8osier and e7plains that this is
the man who is in love with 9ansy! Guiltily, #arburton admits that he is not in love with 9ansy?
he >uietly arranges to leave 8ome! Csmond is furious with Isabel, convinced that she is plotting
intentionally to humiliate him! Madame Merle is also furious with her, confronting her with
shoc/ing impropriety and demanding braBenly to /now what she did to #arburton! Isabel has
realiBed that there is something mysterious about Madame Merle-s relationship with her husband?
now, she suddenly realiBes that Merle is his lover!
At this time, 8alph is rapidly deteriorating, and Isabel receives word that he is dying! .he longs
to travel to ngland to be with him, but Csmond forbids it! Aow Isabel must struggle to decide
whether to obey his command and remain true to her marriage vows or to disregard him and
hurry to her cousin-s bedside! ncouraging her to go, Csmond-s sister, the Iountess Gemini, tells
her that there is still more to Merle and Csmond-s relationship! Merle is 9ansy-s mother? 9ansy
was born out of wedloc/! Csmond-s wife died at about the same time, so Merle and Csmond
spread the story that she died in childbirth! 9ansy was placed in a convent to be raised, and she
does not /now that Merle is her real mother! Isabel is shoc/ed and disgusted by her husband-s
atrocious behavior@she even feels sorry for Merle for falling under his spell@so she decides to
follow her heart and travel to ngland!
After 8alph-s death, Isabel struggles to decide whether to return to her husband or not! .he
promised 9ansy that she would return to 8ome, and her commitment to social propriety impels
her to go bac/ and honor her marriage! 4ut her independent spirit urges her to flee from Csmond
and find happiness elsewhere! Iaspar Goodwood appears at the funeral, and afterwards, he as/s
Isabel to run away with him and forget about her husband! The ne7t day, unable to find her,
181
Goodwood as/s 1enrietta where she has gone! 1enrietta >uietly tells him that Isabel has returned
to 8ome, unable to brea/ away from her marriage to Gilbert Csmond!
Portretul unei doamne reBumE tema Kinterna^ionalEL favoritE a lui 3ames2 rela^ia dintre America
naivE ]i uropa cultivatE ]i contactul dintre valorile lor morale ]i estetice! Isabel Archer este o
tJnErE americancE frumoasE ]i plinE de spirit, care viBiteaBE uropa pentru a se DmbogE^i estetic!
Au este bogatE, dar refuBE douE propuneri de cEsEtorie avantaMoase pentru a nu renun^a la
libertatea sa de imagina^ie ]i intelectualE! Hn mod ironic, cJnd prime]te o mo]tenire substan^ialE,
ea Dn^elege cE nu are nici un ^el sau scop real cu care sE D]i umple viitorul! Mo]tenirea atrage ]i
aten^iile sinistre ale lui Gilbert Csmond, un estet urban carismatic!

<upE ce se cEsEtore]te cu el, Isabel D]i dE seama cE a fost manipulatE pentru averea pe care o
de^ine! liberJndu"se din temni^a conven^iilor domestice ce Di fuseserE impuse, ea se treBe]te
prinsE Dn vJrteMul unor comple7e emo^ii se7uale ]i morale pe care DncearcE sE le deslu]eascE! a
se hotErE]te sE accepte responsabilitatea propriei alegeri, chiar cu pre^ul renun^Erii con]tiente la
libertate, care Di era atJt de dragE! Hn pofida vanitE^ii ]i a tendin^ei sale de autoamEgire, Isabel este
ferm decisE sE ducE o via^E demnE! <incolo de intriga melodramaticE, 3ames DnfE^i]eaBE cu
mEiestrie tragedia mai subtilE a inocen^ei pierdute ]i viselor spulberate! KLumea toatE este la
picioarele noastre " ]i lumea e foarte mareL, o implorE Goodward la finalul romanului! KLumea e
foarte micEL, Di rEspunde Isabel!
Iharacter List
O
Isa/el A!che! " The novel-s protagonist, the Lady of the title! Isabel is a young woman from
Albany, Aew Wor/, who travels to urope with her aunt, Mrs! Touchett! Isabel-s e7periences in
urope@she is wooed by an nglish lord, inherits a fortune, and falls prey to a villainous
scheme to marry her to the sinister Gilbert Csmond@force her to confront the conflict between
her desire for personal independence and her commitment to social propriety! Isabel is the main
focus of Portrait o% a Lad'& and most of the thematic e7ploration of the novel occurs through her
actions, thoughts, and e7periences! :ltimately, Isabel chooses to remain in her miserable
marriage to Csmond rather than to violate custom by leaving him and searching for a happier
life!
5il/e!$ 2sm#n- " A cruel, narcissistic gentleman of no particular social standing or wealth,
who seduces Isabel and marries her for her money! An art collector, Csmond poses as a
disinterested aesthete, but in reality he is desperate for the recognition and admiration of those
around him! 1e treats everyone who loves him as simply an obMect to be used to fulfill his
desires? he bases his daughter 9ansy-s upbringing on the idea that she should be unswervingly
subservient to him, and he even treats his longtime lover Madame Merle as a mere tool! Isabel-s
marriage to Csmond forces her to confront the conflict between her desire for independence and
the painful social proprieties that force her to remain in her marriage!
Ma-ame Me!le " An accomplished, graceful, and manipulative woman, Madame Merle is a
popular lady who does not have a husband or a fortune! Motivated by her love for Gilbert
Csmond, Merle manipulates Isabel into marrying Csmond, delivering Isabel-s fortune into his
hands and ruining Isabel-s life in the process! :nbe/nownst to either Isabel or 9ansy, Merle is not
182
only Csmond-s lover, but she is also 9ansy-s mother, a fact that was covered up after 9ansy-s
birth! 9ansy was raised to believe that her mother died in childbirth!
Ralh %#'che$$ " Isabel-s wise, funny cousin, who is ill with lung disease throughout the entire
novel, which ends shortly after his death! 8alph loves life, but he is /ept from participating in it
vigorously by his ailment? as a result, he acts as a dedicated spectator, resolving to live
vicariously through his beloved cousin Isabel! It is 8alph who convinces Mr! Touchett to leave
Isabel her fortune, and it is 8alph who is the staunchest advocate of Isabel remaining
independent! 8alph serves as the moral center of Portrait o% a Lad'2 his opinions about other
characters are always accurate, and he serves as a /ind of moral barometer for the reader, who
can tell immediately whether a character is good or evil by 8alph-s response to that character!
L#!- Wa!/'!$#n " An aristocratic neighbor of the Touchetts who falls in love with Isabel
during her first visit to Gardencourt! #arburton remains in love with Isabel even after she reMects
his proposal and later tries to marry 9ansy simply to bring himself closer to Isabel-s life!
+asa! 5##-3##- " The son of a prominent 4oston mill owner, Isabel-s most dedicated suitor
in America! Goodwood-s charisma, simplicity, capability, and lac/ of sophistication ma/e him
the boo/-s purest symbol of 3ames-s conception of America!
Hen!ie$$a S$ack#le " Isabel-s fiercely independent friend, a feminist Mournalist who does not
believe that women need men in order to be happy! Li/e Iaspar, 1enrietta is a symbol of
America-s democratic values throughout he boo/! After Isabel leaves for urope, 1enrietta fights
a losing battle to /eep her true to her American outloo/, constantly encouraging her to marry
Iaspar Goodwood! At the end of the boo/, 1enrietta disappoints Isabel by giving up her
independence in order to marry Mr! 4antling!
M!s. %#'che$$ " Isabel-s aunt! Mrs! Touchett is an indomitable, independent old woman who
first brings Isabel to urope! The wife of Mr! Touchett and the mother of 8alph, Mrs! Touchett is
separated from her husband, residing in 6lorence while he stays at Gardencourt! After Isabel
inherits her fortune and falls under the sway of Merle and Csmond, Mrs! Touchett-s importance
in her life gradually declines!
Pans. 2sm#n- " Gilbert Csmond-s placid, submissive daughter, raised in a convent to
guarantee her obedience and docility! 9ansy believes that her mother died in childbirth? in reality,
her mother is Csmond-s longtime lover, Madame Merle! #hen Isabel becomes 9ansy-s
stepmother, she learns to love the girl? 9ansy is a large part of the reason why Isabel chooses to
return to 8ome at the end of the novel, when she could escape her miserable marriage by
remaining in ngland!
E-3a!- R#sie! " A hapless American art collector who lives in 9aris, 8osier falls in love with
9ansy Csmond and does his best to win Csmond-s permission to marry her! 4ut though he sells
his art collection and appeals to Madame Merle, Isabel, and the Iountess Gemini, 8osier is
unable to change Gilbert-s mind that 9ansy should marry a high"born, wealthy nobleman, not an
obscure American with little moneymoney and no social standing to spea/ of!
M!. %#'che$$ " An elderly American ban/er who has made his life and his vast fortune in
ngland who is 8alph-s father and the proprietor of Gardencourt! 4efore Mr! Touchett dies,
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8alph convinces him to leave half his fortune to his niece Isabel, which will enable her to
preserve her independence and avoid having to marry for money!
M!. 8an$lin& " The game nglishman who acts as 1enrietta-s escort across urope, eventually
persuading her to marry him at the end of the novel!
+#'n$ess 5emini " Csmond-s vapid sister, who covers up her own marital infidelities by
gossipping constantly about the affairs of other married women! The Iountess seems to have a
good heart, however, opposing Merle-s scheme to marry Csmond and Isabel and eventually
revealing to Isabel the truth of Merle-s relationship to Csmond and 9ansy-s parentage!
%he Am/assa-#!s
Hen!. =ames
[
Ionte7t
O
1enry 3ames was born in Aew Wor/ Iity into an intellectually gifted and financially secure
family on April 1', 104)! 1is father, 1enry 3ames, .r!, was a well"/nown theologian and thin/er,
and his mother, Mary 8obertson #alsh, was the daughter of a wealthy Albany cotton merchant
and a devout 9resbyterian! 1enry was the second of five children born to the couple! 1is siblings
include the distinguished philosopher and psychologist #illiam 3ames and the noted diarist Alice
3ames! The family spent 1enryPs early years traveling bac/ and forth across the Atlantic, and he
was subse>uently educated in Geneva, 9aris, London, and 4onn! At 15, he spent a year at
1arvard Law .chool but did not find inspiration or contentment in the study of law! Two years
later, he published his first short story, TA Tragedy of rrorsL $10&4*, and decided to dedicate
himself entirely to writing literature! .oon after, 3ames became a fre>uent contributor to the
Nation and Atlanti$ Monthl' magaBines, where he published short fiction, essays, and other types
of writing for the ne7t si7 years!
In 107&, after a short soMourn to 9aris as a contributor to the Aew Wor/ !ri;une& 3ames settled in
ngland, where he would reside for the remainder of his life! As an American in ngland, 3ames
found not only the environment that best suited his personal comfort but also one that fascinated
him enough to drive his greatest literary wor/s! The publication of Dais' Miller $1070*, the story
of a na_ve American girl attempting to navigate the comple7 corridors of uropean high society,
established 3ames as a writer of international success and set forth what would become one of
3amesPs most reoccurring topical concerns2 the American abroad! The post(Iivil #ar economic
upswing had made many wealthy Americans eager to visit the Cld #orld! The refined cultural
trappings of uropean culture, however, often left brus>ue Americans feeling alienated and
unsure! This common occurrence gave 3amesPs interest in the culture clash a potent currency and
a contemporary relevance, and it helped foster his subse>uent popularity@one that e7tends to
!he Am;assadors& a wor/ that deals thematically with many different American reactions to
uropean culture!
Cf the %; novels, 11% stories and 1% plays he published in his lifetime, 3ames considered !he
Am;assadors to be his most perfect wor/ of art! The novel was first published serially in 15;) in
the North Ameri$an Revie?& and it was published two more times@in altered American and
4ritish editions@later that same year! !he Am;assadors is in many ways a typical 3amesian
novel in that it deals with the psychological interior of a character obsessed with self"refection
and preoccupied with regret! American novelist Aathaniel 1awthorne and 6rench novelist
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1onorR de 4alBac were among the writers who most influenced 3ames and helped inspire
3amesPs uni>ue approach to novel writing! In 1awthornePs writing, 3ames found a fran/
discussion of human psychological comple7ity? in 4alBacPs, 3ames found elegant details of
realist description@both of which he would incorporate into his own wor/! 3amesPs other Tlate
novelsL resemble !he Am;assadors stylistically and structurally! Together, these three novels@
!he @ings o% !he Dove $15;%*, !he Am;assadors $15;)* and !he <olden ,o?l $15;4*@are
often read as a cohesive trilogy! Many critics see them as one masterpiece in three parts!
Throughout his life, 3ames /ept up voluminous correspondence with many of the greatest
thin/ers and writers of the turn of the century, including 3oseph Ionrad and 1! G! #ells!
Aowhere in the letters is there evidence that 3ames ever had a romantic relationship or a
consummate se7ual e7perience, and nowhere in this large body of written wor/ is there any clear
e7planation as to why! .ome biographers speculate that 3ames was a closeted homose7ual, others
point to a traumatic childhood incident that left him with an Tobscure hurt,L and still others
hypothesiBe that the early death of his beloved cousin Mary TMinnieL Temple@who became the
template for many of his early female characters@left him romantically cynical! #hatever the
truth may have been, 3ames often used his fiction to e7plore the terrain of the life unlived! This
topic, along with his interest in insular psychological narrative and Aew #orldNCld #orld
conflict, is the most common theme 3ames e7plores!
4esides short visits, and one e7tended stay from 15;4 to 15;', 3ames never lived in America
after his youth, but he continued to be an American in spirit and on paper! Aevertheless, he was
distressed by the outbrea/ of #orld #ar I and the :nited .tatesPs initial refusal to enter the war!
Ionse>uently, in 151', he became a 4ritish citiBen as a sign of appreciation to his adopted
country and as a protest against the country of his birth! #hile in London on <ecember %, 151',
3ames suffered a severe stro/e and was put in the hospital! 1e died three months later on
6ebruary %0, 151&, at age seventy"three, with two unfinished novels in his des/! These novels,
!he Sense o% the Past $1517* and !he +vor' !o?er $1517*, as well as an earlier memoir, !he
Middle )ears $1517*, were published posthumously! 1enry 3ames was the twentieth centuryPs
first truly international writer and one of modern literaturePs most astute stylists! Today, his
impact can be felt in the wor/ of such contemporary writers as QaBuo Ishiguro and Ian Mcwan!
9lot Cverview
O
Lambert .trether, an American from #oollett, Massachusetts, arrives in Ihester, ngland! At the
hotel des/, he learns that his old friend #aymarsh has not arrived! Instead, .trether meets a
young American lady named Maria Gostrey who claims to /now #aymarsh! Vuic/ly becoming
friends, .trether e7plains to Miss Gostrey that he has been sent to urope by his fiancRe, Mrs!
Aewsome, to fetch her son, Ihad! In #oollett, everyone believes that Ihad has become
romantically involved with an inappropriate woman and refuses to come home so that they
remain together! .tretherPs mission, as Mrs! AewsomePs trusted ambassador, is to convince Ihad
to come bac/ to #oollett, where he is needed by the family business! .trether confidently
believes that his mission is noble and necessary! If he succeeds, he and Mrs! Aewsome will be
married! Miss Gostrey suggests that .trether wait to Mudge Ihad until after .trether has seen this
lover with his own eyes! Throughout the novel, .trether relies on Miss Gostrey for confidence"
boosting advice!
.trether, #aymarsh, and Miss Gostrey head to 9aris, where Ihad lives! #hen they arrive, they
learn Ihad is away! #hile they wait for IhadPs return, Miss Gostrey leads the two older men on
sightseeing trips, and .trether begins to enMoy his time in urope! .trether visits IhadPs
185
apartment and notices an unfamiliar man lingering on the balcony! .trether ma/es this manPs
ac>uaintance and learns that he goes by the name Tlittle 4ilham!L A friend of IhadPs, 4ilham
ta/es care of IhadPs house when Ihad is traveling! Miss Gostrey suggests to .trether that
4ilham is operating under IhadPs Tinstructions!L 8egardless, .trether finds 4ilham charming and
invites the young man to the opera! 4ilham, however, does not show! Instead, a stranger enters
the bo7! .trether realiBes that this new arrival is Ihad Aewsome! Ihad has returned from his
travels >uite a changed man!
After the opera, .trether tells Ihad why he has come to 9aris! 1owever, as he spea/s, .trether
finds himself less certain of his stance! Ihad, once callow and Muvenile, now seems confident and
restrained! 1is new personality impresses .trether, who wonders what@or who@has caused
IhadPs transformation! Ihad as/s .trether to stay and meet his close friends, a mother and a
daughter, who are arriving in a few days time! .trether, wondering if one of these women has
been the impetus for IhadPs improvement, and assuming the daughter to be IhadPs lover, agrees
to stay! Meanwhile, 4ilham convinces .trether that Ihad has a Tvirtuous attachmentL@and that
IhadPs relationship with the mysterious woman is innocent! .trether eventually meets the
women, Madame de Fionnet and her daughter, 3eanne, at a high society party, but he does not
see them long enough to cement an impression! After the brief introduction to Madame de
Fionnet, .trether finds himself alone with little 4ilham! .trether ta/es the opportunity to offer
4ilham some sage advice2 live all you can before it is too late! This advice e7poses .tretherPs
own change since coming to urope! In 9aris, he feels renewed, young again, doubly alive!
Cver time, .trether comes to thin/ that Madame de Fionnet has been the good influence on
Ihad! .trether eventually learns that Maria Gostrey and Marie de Fionnet went to school
together as young women but have not seen each other for many years! #hen Ihad arranges for
the marriage of 3eanne to another man, .trether realiBes that Madame de Fionnet is IhadPs
reason for staying in 9aris! .trether surprises himself by promising Madame de Fionnet that he
will try and /eep Ihad near her! As if aware of this promise, Mrs! Aewsome writes .trether and
demands that he end his tenure as her ambassador! 1er ultimatum2 bring Ihad home or return to
Massachusetts by the ne7t ship! ven though his refusal to return home puts his marriage to Mrs!
Aewsome in Meopardy, .trether longs to stay in urope! In a complete reversal, Ihad declares
that he is ready to return to #oollett, but .trether begs him to stay in 9aris! Almost immediately,
Mrs! Aewsome sends a new shipment of ambassadors2 her daughter, .arah 9ococ/, along with
her husband, 3im, and 3imPs sister, Mamie, who Mrs! Aewsome hopes will marry Ihad! .trether
worries that .arah will contradict his reports on IhadPs progress and on Madame de FionnetPs
worthiness to Mrs! Aewsome!
Initially, .trether believes that .arah is as charmed by IhadPs 9arisian life as .trether was! 4ut
soon, .arah meets .trether face to face and reiterates Mrs! AewsomePs negative views of the
situation! .he demands .tretherPs complete compliance in convincing Ihad to go home to
#oollett as soon as she, #aymarsh, 3im, and Mamie return from a leisure trip to .witBerland!
#aymarsh and .arah are acutely disappointed in .trether! #hile the others are away, .trether
ta/es a day"trip himself to the 6rench countryside! There, he coincidentally spots Ihad and
Madame de Fionnet riding together on a small boat! All at once, he understands2 their
relationship is unmista/ably intimate and obviously lac/ing in virtue! 4ut, even though Ihad and
Madame de Fionnet were deceitful, .trether still feels that their involvement has improved Ihad
as a person!
Afterward, when .trether visits Madame de Fionnet, she seems defeated and convinced that
Ihad will return to the :nited .tates! .he insists that she has wanted .trether all along, to which
186
.trether replies that she has had him! Aevertheless, .trether suggests that he can still help her
/eep Ihad! 1owever, after Ihad stays away from them both for an entire wee/, .tretherPs
resolve begins to erode! #hen .trether finally confronts Ihad, the young man spea/s only of
plans for improving the family business in #oollett! 1is desire to return home is unambiguous!
ven though .trether thin/s that Ihad would be more fulfilled in urope with Madame de
Fionnet, he cannot convince Ihad to stay! Instead, .trether goes to visit Miss Gostrey, at which
point her long"gestating love for him is made obvious! .he ma/es what amounts to a marriage
proposal to .trether, but he feels he cannot accept it! ven as he realiBes that, compared to
urope, his life in #oollett will be bland, .trether chooses to return to the :nited .tates!
Themes, Motifs \ .ymbols
O
%hemes
%he Im#!$ance #) Place
Throughout the novel, the narrator constantly locates events in specific places, and characters
repeatedly refer to specific locations! 3ames foregrounds the importance of place right from the
beginning by emphasiBing how different .trether feels in urope than in the :nited .tates! :pon
meeting in ngland, Miss Gostrey tells .trether that she has met his friend #aymarsh in Milrose,
Ionnecticut! Li/ewise, .trether e7plains that he comes from #oollett, Massachusetts! The
specificity of location is a form of shorthand for the characters2 where someone comes from
gives all sorts of information about that personPs li/es, disli/es, habits, and behavior! Miss
Gostrey assumes that Ihad has a virtuous relationship with a woman simply by hearing that
Ihad has gone to Iannes, 6rance! 1ad the relationship not been virtuous, she reasons, Ihad
would not have been able to travel to such an e7clusive place! .he similarly reassures .trether
about little 4ilham by e7plaining, ThePs all right@hePs one of usL $that is, an American*! In fact,
the importance of place and location spurs the novelPs plot2 Mrs! Aewsome sends .trether to
rescue Ihad precisely because of where he is living! The family in #oollett worries about Ihad
because hePs living in 9aris, a city /nown at the time for its debauchery and immorality!
%he Li*e- *s. Dnli*e- Li)e
As a character, .trether represents the struggle to live life to the fullest e7tent! #hen .trether
first meets Miss Gostrey, he articulates his inability to fully appreciate the moments of his life!
1e feels as though he has suffered from this inability throughout his entire youth and adulthood,
and he regrets having missed out on significant life e7periences! Aow middle"aged, .trether fears
that he will never be able to live fully in the moment! 4ut, in 9aris, he begins to e7perience truly
saturated moments! Than/s to the fran/ advice and forthright guidance of Miss Gostrey, .trether
learns to let go of the pain of regret and begins to live in the present! In this way, he embodies the
theme of the full, richly lived life versus the staid, boring unlived life that is central to !he
Am;assadors! .trether originally goes to 9aris with the intention of helping Ihad fulfill his
potential@as a businessman in #oollett! Wet, .trether eventually feels that Ihad would lead a
richer life by staying in 9aris!
.trether further embodies the theme of the lived versus unlived life through his interactions with
other characters! Cnce .trether realiBes the benefits of truly living life, he begins to lecture such
characters as little 4ilham about enMoying their youth! In GlorianiPs garden, at the end of the first
part of the novel, .trether corners little 4ilham and tells him, with earnest optimism, to live life
to the fullest! .trether believes he has missed his opportunity to e7perience all of what life has to
offer, and he wants his young friends to learn from his mista/es! Aevertheless, .trether fails to
convince Ihad to stay in urope with Madame de Fionnet! 1e blames IhadPs lac/ of
187
imagination for his desire to return to the :nited .tates and ta/e over the family business!
:ltimately, .trether leaves urope as well, having decided that life has in fact passed him by!
%he Ame!ican A/!#a-
After the Iivil #ar, the American economy flourished, allowing the wealthy to travel to other
places, particularly urope! The American abroad became a popular character in literature! 1enry
3ames himself was an American abroad, and much of his writing e7plores the American
e7perience in foreign lands! 3ust about every character in !he Am;assadors comes from the
:nited .tates and now lives in urope! The manner in which each character responds to the
uropean environment spea/s to the larger e7perience of Americans abroad! 6or instance, 3im
9ococ/ wants to see the vice and opulence for which 9aris has become famous in the :nited
.tates! In contrast, #aymarsh hates 9aris because it fails to offer him what he li/es about his
American home! These two characters represent opposite sides of the same American
provincialism! Aeither character is able to appreciate what is truly great about 9aris2 its
confident, age"old culture and its reliance on cultural@as opposed to monetary@values!
:nli/e the other characters, .trether represents the best type of American abroad! .trether learns
how to see urope through the e7perienced e7patriate Miss Gostrey, herself an American abroad!
1e appreciates 9aris for itself and for its difference from #oollett, Massachusetts! .trether
represents the /ind of American 3ames thought he was2 an American capable of appreciating the
comple7 and rich culture of urope! 4ut, li/e 3ames, .trether also too/ the wisdom gained from
the venerable Cld #orld and transferred it bac/ to America! .trether leaves urope at the end of
the novel a changed man, and he returns to the :nited .tates with a new perspective!
M#$i)s
Wa$e!
4oth .trether and the narrator use water imagery to describe female characters, particularly the
way .trether relates to these women! After Miss Gostrey has gone away and left .trether to
digest many significant events on his own, he finds that he no longer depends on her help to
properly understand the events he witnesses! 1e then refers to her as one TpailL among many in
his life, as one of the TtributariesL from which the water of meaning he see/s to gather flows!
Li/ewise, he describes Mrs! Aewsome as a large iceberg, as if to suggest both her firm, stubborn,
insistence on certain ideas and to accentuate her geographic distance from the matters at hand!
6inally, he refers to Madame de Fionnet as a boat on water that attracts him! Later, as .trether
becomes more involved with Madame de Fionnet, he remar/s that if her boat sin/s, he will sin/
as well, because he has agreed to help her /eep Ihad and thus is Tin her boat!L 6inally, in the
clima7 of the novel, Madame de Fionnet and Ihad appear in an actual boat, e7posing the true
nature of their relationship to .trether! In this way, water and water"related imagery coalesce to
serve as a constant reminder of .tretherPs comple7 and varied relationships to the women of the
novel!
,i!&in Ma!.
The similarity between the names Maria $Gostrey* and Marie $de Fionnet* suggests that these
women function as altered versions of the Firgin Mary, the mother of Ihrist! According to the
tenets of Ihristianity, the Firgin Mary symboliBes life, purity, holiness, and wisdom! Throughout
!he Am;assadors, Maria Gostrey and Marie de Fionnet serve as important teachers and wisdom
givers, for .trether and for others! Miss Gostrey, for instance, ma/es her living as a guide to
urope for Americans! Through her eyes, .trether learns to properly assess the culture of 9aris!
Li/ewise, .trether imagines that IhadPs growth as a person is due to the nurturing influence of a
motherli/e figure! .trether sees Madame de Fionnet as a paragon of virtue and thus imagines
188
that she has been the constructive force in IhadPs maturity! 1is discovery of the immoral
relationship between Madame de Fionnet and Ihad so shoc/s .trether that he decides to leave
urope! .trether also reMects Miss GostreyPs offer of love! 1is faith in the purity of women has
been so sha/en that he feels he can no longer trust even his good friend, Miss Gostrey!
S.m/#ls
5a!-ens
The gardens in !he Am;assadors function li/e miniature Gardens of den! At many /ey points
in the novel, characters enter gardens in which they are then enticed by or learn things that may
lure away their innocence! .trether and Miss Gostrey have their first real chat in the garden of
their hotel in ngland! arly on, .trether spends time in Lu7embourg Gardens on the 9arisian
Left 4an/! There, he first realiBes the 4abylon"li/e >ualities of 9aris and wonders if the cityPs
effect on his frame of mind will /eep him from properly e7ecuting his assigned tas/ of bringing
Ihad bac/ to the :nited .tates! Later, .trether meets, and falls hard for, Madame de Fionnet, in
GlorianiPs garden! .ome critics e>uate Gloriani with the biblical serpent, the devil mas>uerading
as a sna/e who enticed Adam and ve with the apple! Gloriani represents the cultural splendor of
urope! At their meeting, both Gloriani and Madame de Fionnet impress .trether! 6or .trether,
meeting those two characters is e>uivalent to tasting the fruit of /nowledge2 .trether will never
be the same again! 1e loses his innocence and reticence! 6rom that point on, .trether sees 9aris
through rose"colored glasses and not only begins to enMoy his stay but also tries to convince Ihad
to stay permanently as well!
Pa!is
9aris symboliBes the social, intellectual, and imaginative freedom of urope! In #oollett,
Massachusetts, provincial Americans, as epitomiBed by Mrs! Aewsome, fear that 9aris will be a
corrupting force on Ihad, the prodigal son! Throughout the novel, #oollett represents close"
minded provincialism, and 3ames contrast the small American town with the cosmopolitan
uropean city! At the time, 9arisian culture was thought to encourage se7ual misconduct and vile
relationships! Mrs! Aewsome assumes@and fears@that IhadPs time in 9aris will e7pose him to
these forces! .trether remembers his first visit to 9aris as a young man@and he fears that his
return to the Tvast bright 4abylon,L as he calls 9aris, will negatively affect him! 1e correctly
realiBes that his delight in 9aris will permanently change him! 4ut, as the novel progresses,
.trether discovers that the trade"off is worth it! 1e enMoys 9aris, and he welcomes the subse>uent
changes in his personality! In #oollett, social proprieties and a timid, young culture ma/e people
an7ious and preoccupied! In 9aris, however, .trether learns that he is able to live in the present
moment, fully enMoying life!
W##lle$$
Although no part of !he Am;assadors ta/es place in #oollett, Massachusetts, throughout the
novel the city figures as a symbol of the close"minded provincialism of small"town America!
Initially, .trether is embarrassed to report to Miss Gostrey that he is from #oollett, because he
identifies #oollett with all those things that oppose 9arisian openness! #oollett, in the heart of
Aew ngland, symboliBes the immature American cultural landscape! Timid, young American
culture is so unsure of itself that it fears the influence of all outside forces, including the
culturally rich 9aris! ventually, after .trether has e7perienced the positive effects of 9arisian
social freedom, he declares that #oollett has as a TfemaleL culture@one characteriBed by
gossiping, fearful women, li/e .arah 9ococ/ and Mrs! Aewsome! 1e realiBes that if Ihad returns
to #oollett, Ihad will lose the refinement he has gained in 9aris and become Must one thing2 a
189
man out to ma/e money! In this way, #oollett also represents the coarse, capitalistic nature of
America in contrast to the artistic, aesthetic 9arisian sensibility!
Iharacter List
O
Le3is Lam/e!$ S$!e$he! " The protagonist of the novel! A ''"year"old editor of an intellectual
magaBine in #oollett, Massachusetts, .trether has a mustache and a gray"spec/led full head of
hair and he wears glasses! .trether is engaged to Mrs! Aewsome, a wealthy widow who funds the
magaBine he edits! A widower himself, .trether lost his wife and young son many years ago! 1e
feels guilty about these loses and wonders what life e7perience he has missed by not having a
wife or child! Mrs! Aewsome has sent .trether to 9aris to find her son, Ihad Aewsome, and
bring him bac/ to Massachusetts! Cnce he returns with Ihad, she will marry .trether! .he chose
.trether as an ambassador not only because he is an old, trusted family friend but also to test his
loyalty to the Aewsome family! If he were to marry Mrs! Aewsome, .trether would come into a
great fortune and secure his status in the upper"class community in #oollett! To some degree,
Mrs! Aewsome wants to ma/e sure that .trether is worthy of both the wealth and the social
status! Iompulsively self"refle7ive, .trether >uic/ly realiBes that his life in #oollett has
entrenched him in boring routine! As he travels, .trether comes to appreciate the freedom and
openness he finds in urope, and he begins to feel as if his new, full uropean life ma/es up for
many years of personal stagnation! .trether ta/es to warning everyone he meets that they may
turn out li/e him@old and ine7perienced@if they do not live life to the fullest while they are
young! .trether is predisposed favorably toward most people2 he finds a close friend in Maria
Gostrey, a type of protRgR in little 4ilham, a replacement son in Ihad, and a feminine ideal in
Madame Marie de Fionnet! At the end of the novel, .trether chooses to return to #oollett, but his
outloo/ on life is forever changed by his late"in"life e7perience in urope!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Lewis Lambert .trether!
+ha-3ick 7e3s#me " The focus of the novel and the reason for .tretherPs visit to 9aris! Ihad
is a handsome, debonair, and independently wealthy bachelor currently involved in a love affair
with the older Madame Marie de Fionnet! At first, it seems that 9aris affects Ihad in only
positive ways2 Ihad has grown from the callow, immature boy he was in #oollett into a
polished, gentleman, comfortable in 9arisian high society and often host to a wide, interesting
group of friends! 4ut Ihad has no real attachment to urope or to his lover! Instead, Ihad
subscribes to the American ideals of monetary success and to the social status that comes along
with it! 1e wants to return to the :nited .tates to ta/e over the family business, even after
.trether encourages him to stay in urope! 9aris affects Ihad only superficially, and he loo/s
forward to returning home to #oollett after his enMoyable, but not profound, e7perience in
urope!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Ihadwic/ Aewsome!
Ma!ia 5#s$!e. " A ))"year"old, unmarried e7patriate who lives in 9aris and wor/s as an
informal TguideL to urope for American visitors! Miss Gostrey ta/es an immediate li/ing to
.trether when they first meet in ngland! .eparate from the #oollett society, she offers .trether
/een and obMective analysis of situations and people, and .trether relies on her wise counsel!
Although she is young and sprightly, she is more world"weary, more socially s/eptical, and
warier of peoplePs motives than .trether! .he /nows Madame de Fionnet from a school they
attended as young women but steadfastly avoids reac>uainting herself with the other woman! At
the end of the novel, she all but declares her love for .trether, who reMects her in favor of
returning to the :nited .tates!
190
8ead an in"depth analysis of Maria Gostrey!
Ma-ame Ma!ie -e ,i#nne$ " The older woman with whom Ihad Aewsome has become
involved in a love affair! Madame de Fionnet has lived apart from her TbruteL husband for years!
At age 1', she attended school with Maria Gostrey, but they have not seen each other for a long
time and Maria avoids contact with her! Aow, at around age )0, Madame de Fionnet has become
socially distinguished, handsome, and so cultured that she casts a shadow on .tretherPs memory
of Mrs! Aewsome! <eeply in love with Ihad, Madame de Fionnet resolves to /eep Ihad in
urope@and in her life! .he captivates .trether, and he believes that her effect on Ihad has been
only positive! 1e vows to help her by trying to convince Ihad to stay in urope, even after
.trether learns that Ihad and Madame de Fionnet have misled him about the nature of their
relationship! Madame de Fionnet uses her beautiful daughter, 3eanne de Fionnet, much li/e a
prop in her attempts to /eep .trether on her side!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Madame Marie de Fionnet!
M!s. 7e3s#me " An older, widowed, wealthy matriarch to whom .trether is engaged! ven
though Mrs! Aewsome never actually appears in the novel, she drives the novelPs action and its
significant events! .he sends .trether to urope to collect her son, Ihad, and return him to the
family business in the :nited .tates! #hen .trether fails in his ambassadorial mission, she sends
new ambassadors2 her daughter, .arah? her daughterPs husband, 3im? and 3imPs sister, Mamie!
Mrs! Aewsome represents the world of #oollett, Massachusetts, and the life that .trether has left
behind! .trether thin/s constantly about Mrs! Aewsome, and she occupies a large place in his
conscience, since she as/ed .trether to carry out her wishes in urope and .trether has failed to
do so for complicated reasons! Through .tretherPs eyes, Mrs! Aewsome is beautiful but
deliberately so, wise but incredibly stubborn, and /ind but undeniably dominant in relation to
him! The interplay between Mrs! AewsomePs wishes and .tretherPs evolving needs often drives
the novel!
Wa.ma!sh " An old friend of .tretherPs who has been living, unhappily, in urope for an
unspecified amount of time! #aymarsh is married but has long lived away from his wife! 1e is
impulsive and curmudgeonly and finds nothing in urope to his li/ing! 1e maintains close ties to
#oollett and reveals himself as a close friend of and consistent ally to .arah 9ococ/ when she
comes to 9aris to fetch Ihad!
=#hn Li$$le 8ilham " An e7patriate artist and one of IhadPs closest friends in 9aris! 4ecause he
is physically small, he uses both of his last names and goes by Tlittle 4ilham!L A friendly,
unpretentious young man, he maintains his loyalty to Ihad even as he develops a close bond
with .trether! :ltimately, little 4ilham lies to .trether about the nature of IhadPs relationship
with Madame de Fionnet to protect Ihad! .trether finds 4ilham to be gentle and treats him li/e
the adult son he never had! Their conversations prompt .trether to articulate some of the most
profound life lessons he has learned in urope!
=eanne -e ,i#nne$ " Madame Marie de FionnetPs charming and beautiful daughter! 3eanne is
impressively refined but lac/s maturity! .he has great fondness for Ihad, but not romantic love!
1e and Madame de Fionnet play up 3eannePs merits in an effort to distract .trether from the truth
of their relationship! .trether sees the well"raised 3eanne as proof of Madame de FionnetPs virtue
and suitability!
Sa!ah P#c#ck " IhadPs older, married sister! .arah is in charge of the second batch of
ambassadors sent to retrieve Ihad from urope! According to .trether, .arah has less charm and
less beauty than her mother, but she is still amiable and pretty! To a great degree, .arah stands in
for Mrs! Aewsome, who never appears in the novel! .arah arrives in urope with her motherPs
191
wishes firmly in mind and finds fault with much of what has impressed .trether about uropean
life! They clash almost immediately!
Mamie P#c#ck " The Tof"the"minuteL society girl in #oollett, Massachusetts! .trether finds
Mamie to be as physically beautiful as the girls in urope, as well as more sincere and sociable
than most #oollett society girls! Mrs! Aewsome hopes Mamie will marry Ihad! To Mrs!
Aewsome, the fact that Mamie is 3im 9ococ/Ps sister, and thus already technically part of the
family, only ma/es her more desirable! Mamie has /nown Ihad since childhood, but no romance
e7ists between them! #hile in urope, Mamie falls for little 4ilham!
=im P#c#ck " A leading #oollett businessman who is married to .arah 9ococ/ $neR Aewsome*!
ven though 3im is a prominent figure in #oollett, he is only technically a member of high
society! Iasual and relatively simple, he ta/es no interest in the social maneuverings of the
women and wants only to enMoy himself as much as possible, especially in 9aris!
Miss 8a!!ace " A friend of Ihad and little 4ilham! Miss 4arrace is a proper American socialite,
and she helps present Ihad in a good light by virtue of her own elegance! Later Miss 4arrace
befriends #aymarsh as well!
5l#!iani " A famous 6rench sculptor, Gloriani is part of IhadPs social set in 9aris! 1is grace
impresses .trether, but he fails to connect with .trether on a personal level! Little 4ilham
admires GlorianiPs fame, artistic talent, and status in society!
M#nsie'! -e M#n$/!#n " The man who is to marry 3eanne de Fionnet!
Analysis of MaMor Iharacters
8. =#hn (#3les> (!ench:s Lie'$enan$:s 3#man
=#hn R#/e!$ (#3les $Nfals N? )1 March 15%& ( ' Aovember %;;'* was an nglish novelist,
much influenced by both 3ean"9aul .artre and Albert Iamus, and critically positioned between
modernism and postmodernism!
This novel is based on the nineteenth"century romantic or gothic novel, a literary genre which
can trace its origins bac/ to the eighteenth century! Although 6owles perfectly reproduces typical
characters, situations, and even dialogue, the reader should always be aware of the irony inherent
in 6owles- perception? for his perspective, however cleverly disguised, is that of the twentieth
century! #e see this both in the authorial intrusions, which comment on the mores of people in
Fictorian ngland, and in his choice of opening >uotations, which are drawn from the writings of
people whose observations belie the assumptions that most Fictorians held about their world!
6owles is concerned in this novel with the effects of society on the individual-s awareness of
himself or herself and how that awareness dominates and distorts his or her entire life, including
relationships with other people! All the main characters in this novel are molded by what they
believe to be true about themselves and others! In this case, their lives are governed by what the
Fictorian Age thought was true about the nature of men and women and their relationships to
each other! The 6rench Lieutenant-s #oman of the title, for e7ample, is the dar/, mysterious
woman of the typical Fictorian romantic novel!
192
.ometimes the villainess, sometimes the heroine, such a woman was a symbol of what was
forbidden! It is this aura of strangeness about .arah #oodruff that first attracts Iharles
.mithson-s attention! The story that develops around this pair echoes other romantic novels of a
similar type, wherein a man falls in love with a strange and sometimes evil woman!
Iharles- relationship with rnestina 6reeman creates another sort of romantic story, one that
formed the basis of many Fictorian novels! In the present story, the romantic situation which
develops around the pair of aristocratic young people is not allowed to prevail over the forces,
including the dar/ lady, that would normally /eep Iharles and rnestina apart! Thus 6owles uses
the popularity of the comedy of manners and combines it with the drama and sensationalism of
the gothic novel and, using several stylistic conventions, creates a masterful, many"layered
mystery that is one of the finest pieces of modern literature
.ometimes the villainess, sometimes the heroine, such a woman was a symbol of what was
forbidden! It is this aura of strangeness about .arah #oodruff that first attracts Iharles
.mithson-s attention! The story that develops around this pair echoes other romantic novels of a
similar type, wherein a man falls in love with a strange and sometimes evil woman!
Iharles- relationship with rnestina 6reeman creates another sort of romantic story, one that
formed the basis of many Fictorian novels! In the present story, the romantic situation which
develops around the pair of aristocratic young people is not allowed to prevail over the forces,
including the dar/ lady, that would normally /eep Iharles and rnestina apart! Thus 6owles uses
the popularity of the comedy of manners and combines it with the drama and sensationalism of
the gothic novel and, using several stylistic conventions, creates a masterful, many"layered
mystery that is one of the finest pieces of modern literature!
.et in the mid"nineteenth century, the narrator identifies the novel-s protagonist as .arah
#oodruff, the @oman of the title, also /nown as =Tragedy= and as =The 6rench Lieutenant-s
#hore=! .he lives in the coastal town of Lyme 8egis, as a disgraced woman, supposedly
abandoned by a 6rench naval officer named Farguennes! :n/nown to her at first, he was married
to another woman! Farguennes had returned to 6rance! .he spends her limited time off at The
Iobb, a pier Mutting out to sea, where she stares at the sea!
Cne day, Iharles .mithson, a gentleman, and rnestina 6reeman, his fiancRe and a daughter of a
wealthy tradesman, see .arah wal/ing along the cliffside! rnestina tells Iharles something of
.arah-s story, and he becomes curious about her! Though continuing to court rnestina, Iharles
has several more encounters with .arah, meeting her clandestinely three times! <uring these
meetings, .arah tells Iharles of her history, and as/s for his emotional and social support!
<uring the same period, he learns of the possible loss of place as heir to his elderly uncle, who
193
has become engaged to a woman young enough to bear him a child! Meanwhile, Iharles-s
servant .am falls in love with rnestina-s maid Mary!
Meanwhile, Iharles falls in love with .arah and as/s her to go with him to 7eter! 8eturning
from a Mourney to consult with rnestina-s father related to his uncertain inheritance, Iharles
stops in 7eter as if to visit .arah! 6rom there, the narrator, who intervenes throughout the novel
and becomes a prominent character at the end, offers three different moments where the novel
could end2
(i!s$ en-in&2 Iharles does not visit .arah, but immediately returns to Lyme 8egis to
reaffirm his love for rnestina? they marry and the marriage never becomes e7tremely
happy! Iharles enters trade under rnestina-s father, Mr! 6reeman! The narrator pointedly
notes the lac/ of /nowledge about .arah-s fate! Iharles tells rnestina about an encounter
which he implies is with the =6rench Lieutenant-s #hore=, but elides the sordid details,
and the matter is ended! The narrator dismisses this ending as a daydream by Iharles,
before the alternative events of the subse>uent meeting with rnestina are described!
Iritic Michelle 9hillips 4uchberger describes this first ending as =a semblance of
verisimilitude in the traditional -happy ending-= found in actual Fictorian novels!
+11,
4efore the second and third endings, the narrator appears as a minor character sharing a railway
compartment with Iharles! 1e tosses a coin to determine the order in which he will portray the
other two possible endings, emphasising their e>ual plausibility! They are as follows2
Sec#n- en-in&2 Iharles and .arah have a rash se7ual encounter in which Iharles
realises that .arah is a virgin! 8eflecting on his emotions during this, Iharles ends his
engagement to rnestina, and proposes to .arah through a letter! Iharles-s servant .am
fails to deliver the letter, and, after Iharles brea/s his engagement, rnestina-s father
disgraces him! 1is uncle marries and his wife bears an heir, ensuring the loss of the
e7pected inheritance! To escape the social suicide and depression caused by his bro/en
engagement, Iharles goes abroad to urope and America! Ignorant of Iharles- proposal,
.arah flees to London without telling her lover! <uring Iharles- trips abroad, his lawyer
searches for .arah, finding her two years later living with several artists $the 8ossettis*,
and enMoying an artistic, creative life! Iharles is told .arah had a child by him? he
believes they have a possible chance for reunion and future as a family!
%hi!- en-in&2 the narrator re"appears, standing outside the house at the aftermath of the
second ending! 1e turns bac/ his poc/et watch by fifteen minutes and leaves by carriage!
vents are the same as in the second"ending version until Iharles finds .arah in London,
when their reunion is sour! The new ending proposes that they had no child together?
.arah does not mention one, and e7presses no interest in continuing the relationship!
Iharles leaves the house, intending to return to the :nited .tates, and sees the carriage, in
which the narrator was thought gone! The narrator leaves Iharles and the reader
wondering whether .arah is a manipulating, lying woman of few morals, e7ploiting
Iharles-s love to get what she wants!
+ha!ac$e!s
%he 7a!!a$#! ( as in other wor/s of metafiction, the narrator-s voice fre>uently
intervenes in the story with a personality of its own! Though the voice appears to be that
of 6owles, Magali Iornier Michael notes that chapter 1), which discusses the role of
author and narrator within fiction, distinguishes between the author-s role in the te7t and
the narrator-s!
+1%,
Alice 6errebe describes the narrator as both a lens for criti>uing
194
traditional gender roles and a perpetuation of the perspectives on gendered identity
perpetuated by the male gaBe!
+1),
Sa!ah W##-!')) ( the main protagonist according to the narrator! 6ormerly a governess,
she becomes disgraced after an illicit, but unconsummated, liaison with an inMured 6rench
naval merchant! The feminist critic Magali Iornier Michael argues that she is more a plot
device, not interpretable as a main character because her thoughts and motivations are
only interpreted from the perspective of outside male characters! .arah offers a
representation of myth or symbol within a male perspective on women!
+14,
+ha!les Smi$hs#n ( the main male character! Though born into a family with close ties
to nobility, .mithson does not possess a title but has a siBable income and considerable
education! arly in the novel he is described both as a casual naturalist and a <arwinist!
Though trying to become an enlightened and forward"thin/ing individual, the narrator
often emphasises, through commentary on .mithson-s actions and situation, that his
identity is strongly rooted in the traditional social system!
+14,
Moreover, conflicting
identification with social forces, such as science and religion, lead .mithson to an
e7istential crisis!
+1',
E!nes$ina (!eeman ( .mithson-s fiance and daughter to a London"based owner of
department stores! :nli/e .arah, rnestina-s temperament is much less comple7, and
much more simple"minded!
Sam (a!!#3 ( Iharles-s 1ac/ney servant with aspirations to become a haberdasher!
Throughout the novel, .am becomes the narrator-s model for the wor/ing class peoples of
Fictorian 4ritain, comparing .am-s identity with Iharles-s ignorance of that culture!
According to critic <avid Landrum, the tension between .am and Iharles .mithson
importantly demonstrates Mar7ist class struggle, though often gets overloo/ed by
criticism discussing Iharle-s relationship to .arah!
+1&,
1! 5!#&an ( an Irish doctor in the town of Lyme 8egis who both advises the various
upper"class families in the town, and becomes an adviser to Iharles! 1is education and
interest in <arwin and other education ma/e him a good companion with Iharles!
M! (!eeman ( the father of rnestina, he earned his wealth as an owner of a drapery and
clothes sales chain of stores! 1e =represents the rising entrepreneurial class in ngland=
which stands in star/ contrast to the old money which .mithson comes from!
+1&,
A'n$ %!an$e! ( a prominent member of Lyme 8egis society who is friends with Grogan
and, as her maternal aunt, hosts rnestina during her stay!
M!s P#'l$ene. ( a wealthy widow and, at the beginning of the novel, the employer of
.arah #oodruff! 1ypocritical, and hypersensitive, her character fulfills the archetype of
high"society villainess!
Ma!. ( stereotypical lower class servant to rnestina 6reeman and future wife to .am
6arrow!
%hemes
Though a bestseller, the novel has also received significant scrutiny by literary critics! specially
during the 15&;s and 7;s, a novel with great popularity and significant academic scrutiny is
unusual? in literary study, the canon and its academic defenders often focused on =high literary=
wor/s that didn-t have large popular followings! In her study of postmodernism, Linda 1utcheon
described !he 8ren$h Lieutenant @oman's binary of popular and academic interest as a parado7
similar to the postmodern thematic binaries produced within the novel-s content!
+),
4ecause of its
prominence since publication, the novel has received a variety of different academic re"
195
e7aminations in light of numerous critical and thematic approaches! .ome of the most popular
concerns for the novel are its discussion of gender, especially >uestioning =Is the novel a feminist
novelS=, its engagement with metafictional and metahistorical concepts and its treatment of
science and religion!
5en-e!
The novel creates a number of binaries between men and women! Michelle 9hillips 4uchberger
argues that !he 8ren$h Lieutenant's @oman& along with 6owles two earlier novels !he Colle$tor
$15&)* and !he Magus $15&'*, portrays a fundamental a binary between the male and female
characters2 the female characters act as an elite set of =creators= or =educated, visionary, and
predominantly female= characters who provide the facilitation for evolution =in e7istential terms=
of the male =-collectors-, whose traits are present in all of 6owles-s flawed male protagonists!=
+%4,

Though ac/nowledging such binaries in the role of the characters, critic Alice 6errebe does not
treat these binaries as necessary thematic elements! 8ather, the binaries demonstrate what she
calls a gendered =scopic politics=, or a politics created by a gaBe $not dissimilar from the =male
gaBe= noticed in cinema studies*, that constructs an artificial gender binary within 6owle-s early
novels $as opposed to a multiplicity of socially constructed genders*!
+%',
6or 6errebe, this binary
creates a tension, especially with .arah, who becomes a violently fetishised and obMectified
=other=, differentiated from the male characters li/e Iharles!
+%&,
(eminis$ n#*el
A number of critics have treated the novel as a feminist novel! The novel-s narrator demonstrates
and proclaims a feminist approach to women2
+%7,
.arah is presented as a more liberated and
independently willed woman as compared to the other model female characters, such as
rnestina and her aunt! In a 150' interview by 3an 8elf, 6owles declared himself a =feminist=!
+%0,
Magali Iornier Michael criticises this reading of the te7t, saying that the novel-s overwhelming
reliance on male perspectives on women and feminism prevents the novel from meeting feminist
obMectives!
+14,
.imilarly, Michelle 9hillips 4uchberger argues that !he 8ren$h Lieutenant's
@oman& along with 6owles- two earlier novels !he Colle$tor $15&)* and !he Magus $15&'*,
proclaimed a =pseudo"feminism= while advocating some feminist ideas? but, she says, they are
permeated by a =fetishism +of women that, perpetuates the idea of woman as -other-=!
+%7,
Alice
6errebe also notes that, despite 6owles- attempts to criti>ue masculine values, his novels remain
male fantasies demonstrative of the =compromises and contradictions= created by the gendered
situation in which he was writing!
+%5,
Cther literary critics, such as #illiam 9almer, 9eter
Ionradi, 4ruce #oodcoc/ and 9amela Iooper, have also criti>ued 6owles- claims to a feminist
perspective and representation!
+notes 1,
Me$a)ic$i#n< his$#!i#&!ah. an- me$ahis$#!.
In her important study of postmodernity and its poetics in literature, Linda 1ucheon describes
this novel as definitive of a genre she calls =historiographic metafiction=! .he defines this
postmodern genre as =well"/nown and popular novels which are both intensely self"refle7ive yet
parado7ically also lay claim to historical events and personages!=
+',
Typically postmodern, this
genre of fiction blends the creation of imagined narratives with criti>ue on the various modes in
which we create /nowledge, such as history and literature!
+',
Important to her discussion of the
genre-s post"modern style, !he 8ren$h Lieutenant's @oman's self"refle7ive narration bridges
different discourses that usually remain separated, such as academic history, literary criticism,
philosophy and literature!
+),
The te7t-s representations of the past introduce anachronistic perspectives on the time and the
characters! 6or e7ample, in her >ueer studies"based article, =1istorical 8omance, Gender and
196
1eterose7uality=, Lisa 6letcher argues that !he 8ren$h Lieutenant's @oman, by relying on a
=good love story= as the central means of representing the past, proMects a contemporary hetero"
normative se7uality on the history of Fictorian ngland!
+);,
6or 6letcher, 6owles- parado7ical
treatment of .arah as both a Fictorian character and as a desirable =modern woman,= through
feminist gestures and se7ual tension between Iharles and .arah, confines the historical set
characters and their e7perience to stereotypical heterose7ual romance!
+)1,
6letcher believes that
overall the te7t creates a stereotypical and limited perspective on the past, essentially
=heterose7ualising the passage of $and relationship to* history=!
+)%,
Science an- !eli&i#n
Ammonite fossils on the beach near Lyme 8egis! The narrator often reflects on .mithson-s
fascination with science and natural history, while referring to the fossils found near Lyme 8egis
mphasis on a conflicted relationship between science and religion fre>uently occurs in both
historical studies of Fictorian history and Aeo"Fictorian novels! In his chapter on !he 8ren$h
Lieutenant's @oman in his boo/, Evolution and the :n$ru$i%ied Jesus, 3ohn Glendening argues
that 6owles- novel is one of the first neo"Fictorian novels to handle the dynamic created between
science and religion in Fictorian identity! Glendening notes that more generally =Ihristian ideas
and conventions become appropriated in the service of a secularist and e7tensional version of
truth!=
+)),
Glendening says that 6owles uses commentary on <arwinism =to comment on characters and
their e7perience and to forward a view of natural and human reality opposed to Ihristian
doctrine, and, within limits amenable to e7istentialist philosophy! =
+)4,
In general, Glendening
sees ideas of science and religion as central to the personal and social identities that develop
within the novel, but creating symbolically conflictual binaries! 1e suggests that 6owles
manoeuvres these conflictual forces to favour an e7istential self"revelation e7hibited through the
main character of .mithson, leading to a conclusion that =the freedom implicit in accepting
alienation should be e7ercised in overcoming it!=
+)',
Wou can find symbolism in chapter 112
#hen Iharles gives the woman the sprig of Masmine in the conservatory it becomes a .WM4CL
of the ephemeral nature of their relationship, as do the tears she sheds after his declaration of
intent to marry her! The repression of Fictorian society, especially with regard to se7ual matters
was ferocious =how can you mercilessly imprison all natural se7 instinct for twenty years and
then not e7pect the prisoner to be rac/ed by sobs when the door is thrown openS=
Ihec/ out this website for a brief synopsis of each chapter as well as other important information
about the boo/ including narrative structure, style, maMor themes such as se7ual repression,
etc!!!!!
%HE MA5DS
+27%EF%
The Magus $15&'* is a postmodern novel by 4ritish author 3ohn 6owles, telling the story of
Aicholas :rfe, a young 4ritish graduate who is teaching nglish on a small Gree/ island! :rfe
197
becomes embroiled in the psychological illusions of a master tric/ster, which become
increasingly dar/ and serious! Ionsidered a metafiction, it was the first novel written by 6owles,
but the third he published! In 1577 he published a revised edition!
In 1555 !he Magus was ran/ed on both lists of Modern Library 1;; 4est Aovels, reaching
number 5) on the editors- list, and 71 on the readers- list!
+1,
In %;;), the novel was listed at
number &7 on the 44I-s survey !he ,ig Read7
+%,
!he Magus was the first novel 3ohn 6owles wrote, but his third to be published after !he
Colle$tor $15&)* and !he Aristos $15&4*! 1e started writing it in the 15';s, under the original
title of !he <odgame! 1e based it partly on his e7periences on the Gree/ island of .petses,
where he taught nglish for two years at the Anargyrios .chool!
+),+4,
1e wor/ed on it for twelve
years before its publication in 15&'! <espite gaining critical and commercial success, he
continued to rewor/ it, publishing a final revision in 1577!
Pl#$ s'mma!.
The story reflects the perspective of Aicholas :rfe, a young C7ford graduate and aspiring poet!
After graduation, he briefly wor/s as a teacher at a small school, but becomes bored and decides
to leave ngland! #hile loo/ing for another Mob, Aicholas ta/es up with Alison Qelly, an
Australian girl met at a party in London! 1e still accepts a post teaching nglish at the Lord
4yron .chool on the Gree/ island of 9hra7os! After beginning his new post, he becomes bored,
depressed, disillusioned, and overwhelmed by the Mediterranean island? Aicholas struggles with
loneliness and contemplates suicide! #hile habitually wandering around the island, he stumbles
upon an estate and soon meets its owner, a wealthy Gree/ recluse Maurice Ionchis! They
develop a sort of a friendship, and Ionchis slowly reveals that he may have collaborated with the
AaBis during #orld #ar II!
Aicholas is gradually drawn into Ionchis-s psychological games, his parado7ical views on life,
his mysterious persona, and his eccentric mas>ues! At first, Aicholas ta/es these posturings of
Ionchis, what the novel terms the =godgame,= to be a Mo/e, but they grow more elaborate and
intense! Aicholas loses his ability to determine what is real and what is artifice! Against his will
and /nowledge, he becomes a performer in the godgame! ventually, Aicholas realises that the
re"enactments of the AaBi occupation, the absurd playlets after de .ade, and the obscene parodies
of Gree/ myths are not about Ionchis- life, but his own!
6!hn 7!1les< I5a-ician3lF
Iei obi]nui^i cu 6owles din +u;ita lo$otenentului %ran$eF, un roman care, Dn ciuda finalurilor
alternative, rEmJne o scriiturE clasicE, liniarE, vor descoperi cu surprindere Dn !he Magus $15&&*
un scriitore magician, cEruia Di place atJt de mult sE se Moace cu panurile narative ]i cu
personaMele, firul ac^iunii rEmJnJnd impreviBibil pJnE la ultimele rJnduri! <acE ar fi sE gEsesc un
echivalent Dn cinematografie, nu l"a] putea compara decJt cu creatorul de filme twisted <avid
Lynch!
6owles nu eBitE deloc Dn a folosi momente importante din via^a sa pentru a le transforma Dn scene
romane]ti2 personaMul Aicolas :rfe este, asemenea lui, absolvent de C7ford, care prime]te o
ofertE de a preda Dn Grecia! A]a cE cel cunoscut Dn facultate drept un estet ]i un cinic de rEBboi,
cel care Dnfiin^ase chiar un grup denumit Les 1ommes 8RvoltRs, Dn care se discuta despre
198
e7isten^E ]i neant, aMunge sE"]i domoleascE spiritul rebel Dn peisaMul fascinant al Greciei, care nu"i
oferE DnsE decJt o via^E monotonE!
<orin^a de a scEpa de ritmicitatea vie^ii sale de pJnE atunci Dl impinge Dnspre cel mai pitoresc
personaM al Bonei, un bEtrJn de &;"7; de ani, Maurice Ionchis! <e aici, nara^iunea se DndreaptE Dn
direc^ii dintre cele mai nea]teptate, cEci interac^iunea dintre cei doi va duce la crearea unor
nuclee narative care deschid multiple posibilitE^i, fiecare la grani^ia dintre verosimil ]i iluBie,
rEsturnJnd orice reper al KrealitE^iiL!
.pecificul acestui roman este permanenta trecere din registrul fic^ional Dn cel realist! CdatE cu
oscilErile lui Aicholas, cititorul crede sau nu ca fiind adevEratE lumea preBentatE! fi chiar atunci
cJnd creBi cE ai aMuns sE descifreBi misterele presErate peste tot Dn roman, ac^iunea ia o altE curbE
]i te aduce Dntr"un teritoriu nou, Dn care nimic de pJnE atunci nu mai are sens!
Tot ceea ce se petrece Dn casa lui Ionchis rEmJne Dn permanen^E sub semnul DntrebErii2 este ceea
ce vede Aicholas un teatru bine regiBat sau pur ]i simplu asistE la o serie de fenomene ie]ite din
comunS <e cJte ori creBi cE balan^a DnclinE Dntr"o parte sau alta, evenimentele ce urmeaBE D^i
aratE cE nimic nu e ceea ce pare!
Momentul Dn care nara^iunea ia Dn mod iremediabil o traiectorie DncErcatE de ambiguitate este cel
Dn care apare personaMul Lily, iubita lui Ionchis din tinere^e, care murise de febrE tifoidE! Lily
este DnsE preBentE Dn planul preBent, iar vorbele misterioase ale lui Ionchis, care spune cE
oamenii nu mor, de fapt, niciodatE, ci trEiesc prin amintiri, accentueaBE incertitudinile!
Ac^iunea ( ce aMunge sE penduleBe Dntre amintirile din trecut ale lui Ionchis, cu peregrinErile sale
prin Argentina, ]i preBentul Dn care Aicholas DncearcE sE gEseascE o e7plica^ie ( se complicE tot
mai mult, pigmentatE cu tot mai multe scene Dn care ra^iunea nu e de aMuns pentru a Dn^elege ceea
ce se DntJmplE! <e pildE, Dntr"o secven^E, Aicholas se plimbE cu Lily pe promontoriu, se Dntoarce
singur acasE ]i o gEse]te pe Lily! 7plica^ii e7istE, dintre cele mai halucinante ( inclusiv aceea cE
Lily e, de fapt, o tJnErE schiBofrenicE, 3ulie, avJnd o sorE geamEnE, 3une, ]i pe care el a pus"o sE
Moace rolul fostei lui iubite (, dar cititorul nu trebuie sE cadE Dn capcana lor, pentru cE nu e7itE
nici o certitudine a adevErului!
Tot ce e7istE este sugestia unei infinitE^i de posibilitE^i, Dntr"o lume Dn care miraculosul este
camuflat foarte fin Dn cotidian ]i care poate fi descoperit atunci cJnd omul este deschis sE vadE
dincolo de KpJnBa fragilE a ]tiin^eiL! Miturile, misticismul, simbolurile, elemente de tarot $Lily ]i
8ose ( crinul ]i roBa, simboluri ale magicianului din cEr^ile de tarot*, de alchimie ]i
roBicrucianism, toate MoacE un rol esen^ial Dn Dn^elegerea comple7E a e7isten^ei! Hn aceastE cheie
trebuie interpretate toate Kpunerile Dn scenEL pe care le realiBeaBE Ionchis, de la petrecerea Dn
care invita^ii purtau mE]ti ce trimiteau la mitologia egipteanE pJnE la reiterarea unui moment rupt
parcE din cel de"al <oilea 8EBboi Mondial!
:n cititor ideal al cEr^ii lui 6owles ar fi e7act acela care nu cautE neapErat sE descifreBe
enigmele, ci sE Dn^eleagE faptul cE pJnE ]i lucrurile contradictorii pot coe7ista Dn acela]i spa^iu ]i
timp, oricJt de incompatibile ar pErea la prima vedere! .cena Dn care Aicholas se lasE hipnotiBat
199
de Ionchis, unul dintre momentele"cheie ale romanului, este relevant Dn acest sens2 Aicholas este
Dndemnat sE se a]eBe pe pEmJnt ]i sE a^inteascE o stea cu privirea!
.enBa^ia e de plasare pe poBi^ie egalE cu steaua ( KdouE dimensiuni egaleL, sim^ind apoi vJnt
care se transformE Dn luminE! <e aici, aMunge sE simtE con]tiin^a e7isten^ei Dn sine! 9rintr"un nou
fel de cunoa]tere, aflE cE totul e7istE, realitatea e o infinitE interac^iune, iar contrariile se
completeaBE armonios! 9entru cE nu mai e7istE sens, ci doar e7isten^E, Aicholas este invadat de
sentimentul cE universul e nemErginit, cE permanen^a ]i schimbarea nu sunt entitE^i
contradictorii2
9arcE a] fi ie]it pe o u]E ca sE dau ocol universului ]i apoi a] fi intrat pe acolo, dar pe o altE u]EL!
CdatE cu Aicholas, ]i cititorul este Dncercat de DndoialE2 poate cE Ionchis Dl hipnotiBase pe
Aicholas fErE ca el sE ]tie, iar apari^iile fuseserE induse Dn mintea lui, a]a cE realitatea Dn care se
Dntoarce Di pare fantomaticE! Aumai cE, asemenea Bahirului lui 4orges, vraMa casei lui Ionchis Dl
transformE pe Aicholas Dntr"un captiv ]i intrE tot mai mult Dn ceea ce el crede cE sunt Mocuri, al
cEror scop DncE nu Dl poate descifra!
<acE totul este un teatru, foarte minu^ios pus la punct, atunci, a]a cum considerE Ionchis, acesta
nu ia sfJr]it niciodatE, doar scenele ]i decorul se schimbE, la fel ]i personaMele! :n Moc crud, Dn
care Aicholas este lEsat sE creadE, pe rJnd, toate ipoteBele emise de Ionchis, de la aceea cE este
un iluBionist, apoi varianta Dn care to^i sunt actori pJnE la cea Dn care Ionchis apare drept un
medic ce studiaBE natura halucina^iilor ca simptom al deBechilibrului mental, Aicholas fiind un
cobai! Cricare dintre variante, reBultatul este unul devastator2 imposibilitatea unei reale
comunicEri cu ceilal^i, odatE ce Mocurile mentale au luat sfJr]it, ]i incapacitatea de raportare
corectE la lumea din Mur!
+ha!ac$e!s
Main
Aicholas :rfe ( The protagonist, a %'"year"old nglishman who goes to Greece to teach
nglish and one day stumbles upon -the waiting room!-
Alison Qelly ( Aicholas- recent Australian girlfriend, whom he abandons to go to Greece!
Maurice Ionchis ( #ealthy intellectual who is a main player in the mas>ues!
Lily de .eitas ( Woung woman who is involved in the mas>ues and with whom Aicholas
falls in love!
2$he!
3oe ( young blac/ man, involved in the mas>ues!
Maria ( Ionchis- maid!
<emetriades ( fellow teacher at the school!
Lily de .eitas $older* ( Lily-s mother!
8ose de .eitas ( Lily-s identical twin sister
4enMi de .eitas ( the younger brother of the .eitas twins!
Qemp ( :nmarried woman who rents Aicholas a room in London!
3oMo ( Woung girl whom Aicholas pays to accompany him!
200
S$#!. cha!ac$e!s
de <eu/ans
Gustav Aygaard
1enri/ Aygaard
Anton
#immel
En-in&
The boo/ ends indeterminately! 6owles received many letters from readers wanting to /now
which of the two apparently possible outcomes occur? but he refused to answer the >uestion
conclusively, sometimes changing his answer to suit the reader! The novel ends >uoting the
refrain of the Pervigilium (eneris, an anonymous wor/ of fourth"century Latin poetry, which has
been ta/en as indicating the possible preferred resolution of the ending-s ambiguity!
+',
Li$e!a!. !ece-en$s
3ohn 6owles wrote an article about his e7periences in the island of .petses and their influence on
the boo/!
+&,
1e ac/nowledged some literary wor/s as influences in his foreword to the 1577
revised edition of !he Magus! These include Alain"6ournier-s Le <rand Meaulnes& for showing a
secret hidden world to be e7plored, and 8ichard 3efferies- ,evis $100%*, for proMecting a very
different world! In the revised edition, 6owles also referred to a Miss 1avisham, a li/ely
reference to a character in Iharles <ic/ens-s <reat E="e$tations $10&1*!
ICATM9C8A8W AG
L. William 5#l-in&> %he l#!- #) $he )lies
Ionte7t
O
#illiam Golding was born on .eptember 15, 1511, in Iornwall, ngland! Although he tried to
write a novel as early as age twelve, his parents urged him to study the natural sciences! Golding
followed his parentsP wishes until his second year at C7ford, when he changed his focus to
nglish literature! After graduating from C7ford, he wor/ed briefly as a theater actor and
director, wrote poetry, and then became a schoolteacher! In 154;, a year after ngland entered
#orld #ar II, Golding Moined the 8oyal Aavy, where he served in command of a roc/et"launcher
and participated in the invasion of Aormandy!
GoldingPs e7perience in #orld #ar II had a profound effect on his view of humanity and the
evils of which it was capable! After the war, Golding resumed teaching and started to write
novels! 1is first and greatest success came with Lord o% the 8lies $15'4*, which ultimately
became a bestseller in both 4ritain and the :nited .tates after more than twenty publishers
reMected it! The novelPs sales enabled Golding to retire from teaching and devote himself fully to
writing! Golding wrote several more novels, notably Pin$her Martin $15'&*, and a play, !he
,rass ,utter%l' $15'0*! Although he never matched the popular and critical success he enMoyed
with Lord o% the 8lies& he remained a respected and distinguished author for the rest of his life
and was awarded the Aobel 9riBe for Literature in 150)! Golding died in 155), one of the most
acclaimed writers of the second half of the twentieth century!
Lord o% the 8lies tells the story of a group of nglish schoolboys marooned on a tropical island
after their plane is shot down during a war! Though the novel is fictional, its e7ploration of the
idea of human evil is at least partly based on GoldingPs e7perience with the real"life violence and
brutality of #orld #ar II! 6ree from the rules and structures of civiliBation and society, the boys
201
on the island in Lord o% the 8lies descend into savagery! As the boys splinter into factions, some
behave peacefully and wor/ together to maintain order and achieve common goals, while others
rebel and see/ only anarchy and violence! In his portrayal of the small world of the island,
Golding paints a broader portrait of the fundamental human struggle between the civiliBing
instinct@the impulse to obey rules, behave morally, and act lawfully@and the savage instinct@
the impulse to see/ brute power over others, act selfishly, scorn moral rules, and indulge in
violence!
Golding employs a relatively straightforward writing style in Lord o% the 8lies& one that avoids
highly poetic language, lengthy description, and philosophical interludes! Much of the novel is
allegorical, meaning that the characters and obMects in the novel are infused with symbolic
significance that conveys the novelPs central themes and ideas! In portraying the various ways in
which the boys on the island adapt to their new surroundings and react to their new freedom,
Golding e7plores the broad spectrum of ways in which humans respond to stress, change, and
tension!
8eaders and critics have interpreted Lord o% the 8lies in widely varying ways over the years
since its publication! <uring the 15';s and 15&;s, many readings of the novel claimed that Lord
o% the 8lies dramatiBes the history of civiliBation! .ome believed that the novel e7plores
fundamental religious issues, such as original sin and the nature of good and evil! Cthers
approached Lord o% the 8lies through the theories of the psychoanalyst .igmund 6reud, who
taught that the human mind was the site of a constant battle among different impulses@the id
$instinctual needs and desires*, the ego $the conscious, rational mind*, and the superego $the
sense of conscience and morality*! .till others maintained that Golding wrote the novel as a
criticism of the political and social institutions of the #est! :ltimately, there is some validity to
each of these different readings and interpretations of Lord o% the 8lies! Although GoldingPs story
is confined to the microcosm of a group of boys, it resounds with implications far beyond the
bounds of the small island and e7plores problems and >uestions universal to the human
e7perience!
9lot Cverview
O
In the midst of a raging war, a plane evacuating a group of schoolboys from 4ritain is shot down
over a deserted tropical island! Two of the boys, 8alph and 9iggy, discover a conch shell on the
beach, and 9iggy realiBes it could be used as a horn to summon the other boys! Cnce assembled,
the boys set about electing a leader and devising a way to be rescued! They choose 8alph as their
leader, and 8alph appoints another boy, 3ac/, to be in charge of the boys who will hunt food for
the entire group!
8alph, 3ac/, and another boy, .imon, set off on an e7pedition to e7plore the island! #hen they
return, 8alph declares that they must light a signal fire to attract the attention of passing ships!
The boys succeed in igniting some dead wood by focusing sunlight through the lenses of 9iggyPs
eyeglasses! 1owever, the boys pay more attention to playing than to monitoring the fire, and the
flames >uic/ly engulf the forest! A large swath of dead wood burns out of control, and one of the
youngest boys in the group disappears, presumably having burned to death!
At first, the boys enMoy their life without grown"ups and spend much of their time splashing in
the water and playing games! 8alph, however, complains that they should be maintaining the
signal fire and building huts for shelter! The hunters fail in their attempt to catch a wild pig, but
their leader, 3ac/, becomes increasingly preoccupied with the act of hunting!
202
#hen a ship passes by on the horiBon one day, 8alph and 9iggy notice, to their horror, that the
signal fire@which had been the huntersP responsibility to maintain@has burned out! 6urious,
8alph accosts 3ac/, but the hunter has Must returned with his first /ill, and all the hunters seem
gripped with a strange frenBy, reenacting the chase in a /ind of wild dance! 9iggy criticiBes 3ac/,
who hits 9iggy across the face! 8alph blows the conch shell and reprimands the boys in a speech
intended to restore order! At the meeting, it >uic/ly becomes clear that some of the boys have
started to become afraid! The littlest boys, /nown as Tlittluns,L have been troubled by nightmares
from the beginning, and more and more boys now believe that there is some sort of beast or
monster lur/ing on the island! The older boys try to convince the others at the meeting to thin/
rationally, as/ing where such a monster could possibly hide during the daytime! Cne of the
littluns suggests that it hides in the sea@a proposition that terrifies the entire group!
Aot long after the meeting, some military planes engage in a battle high above the island! The
boys, asleep below, do not notice the flashing lights and e7plosions in the clouds! A parachutist
drifts to earth on the signal"fire mountain, dead! .am and ric, the twins responsible for
watching the fire at night, are asleep and do not see the parachutist land! #hen the twins wa/e
up, they see the enormous silhouette of his parachute and hear the strange flapping noises it
ma/es! Thin/ing the island beast is at hand, they rush bac/ to the camp in terror and report that
the beast has attac/ed them!
The boys organiBe a hunting e7pedition to search for the monster! 3ac/ and 8alph, who are
increasingly at odds, travel up the mountain! They see the silhouette of the parachute from a
distance and thin/ that it loo/s li/e a huge, deformed ape! The group holds a meeting at which
3ac/ and 8alph tell the others of the sighting! 3ac/ says that 8alph is a coward and that he should
be removed from office, but the other boys refuse to vote 8alph out of power! 3ac/ angrily runs
away down the beach, calling all the hunters to Moin him! 8alph rallies the remaining boys to
build a new signal fire, this time on the beach rather than on the mountain! They obey, but before
they have finished the tas/, most of them have slipped away to Moin 3ac/!
3ac/ declares himself the leader ofleader of the new tribe of hunters and organiBes a hunt and a
violent, ritual slaughter of a sow to solemniBe the occasion! The hunters then decapitate the sow
and place its head on a sharpened sta/e in the Mungle as an offering to the beast! Later,
encountering the bloody, fly"covered head, .imon has a terrible vision, during which it seems to
him that the head is spea/ing! The voice, which he imagines as belonging to the Lord of the
6lies, says that .imon will never escape him, for he e7ists within all men! .imon faints! #hen he
wa/es up, he goes to the mountain, where he sees the dead parachutist! :nderstanding then that
the beast does not e7ist e7ternally but rather within each individual boy, .imon travels to the
beach to tell the others what he has seen! 4ut the others are in the midst of a chaotic revelry@
even 8alph and 9iggy have Moined 3ac/Ps feast@and when they see .imonPs shadowy figure
emerge from the Mungle, they fall upon him and /ill him with their bare hands and teeth!
The following morning, 8alph and 9iggy discuss what they have done! 3ac/Ps hunters attac/
them and their few followers and steal 9iggyPs glasses in the process! 8alphPs group travels to
3ac/Ps stronghold in an attempt to ma/e 3ac/ see reason, but 3ac/ orders .am and ric tied up
and fights with 8alph! In the ensuing battle, one boy, 8oger, rolls a boulder down the mountain,
/illing 9iggy and shattering the conch shell! 8alph barely manages to escape a torrent of spears!
8alph hides for the rest of the night and the following day, while the others hunt him li/e an
animal! 3ac/ has the other boys ignite the forest in order to smo/e 8alph out of his hiding place!
8alph stays in the forest, where he discovers and destroys the sowPs head, but eventually, he is
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forced out onto the beach, where he /nows the other boys will soon arrive to /ill him! 8alph
collapses in e7haustion, but when he loo/s up, he sees a 4ritish naval officer standing over him!
The officerPs ship noticed the fire raging in the Mungle! The other boys reach the beach and stop
in their trac/s at the sight of the officer! AmaBed at the spectacle of this group of bloodthirsty,
savage children, the officer as/s 8alph to e7plain! 8alph is overwhelmed by the /nowledge that
he is safe but, thin/ing about what has happened on the island, he begins to weep! The other boys
begin to sob as well! The officer turns his bac/ so that the boys may regain their composure!
Iharacter List
O
Ralh " The novelPs protagonist, the twelve"year"old nglish boy who is elected leader of the
group of boys marooned on the island! 8alph attempts to coordinate the boysP efforts to build a
miniature civiliBation on the island until they can be rescued! 8alph represents human beingsP
civiliBing instinct, as opposed to the savage instinct that 3ac/ embodies!
8ead an in"depth analysis of 8alph!
=ack " The novelPs antagonist, one of the older boys stranded on the island! 3ac/ becomes the
leader of the hunters but longs for total power and becomes increasingly wild, barbaric, and cruel
as the novel progresses! 3ac/, adept at manipulating the other boys, represents the instinct of
savagery within human beings, as opposed to the civiliBing instinct 8alph represents!
8ead an in"depth analysis of 3ac/!
Sim#n " A shy, sensitive boy in the group! .imon, in some ways the only naturally TgoodL
character on the island, behaves /indly toward the younger boys and is willing to wor/ for the
good of their community! Moreover, because his motivation is rooted in his deep feeling of
connectedness to nature, .imon is the only character whose sense of morality does not seem to
have been imposed by society! .imon represents a /ind of natural goodness, as opposed to the
unbridled evil of 3ac/ and the imposed morality of civiliBation represented by 8alph and 9iggy!
8ead an in"depth analysis of .imon!
Pi&&. " 8alphPs Tlieutenant!L A whiny, intellectual boy, 9iggyPs inventiveness fre>uently leads to
innovation, such as the ma/eshift sundial that the boys use to tell time! 9iggy represents the
scientific, rational side of civiliBation!
R#&e! " 3ac/Ps Tlieutenant!L A sadistic, cruel older boy who brutaliBes the littluns and eventually
murders 9iggy by rolling a boulder onto him!
Sam an- E!ic " A pair of twins closely allied with 8alph! .am and ric are always together, and
the other boys often treat them as a single entity, calling them T.amneric!L The easily e7citable
.am and ric are part of the group /nown as the Tbigguns!L At the end of the novel, they fall
victim to 3ac/Ps manipulation and coercion!
%he L#!- #) $he (lies " The name given to the sowPs head that 3ac/Ps gang impales on a sta/e
and erects in the forest as an offering to the Tbeast!L The Lord of the 6lies comes to symboliBe
the primordial instincts of power and cruelty that ta/e control of 3ac/Ps tribe!
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
+i*iliAa$i#n *s. Sa*a&e!.
204
The central concern of Lord o% the 8lies is the conflict between two competing impulses that
e7ist within all human beings2 the instinct to live by rules, act peacefully, follow moral
commands, and value the good of the group against the instinct to gratify onePs immediate
desires, act violently to obtain supremacy over others, and enforce onePs will! This conflict might
be e7pressed in a number of ways2 civiliBation vs! savagery, order vs! chaos, reason vs! impulse,
law vs! anarchy, or the broader heading of good vs! evil! Throughout the novel, Golding
associates the instinct of civiliBation with good and the instinct of savagery with evil!
The conflict between the two instincts is the driving force of the novel, e7plored through the
dissolution of the young nglish boysP civiliBed, moral, disciplined behavior as they accustom
themselves to a wild, brutal, barbaric life in the Mungle! Lord o% the 8lies is an allegorical novel,
which means that Golding conveys many of his main ideas and themes through symbolic
characters and obMects! 1e represents the conflict between civiliBation and savagery in the
conflict between the novelPs two main characters2 8alph, the protagonist, who represents order
and leadership? and 3ac/, the antagonist, who represents savagery and the desire for power!
As the novel progresses, Golding shows how different people feel the influences of the instincts
of civiliBation and savagery to different degrees! 9iggy, for instance, has no savage feelings,
while 8oger seems barely capable of comprehending the rules of civiliBation! Generally,
however, Golding implies that the instinct of savagery is far more primal and fundamental to the
human psyche than the instinct of civiliBation! Golding sees moral behavior, in many cases, as
something that civiliBation forces upon the individual rather than a natural e7pression of human
individuality! #hen left to their own devices, Golding implies, people naturally revert to cruelty,
savagery, and barbarism! This idea of innate human evil is central to Lord o% the 8lies& and finds
e7pression in several important symbols, most notably the beast and the sowPs head on the sta/e!
Among all the characters, only .imon seems to possess anything li/e a natural, innate goodness!
L#ss #) Inn#cence
As the boys on the island progress from well"behaved, orderly children longing for rescue to
cruel, bloodthirsty hunters who have no desire to return to civiliBation, they naturally lose the
sense of innocence that they possessed at the beginning of the novel! The painted savages in
Ihapter 1% who have hunted, tortured, and /illed animals and human beings are a far cry from
the guileless children swimming in the lagoon in Ihapter )! 4ut Golding does not portray this
loss of innocence as something that is done to the children? rather, it results naturally from their
increasing openness to the innate evil and savagery that has always e7isted within them! Golding
implies that civiliBation can mitigate but never wipe out the innate evil that e7ists within all
human beings! The forest glade in which .imon sits in Ihapter ) symboliBes this loss of
innocence! At first, it is a place of natural beauty and peace, but when .imon returns later in the
novel, he discovers the bloody sowPs head impaled upon a sta/e in the middle of the clearing!
The bloody offering to the beast has disrupted the paradise that e7isted before@a powerful
symbol of innate human evil disrupting childhood innocence!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and
inform the te7tPs maMor themes!
8i/lical Pa!allels
Many critics have characteriBed Lord o% the 8lies as a retelling of episodes from the 4ible! #hile
that description may be an oversimplification, the novel does echo certain Ihristian images and
themes! Golding does not ma/e any e7plicit or direct connections to Ihristian symbolism in
Lord o% the 8lies? instead, these biblical parallels function as a /ind of subtle motif in the novel,
205
adding thematic resonance to the main ideas of the story! The island itself, particularly .imonPs
glade in the forest, recalls the Garden of den in its status as an originally pristine place that is
corrupted by the introduction of evil! .imilarly, we may see the Lord of the 6lies as a
representation of the devil, for it wor/s to promote evil among human/ind! 6urthermore, many
critics have drawn strong parallels between .imon and 3esus! Among the boys, .imon is the one
who arrives at the moral truth of the novel, and the other boys /ill him sacrificially as a
conse>uence of having discovered this truth! .imonPs conversation with the Lord of the 6lies
also parallels the confrontation between 3esus and the devil during 3esusP forty days in the
wilderness, as told in the Ihristian Gospels!
1owever, it is important to remember that the parallels between .imon and Ihrist are not
complete, and that there are limits to reading Lord o% the 8lies purely as a Ihristian allegory!
.ave for .imonPs two uncanny predictions of the future, he lac/s the supernatural connection to
God that 3esus has in Ihristian tradition! Although .imon is wise in many ways, his death does
not bring salvation to the island? rather, his death plunges the island deeper into savagery and
moral guilt! Moreover, .imon dies before he is able to tell the boys the truth he has discovered!
3esus, in contrast, was /illed while spreading his moral philosophy! In this way, .imon@and
Lord o% the 8lies as a whole@echoes Ihristian ideas and themes without developing e7plicit,
precise parallels with them! The novelPs biblical parallels enhance its moral themes but are not
necessarily the primary /ey to interpreting the story!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
%he +#nch Shell
8alph and 9iggy discover the conch shell on the beach at the start of the novel and use it to
summon the boys together after the crash separates them! :sed in this capacity, the conch shell
becomes a powerful symbol of civiliBation and order in the novel! The shell effectively governs
the boysP meetings, for the boy who holds the shell holds the right to spea/! In this regard, the
shell is more than a symbol@it is an actual vessel of political legitimacy and democratic power!
As the island civiliBation erodes and the boys descend into savagery, the conch shell loses its
power and influence among them! 8alph clutches the shell desperately when he tal/s about his
role in murdering .imon! Later, the other boys ignore 8alph and throw stones at him when he
attempts to blow the conch in 3ac/Ps camp! The boulder that 8oger rolls onto 9iggy also crushes
the conch shell, signifying the demise of the civiliBed instinct among almost all the boys on the
island!
Pi&&.:s 5lasses
9iggy is the most intelligent, rational boy in the group, and his glasses represent the power of
science and intellectual endeavor in society! This symbolic significance is clear from the start of
the novel, when the boys use the lenses from 9iggyPs glasses to focus the sunlight and start a fire!
#hen 3ac/Ps hunters raid 8alphPs camp and steal the glasses, the savages effectively ta/e the
power to ma/e fire, leaving 8alphPs group helpless!
%he Si&nal (i!e
The signal fire burns on the mountain, and later on the beach, to attract the notice of passing
ships that might be able to rescue the boys! As a result, the signal fire becomes a barometer of the
boysP connection to civiliBation! In the early parts of the novel, the fact that the boys maintain the
fire is a sign that they want to be rescued and return to society! #hen the fire burns low or goes
out, we realiBe that the boys have lost sight of their desire to be rescued and have accepted their
206
savage lives on the island! The signal fire thus functions as a /ind of measurement of the strength
of the civiliBed instinct remaining on the island! Ironically, at the end of the novel, a fire finally
summons a ship to the island, but not the signal fire! Instead, it is the fire of savagery@the forest
fire 3ac/Ps gang starts as part of his >uest to hunt and /ill 8alph!
%he 8eas$
The imaginary beast that frightens all the boys stands for the primal instinct of savagery that
e7ists within all human beings! The boys are afraid of the beast, but only .imon reaches the
realiBation that they fear the beast because it e7ists within each of them! As the boys grow more
savage, their belief in the beast grows stronger! 4y the end of the novel, the boys are leaving it
sacrifices and treating it as a totemic god! The boysP behavior is what brings the beast into
e7istence, so the more savagely the boys act, the more real the beast seems to become!
%he L#!- #) $he (lies
The Lord of the 6lies is the bloody, severed sowPs head that 3ac/ impales on a sta/e in the forest
glade as an offering to the beast! This complicated symbol becomes the most important image in
the novel when .imon confronts the sowPs head in the glade and it seems to spea/ to him, telling
him that evil lies within every human heart and promising to have some TfunL with him! $This
TfunL foreshadows .imonPs death in the following chapter!* In this way, the Lord of the 6lies
becomes both a physical manifestation of the beast, a symbol of the power of evil, and a /ind of
.atan figure who evo/es the beast within each human being! Loo/ing at the novel in the conte7t
of biblical parallels, the Lord of the 6lies recalls the devil, Must as .imon recalls 3esus! In fact, the
name TLord of the 6liesL is a literal translation of the name of the biblical name 4eelBebub, a
powerful demon in hell sometimes thought to be the devil himself!
Ralh< Pi&&.< =ack< Sim#n< an- R#&e!
Lord o% the 8lies is an allegorical novel, and many of its characters signify important ideas or
themes! 8alph represents order, leadership, and civiliBation! 9iggy represents the scientific and
intellectual aspects of civiliBation! 3ac/ represents unbridled savagery and the desire for power!
.imon represents natural human goodness! 8oger represents brutality and bloodlust at their most
e7treme! To the e7tent that the boysP society resembles a political state, the littluns might be seen
as the common people, while the older boys represent the ruling classes and political leaders! The
relationships that develop between the older boys and the younger ones emphasiBe the older
boysP connection to either the civiliBed or the savage instinct2 civiliBed boys li/e 8alph and
.imon use their power to protect the younger boys and advance the good of the group? savage
boys li/e 3ac/ and 8oger use their power to gratify their own desires, treating the littler boys as
obMects for their own amusement!
1'! #oolf, Firginia
Mrs7 Dallo?a' Ionte7t
O
Firginia #oolf, the nglish novelist, critic, and essayist, was born on 3anuary %', 100%, to Leslie
.tephen, a literary critic, and 3ulia <uc/worth .tephen! #oolf grew up in an upper"middle"class,
socially active, literary family in Fictorian London! .he had three full siblings, two half"brothers,
and two half"sisters! .he was educated at home, becoming a voracious reader of the boo/s in her
fatherPs e7tensive library! Tragedy first afflicted the family when #oolfPs mother died in 105',
then hit again two years later, when her half"sister, .tella, the caregiver in the .tephen family,
died! #oolf e7perienced her first bout of mental illness after her motherPs death, and she suffered
from mania and severe depression for the rest of her life!
207
9atriarchal, repressive Fictorian society did not encourage women to attend universities or to
participate in intellectual debate! Aonetheless, #oolf began publishing her first essays and
reviews after 15;4, the year her father died and she and her siblings moved to the 4loomsbury
area of London! Woung students and artists, drawn to the vitality and intellectual curiosity of the
.tephen clan, congregated on Thursday evenings to share their views about the world! The
4loomsbury group, as #oolf and her friends came to be called, disregarded the constricting
taboos of the Fictorian era, and such topics as religion, se7, and art fueled the tal/ at their wee/ly
salons! They even discussed homose7uality, a subMect that shoc/ed many of the groupPs
contemporaries! 6or #oolf, the group served as the undergraduate education that society had
denied her!
!he (o'age ut, #oolfPs first novel, was published in 151', three years after her marriage to
Leonard #oolf, a member of the 4loomsbury group! Their partnership furthered the groupPs
intellectual ideals! #ith Leonard, #oolf founded 1ogarth 9ress, which published .igmund
6reud, Qatherine Mansfield, T! .! liot, and other notable authors! .he determinedly pursued her
own writing as well2 <uring the ne7t few years, #oolf /ept a diary and wrote several novels, a
collection of short stories, and numerous essays! .he struggled, as she wrote, to both deal with
her bouts of bipolarity and to find her true voice as a writer! 4efore #orld #ar I, #oolf viewed
the realistic Fictorian novel, with its neat and linear plots, as an inade>uate form of e7pression!
1er opinion intensified after the war, and in the 15%;s she began searching for the form that
would reflect the violent contrasts and disMointed impressions of the world around her!
In Mrs7 Dallo?a', published in 15%', #oolf discovered a new literary form capable of
e7pressing the new realities of postwar ngland! The novel depicts the subMective e7periences
and memories of its central characters over a single day in post(#orld #ar I London! <ivided
into parts, rather than chapters, the novel-s structure highlights the finely interwoven te7ture of
the characters- thoughts! Iritics tend to agree that #oolf found her writerPs voice with this novel!
At forty"three, she /new her e7perimental style was unli/ely to be a popular success but no
longer felt compelled to see/ critical praise! The novel did, however, gain a measure of
commercial and critical success! This boo/, which focuses on commonplace tas/s, such as
shopping, throwing a party, and eating dinner, showed that no act was too small or too ordinary
for a writerPs attention! :ltimately, Mrs7 Dallo?a' transformed the novel as an art form!
#oolf develops the boo/Ps protagonist, Ilarissa <alloway, and myriad other characters by
chronicling their interior thoughts with little pause or e7planation, a style referred to as stream of
consciousness! .everal central characters and more than one hundred minor characters appear in
the te7t, and their thoughts spin out li/e spider webs! .ometimes the threads of thought cross@
and people succeed in communicating! More often, however, the threads do not cross, leaving
the characters isolated and alone! #oolf believed that behind the Tcotton woolL of life, as she
terms it in her autobiographical collection of essays Moments o% ,eing $1541*, and under the
downpour of impressions saturating a mind during each moment, a pattern e7ists!
Iharacters in Mrs7 Dallo?a' occasionally perceive lifePs pattern through a sudden shoc/, or what
#oolf called a Tmoment of being!L .uddenly the cotton wool parts, and a person sees reality, and
his or her place in it, clearly! TIn the vast catastrophe of the uropean war,L wrote #oolf, Tour
emotions had to be bro/en up for us, and put at an angle from us, before we could allow
ourselves to feel them in poetry or fiction!L These words appear in her essay collection, !he
Common Reader, which was published Must one month before Mrs7 Dallo?a'! 1er novel attempts
to uncover fragmented emotions, such as desperation or love, in order to find, through Tmoments
of being,L a way to endure!
208
#hile writing Mrs7 Dallo?a', #oolf reread the Gree/ classics along with two new modernist
writers, Marcel 9roust and 3ames 3oyce! #oolf shared these writers- interest in time and
psychology, and she incorporated these issues into her novel! .he wanted to show characters in
flu7, rather than static, characters who thin/ and emote as they move through space, who react to
their surroundings in ways that mirrored actual human e7perience! 8apid political and social
change mar/ed the period between the two world wars2 the 4ritish mpire, for which so many
people had sacrificed their lives to protect and preserve, was in decline! Iountries li/e India were
beginning to >uestion 4ritainPs colonial rule! At home, the Labour 9arty, with its plans for
economic reform, was beginning to challenge the Ionservative 9arty, with its emphasis on
imperial business interests! #omen, who had flooded the wor/force to replace the men who had
gone to war, were demanding e>ual rights! Men, who had seen unspea/able atrocities in the first
modern war, were >uestioning the usefulness of class"based sociopolitical institutions! #oolf lent
her support to the feminist movement in her nonfiction boo/ A Room o% ne#s ?n $15%5*, as
well as in numerous essays, and she was briefly involved in the womenPs suffrage movement!
Although Mrs7 Dallo?a' portrays the shifting political atmosphere through the characters 9eter
#alsh, 8ichard <alloway, and 1ugh #hitbread, it focuses more deeply on the charged social
mood through the characters .eptimus #arren .mith and Ilarissa <alloway! #oolf delves into
the consciousness of Ilarissa, a woman who e7ists largely in the domestic sphere, to ensure that
readers ta/e her character seriously, rather than simply dismiss her as a vain and uneducated
upper"class wife! In spite of her heroic and imperfect effort in life, Ilarissa, li/e every human
being and even the old social order itself, must face death!
#oolfPs struggles with mental illness gave her an opportunity to witness firsthand how
insensitive medical professionals could be, and she criti>ues their tactlessness in Mrs7 Dallo?a'!
Cne of #oolfPs doctors suggested that plenty of rest and rich food would lead to a full recovery,
a cure prescribed in the novel, and another removed several of her teeth! In the early twentieth
century, mental health problems were too often considered imaginary, an embarrassment, or the
product of moral wea/ness! <uring one bout of illness, #oolf heard birds sing li/e Gree/
choruses and Qing dward use foul language among some aBaleas! In 1541, as ngland entered a
second world war, and at the onset of another brea/down she feared would be permanent, #oolf
placed a large stone in her poc/et to weigh herself down and drowned herself in the 8iver Cuse!
9lot Cverview
O
Mrs7 Dallo?a' covers one day from morning to night in one womanPs life! Ilarissa <alloway, an
upper"class housewife, wal/s through her London neighborhood to prepare for the party she will
host that evening! #hen she returns from flower shopping, an old suitor and friend, 9eter #alsh,
drops by her house une7pectedly! The two have always Mudged each other harshly, and their
meeting in the present intertwines with their thoughts of the past! Wears earlier, Ilarissa refused
9eterPs marriage proposal, and 9eter has never >uite gotten over it! 9eter as/s Ilarissa if she is
happy with her husband, 8ichard, but before she can answer, her daughter, liBabeth, enters the
room! 9eter leaves and goes to 8egentPs 9ar/! 1e thin/s about IlarissaPs refusal, which still
obsesses him!
The point of view then shifts to .eptimus, a veteran of #orld #ar I who was inMured in trench
warfare and now suffers from shell shoc/! .eptimus and his Italian wife, LucreBia, pass time in
8egentPs 9ar/! They are waiting for .eptimusPs appointment with .ir #illiam 4radshaw, a
celebrated psychiatrist! 4efore the war, .eptimus was a budding young poet and lover of
209
.ha/espeare? when the war bro/e out, he enlisted immediately for romantic patriotic reasons! 1e
became numb to the horrors of war and its aftermath2 when his friend vans died, he felt little
sadness! Aow .eptimus sees nothing of worth in the ngland he fought for, and he has lost the
desire to preserve either his society or himself! .uicidal, he believes his lac/ of feeling is a crime!
Ilearly .eptimusPs e7periences in the war have permanently scarred him, and he has serious
mental problems! 1owever, .ir #illiam does not listen to what .eptimus says and diagnoses Ta
lac/ of proportion!L .ir #illiam plans to separate .eptimus from LucreBia and send him to a
mental institution in the country!
8ichard <alloway eats lunch with 1ugh #hitbread and Lady 4ruton, members of high society!
The men help Lady 4ruton write a letter to the !imes, London-s largest newspaper! After lunch,
8ichard returns home to Ilarissa with a large bunch of roses! 1e intends to tell her that he loves
her but finds that he cannot, because it has been so long since he last said it! Ilarissa considers
the void that e7ists between people, even between husband and wife! ven though she values the
privacy she is able to maintain in her marriage, considering it vital to the success of the
relationship, at the same time she finds slightly disturbing the fact that 8ichard doesnPt /now
everything about her! Ilarissa sees off liBabeth and her history teacher, Miss Qilman, who are
going shopping! The two older women despise one another passionately, each believing the other
to be an oppressive force over liBabeth! Meanwhile, .eptimus and LucreBia are in their
apartment, enMoying a moment of happiness together before the men come to ta/e .eptimus to
the asylum! Cne of .eptimusPs doctors, <r! 1olmes, arrives, and .eptimus fears the doctor will
destroy his soul! In order to avoid this fate, he Mumps from a window to his death!
9eter hears the ambulance go by to pic/ up .eptimusPs body and marvels ironically at the level
of LondonPs civiliBation! 1e goes to IlarissaPs party, where most of the novelPs maMor characters
are assembled! Ilarissa wor/s hard to ma/e her party a success but feels dissatisfied by her own
role and acutely conscious of 9eterPs critical eye! All the partygoers, but especially 9eter and
.ally .eton, have, to some degree, failed to accomplish the dreams of their youth! Though the
social order is undoubtedly changing, liBabeth and the members of her generation will probably
repeat the errors of IlarissaPs generation! .ir #illiam 4radshaw arrives late, and his wife
e7plains that one of his patients, the young veteran $.eptimus*, has committed suicide! Ilarissa
retreats to the privacy of a small room to consider .eptimusPs death! .he understands that he was
overwhelmed by life and that men li/e .ir #illiam ma/e life intolerable! .he identifies with
.eptimus, admiring him for having ta/en the plunge and for not compromising his soul! .he
feels, with her comfortable position as a society hostess, responsible for his death! The party
nears its close as guests begin to leave! Ilarissa enters the room, and her presence fills 9eter with
a great e7citement!
8omanul $intitulat ini^ial rele* urmEre]te DntJmplErile Dn care sunt implicate cJteva personaMe,
de"a lungul unei Bile de iunie, Dn Londra! Asemenea lui .tephen <edalus, personaMul alter"ego al
lui 3ames 3oyce, Dn drumul sEu prin inima ora]ului, Ilarissa <alloway DnregistreaBE diverse
senBa^ii viBuale, auditive, olfactive, impresii ce reconstituie universul strElucitor al Bilei de varE!
MEruntele DntJmplEri ale vie^ii cotidiene camufleaBE de fapt drame personale, iar sub aparentul
aer inofensiv ]i sErbEtoresc al Bilei se DntreBEre]te adevErata fa^E a vie^ii, cu triste^ea ]i
deBamEgirile sale! Hn vreme ce .eptimus #arren .mith $un KdubluT al doamnei <alloway, dupE
afirma^iile autoarei* se cufundE Dn deBnEdeMde ]i, pradE unei depresii provocate de moartea unui
camarad de luptE, se sinucide, 9eter #alsh, iubitul din tinere^e al Ilarissei, se Dntoarce din India,
tulburJnd pregEtirile uneia dintre faimoasele serate ale acesteia ]i declan]Jndu"i o serie de dileme
210
morale! 9e parcursul Bilei, destinele personaMelor se Dntretaie Dn mod surprinBEtor, aparent fErE
continuitate sau legEturE, dJnd la ivealE trEiri ]i mici revela^ii nea]teptate2 8ichard <alloway
descoperE cE motivul fericirii sale Bilnice este iubirea DncE vie pentru so^ia sa, care, la rJndul ei,
D]i clarificE sentimente mai vechi pentru prietena sa din tinere^e, .ally .eton, ]i fostul iubit, 9eter
#alsh! Aara^iunea fragmentarE, urmJnd tehnica flu7ului con]tiin^ei, face din Doamna Dallo?a'
unul dintre cele mai importante romane moderne, consacrJnd totodatE stilul inconfundabil al
Firginiei #oolf! Iharacter List
O
+la!issa 1all#3a. " The eponymous protagonist! The novel begins with IlarissaPs point of
view and follows her perspective more closely than that of any other character! As Ilarissa
prepares for the party she will give that evening, we are privy to her meandering thoughts!
Ilarissa is vivacious and cares a great deal about what people thin/ of her, but she is also self"
reflective! .he often >uestions lifePs true meaning, wondering whether happiness is truly
possible! .he feels both a great Moy and a great dread about her life, both of which manifest in her
struggles to stri/e a balance between her desire for privacy and her need to communicate with
others! Throughout the day Ilarissa reflects on the crucial summer when she chose to marry her
husband, 8ichard, instead of her friend 9eter #alsh! Though she is happy with 8ichard, she is
not entirely certain she made the wrong choice about 9eter, and she also thin/s fre>uently about
her friend .ally .eton, whom she also once loved!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Ilarissa <alloway!
Se$im's Wa!!en Smi$h " A #orld #ar I veteran suffering from shell shoc/, married to an
Italian woman named LucreBia! Though he is insane, .eptimus views nglish society in much
the same way as Ilarissa does, and he struggles, as she does, to both maintain his privacy and
fulfill his need to communicate with others! 1e shares so many traits with Ilarissa that he could
be her double! .eptimus is pale, has a haw/li/e posture, and wears a shabby overcoat! 4efore the
war he was a young, idealistic, aspiring poet! After the war he regards human nature as evil and
believes he is guilty of not being able to feel! 8ather than succumb to the society he abhors, he
commits suicide!
8ead an in"depth analysis of .eptimus #arren .mith!
Pe$e! Walsh " A close friend of IlarissaPs, once desperately in love with her! Ilarissa reMected
9eter-s marriage proposal when she was eighteen, and he moved to India! 1e has not been to
London for five years! 1e is highly critical of others, is conflicted about nearly everything in his
life, and has a habit of playing with his poc/et/nife! Cften overcome with emotion, he cries
easily! 1e fre>uently has romantic problems with women and is currently in love with <aisy, a
married woman in India! 1e wears horn"rimmed glasses and a bow tie and used to be a .ocialist!
8ead an in"depth analysis of 9eter #alsh!
Sall. Se$#n " A close friend of Ilarissa and 9eter in their youth! .ally was a wild, handsome
ragamuffin who smo/ed cigars and would say anything! .he and Ilarissa were se7ually attracted
to one another as teenagers! Aow .ally lives in Manchester and is married with five boys! 1er
married name is Lady 8osseter!
8ead an in"depth analysis of .ally .eton!
211
Richa!- 1all#3a. " IlarissaPs husband! A member of 9arliament in the Ionservative
government, 8ichard plans to write a history of the great nglish military family, the 4rutons,
when the Labour 9arty comes to power! 1e is a sportsman and li/es being in the country! 1e is a
loving father and husband! #hile devoted to social reform, he appreciates nglish tradition! 1e
has failed to ma/e it into the Iabinet, or main governing body!
8ead an in"depth analysis of 8ichard <alloway!
H'&h Whi$/!ea- " IlarissaPs old friend, married to velyn #hitbread! An impeccable
nglishman and upholder of nglish tradition, 1ugh writes letters to the !imes about various
causes! 1e never brushes beneath the surface of any subMect and is rather vain! Many are critical
of his pompousness and gluttony, but he remains oblivious! 1e is, as Ilarissa thin/s, almost too
perfectly dressed! 1e ma/es Ilarissa feel young and insecure!
L'c!eAia Smi$h @ReAiaB " .eptimusPs wife, a twenty"four"year"old hat"ma/er from Milan! 8eBia
loves .eptimus but is forced to bear the burden of his mental illness alone! Aormally a lively and
playful young woman, she has grown thin with worry! .he feels isolated and continually wishes
to share her unhappiness with somebody! .he trims hats for the friends of her neighbor, Mrs!
6ilmer!
EliAa/e$h 1all#3a. " Ilarissa and 8ichardPs only child! Gentle, considerate, and somewhat
passive, seventeen"year"old liBabeth does not have IlarissaPs energy! .he has a dar/ beauty that
is beginning to attract attention! Aot a fan of parties or clothes, she li/es being in the country
with her father and dogs! .he spends a great deal of time praying with her history teacher, the
religious Miss Qilman, and is considering career options!
1#!is Kilman " liBabethPs history teacher, who has German ancestry! Miss Qilman has a
history degree and was fired from a teaching Mob during the war because of societyPs anti"
German preMudice! .he is over forty and wears an unattractive mac/intosh coat because she does
not dress to please! .he became a born"again Ihristian two years and three months ago! 9oor,
with a forehead li/e an egg, she is bitter and disli/es Ilarissa intensely but adores liBabeth!
Si! William 8!a-sha3 " A renowned London psychiatrist! #hen LucreBia see/s help for her
insane husband, .eptimus, .eptimusPs doctor, <r! 1olmes, recommends .ir #illiam! .ir #illiam
believes that most people who thin/ they are mad suffer instead from a Tlac/ of proportion!L 1e
determines that .eptimus has suffered a complete nervous brea/down and recommends that
.eptimus spend time in the country, apart from LucreBia! The hardwor/ing son of a tradesman,
.ir #illiam craves power and has become respected in his fieldfield !
1!. H#lmes " .eptimusPs general practitioner! #hen .eptimus begins to suffer the delayed
effects of shell shoc/, LucreBia see/s his help! <r! 1olmes claims nothing is wrong with
.eptimus, but that LucreBia should see .ir #illiam if she doesnPt believe him! .eptimus despises
<r! 1olmes and refers to him as Thuman nature!L <r! 1olmes li/es to go to the music hall and to
play golf!
La-. @Millicen$B 8!'$#n " A member of high society and a friend of the <alloways! At si7ty"
two years old, Lady 4ruton is devoted to promoting emigration to Ianada for nglish families!
Aormally erect and magisterial, she panics when she has to write a letter to the editor and see/s
212
help from 8ichard <alloway and 1ugh #hitbread! .he has an assistant, Milly 4rush, and a chow
dog! .he is a descendant of General .ir Talbot Moore!
Miss Helena Pa!!. @A'n$ HelenaB " IlarissaPs aunt! Aunt 1elena is a relic of the strict nglish
society Ilarissa finds so confining! A great botanist, she also enMoys tal/ing about orchids and
4urma! .he is a formidable old lady, over eighty, who found .ally .etonPs behavior as a youth
shoc/ing! .he has one glass eye!
Ellie Hen-e!s#n " IlarissaPs dowdy cousin! llie, in her early fifties, has thin hair, a meager
profile, and bad eyesight! Aot trained for any career and having only a small income, she wears
an old blac/ dress to IlarissaPs party! .he is self"effacing, subMect to chills, and close to a woman
named dith! Ilarissa finds her dull and does not want to invite her to the party, and llie stands
alone nearly the whole time, aware that she does not really belong!
E*ans " .eptimusPs wartime officer and close friend! vans died in Italy Must before the
armistice, but .eptimus, in his deluded state, continues to see and hear him behind trees and
sitting room screens! <uring the war, vans and .eptimus were inseparable! vans was a shy
nglishman with red hair!
M!s. (ilme! " The .mithsP neighbor! Mrs! 6ilmer finds .eptimus odd! .he has honest blue eyes
and is 8eBiaPs only friend in London! 1er daughter is Mrs! 9eters, who listens to the .mithsP
gramophone when they are not at home! Mrs! 6ilmerPs granddaughter delivers the newspaper to
the .mithsP home each evening, and 8eBia always ma/es the childPs arrival into a momentous,
Moyous event!
1ais. Simm#ns " 9eter #alshPs lover in India, married to a maMor in the Indian army! <aisy is
twenty"four years old and has two small children! 9eter is in London to arrange her divorce!
E*el.n Whi$/!ea- " 1ugh #hitbreadPs wife! velyn suffers from an unspecified internal
ailment and spends much of her time in nursing homes! #e learn about her from others! 9eter
#alsh describes her as mousy and almost negligible, but he also points out that occasionally she
says something sharp!
M!. 8!e3e! " .eptimusPs boss at .ibleys and Arrowsmith! Mr! 4rewer, the managing cler/, is
paternal with his employees and foresees a promising career for .eptimus, but .eptimus
volunteers for the war before he can reach any degree of success! Mr! 4rewer promotes .eptimus
when he returns from the war, but .eptimus is already losing his mind! Mr! 4rewer has a wa7ed
moustache and a coral tiepin!
=im H'$$#n " An awful poet at the <allowaysP party! 3im is badly dressed, with red soc/s and
unruly hair, and he does not enMoy tal/ing to another guest, 9rofessor 4rierly, who is a professor
of Milton! 3im shares with Ilarissa a love of 4ach and thin/s she is Tthe best of the great ladies
who too/ an interest in art!L 1e enMoys mimic/ing people!
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
+#mm'nica$i#n *s. P!i*ac.
Throughout Mrs7 Dallo?a', Ilarissa, .eptimus, 9eter, and others struggle to find outlets for
communication as well as ade>uate privacy, and the balance between the two is difficult for all to
attain! Ilarissa in particular struggles to open the pathway for communication and throws parties
213
in an attempt to draw people together! At the same time, she feels shrouded within her own
reflective soul and thin/s the ultimate human mystery is how she can e7ist in one room while the
old woman in the house across from hers e7ists in another! ven as Ilarissa celebrates the old
womanPs independence, she /nows it comes with an inevitable loneliness! 9eter tries to e7plain
the contradictory human impulses toward privacy and communication by comparing the soul to a
fish that swims along in mur/y water, then rises >uic/ly to the surface to frolic on the waves!
The war has changed peoplePs ideas of what nglish society should be, and understanding is
difficult between those who support traditional nglish society and those who hope for continued
change! Meaningful connections in this disMointed postwar world are not easy to ma/e, no matter
what efforts the characters put forth! :ltimately, Ilarissa sees .eptimusPs death as a desperate,
but legitimate, act of communication!
1isill'si#nmen$ 3i$h $he 8!i$ish Emi!e
Throughout the nineteenth century, the 4ritish mpire seemed invincible! It e7panded into many
other countries, such as India, Aigeria, and .outh Africa, becoming the largest empire the world
had ever seen! #orld #ar I was a violent reality chec/! 6or the first time in nearly a century, the
nglish were vulnerable on their own land! The Allies technically won the war, but the e7tent of
devastation ngland suffered made it a victory in name only! ntire communities of young men
were inMured and /illed! In 151&, at the 4attle of the .omme, ngland suffered &;,;;; casualties
@the largest slaughter in nglandPs history! Aot surprisingly, nglish citiBens lost much of their
faith in the empire after the war! Ao longer could ngland claim to be invulnerable and all"
powerful! IitiBens were less inclined to willingly adhere to the rigid constraints imposed by
nglandPs class system, which benefited only a small margin of society but which all classes had
fought to preserve!
In 15%), when Mrs7 Dallo?a' ta/es place, the old establishment and its oppressive values are
nearing their end! nglish citiBens, including Ilarissa, 9eter, and .eptimus, feel the failure of the
empire as strongly as they feel their own personal failures! Those citiBens who still champion
nglish tradition, such as Aunt 1elena and Lady 4ruton, are old! Aunt 1elena, with her glass eye
$perhaps a symbol of her inability or unwillingness to see the empire-s disintegration*, is turning
into an artifact! Anticipating the end of the Ionservative 9artyPs reign, 8ichard plans to write the
history of the great 4ritish military family, the 4rutons, who are already part of the past! The old
empire faces an imminent demise, and the loss of the traditional and familiar social order leaves
the nglish at loose ends!
%he (ea! #) 1ea$h
Thoughts of death lur/ constantly beneath the surface of everyday life in Mrs7 Dallo?a',
especially for Ilarissa, .eptimus, and 9eter, and this awareness ma/es even mundane events and
interactions meaningful, sometimes even threatening! At the very start of her day, when she goes
out to buy flowers for her party, Ilarissa remembers a moment in her youth when she suspected
a terrible event would occur! 4ig 4en tolls out the hour, and Ilarissa repeats a line from
.ha/espearePs C'm;eline over and over as the day goes on2 T6ear no more the heat oP the sun N
Aor the furious winterPs rages!L The line is from a funeral song that celebrates death as a comfort
after a difficult life! Middle"aged Ilarissa has e7perienced the deaths of her father, mother, and
sister and has lived through the calamity of war, and she has grown to believe that living even
one day is dangerous! <eath is very naturally in her thoughts, and the line from C'm;eline, along
with .eptimusPs suicidal embrace of death, ultimately helps her to be at peace with her own
mortality! 9eter #alsh, so insecure in his identity, grows frantic at the idea of death and follows
an anonymous young woman through London to forget about it! .eptimus faces death most
214
directly! Though he fears it, he finally chooses it over what seems to him a direr alternative@
living another day!
%he %h!ea$ #) 2!essi#n
Cppression is a constant threat for Ilarissa and .eptimus in Mrs7 Dallo?a', and .eptimus dies in
order to escape what he perceives to be an oppressive social pressure to conform! It comes in
many guises, including religion, science, or social convention! Miss Qilman and .ir #illiam
4radshaw are two of the maMor oppressors in the novel2 Miss Qilman dreams of felling Ilarissa
in the name of religion, and .ir #illiam would li/e to subdue all those who challenge his
conception of the world! 4oth wish to convert the world to their belief systems in order to gain
power and dominate others, and their rigidity oppresses all who come into contact with them!
More subtle oppressors, even those who do not intend to, do harm by supporting the repressive
nglish social system! Though Ilarissa herself lives under the weight of that system and often
feels oppressed by it, her acceptance of patriarchal nglish society ma/es her, in part,
responsible for .eptimusPs death! Thus she too is an oppressor of sorts! At the end of the novel,
she reflects on his suicide2 T.omehow it was her disaster@her disgrace!L .he accepts
responsibility, though other characters are e>ually or more fully to blame, which suggests that
everyone is in some way complicit in the oppression of others!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform
the te7tPs maMor themes!
%ime
Time imparts order to the fluid thoughts, memories, and encounters that ma/e up Mrs7 Dallo?a'!
4ig 4en, a symbol of ngland and its might, sounds out the hour relentlessly, ensuring that the
passage of time, and the awareness of eventual death, is always palpable! Ilarissa, .eptimus,
9eter, and other characters are in the grip of time, and as they age they evaluate how they have
spent their lives! Ilarissa, in particular, senses the passage of time, and the appearance of .ally
and 9eter, friends from the past, emphasiBes how much time has gone by since Ilarissa was
young! Cnce the hour chimes, however, the sound disappears@its Tleaden circles dissolved in
the air!L This e7pression recurs many times throughout the novel, indicating how ephemeral time
is, despite the pomp of 4ig 4en and despite peoplePs wary obsession with it! TIt is time,L 8eBia
says to .eptimus as they sit in the par/ waiting for the doctor-s appointment on 1arley .treet!
The ancient woman at the 8egentPs 9ar/ Tube station suggests that the human condition /nows
no boundaries of time, since she continues to sing the same song for what seems li/e eternity!
.he understands that life is circular, not merely linear, which is the only sort of time that 4ig 4en
trac/s! Time is so important to the themes, structure, and characters of this novel that #oolf
almost named her boo/ !he Hours!
Shakesea!e
The many appearances of .ha/espeare specifically and poetry in general suggest hopefulness,
the possibility of finding comfort in art, and the survival of the soul in Mrs7 Dallo?a'! Ilarissa
>uotes .ha/espearePs plays many times throughout the day! #hen she shops for flowers at the
beginning of the novel, she reads a few lines from a .ha/espeare play, C'm;eline, in a boo/
displayed in a shop window! The lines come from a funeral hymn in the play that suggests death
should be embraced as a release from the constraints of life! .ince Ilarissa fears death for much
of the novel, these lines suggest that an alternative, hopeful way of addressing the prospect of
death e7ists! Ilarissa also identifies with the title character in thello, who loves his wife but
215
/ills her out of Mealousy, then /ills himself when he learns his Mealousy was unwarranted7 Ilarissa
shares with Cthello the sense of having lost a love, especially when she thin/s about .ally .eton!
4efore the war, .eptimus appreciated .ha/espeare as well, going so far as aspiring to be a poet!
1e no longer finds comfort in poetry after he returns!
The presence of an appreciation for poetry reveals much about Ilarissa and .eptimus, Must as the
absence of such appreciation reveals much about the characters who differ from them, such as
8ichard <alloway and Lady 4ruton! 8ichard finds .ha/espearePs sonnets indecent, and he
compares reading them to listening in at a /eyhole! Aot surprisingly, 8ichard himself has a
difficult time voicing his emotions! Lady 4ruton never reads poetry either, and her demeanor is
so rigid and impersonal that she has a reputation of caring more for politics than for people!
Traditional nglish society promotes a suppression of visible emotion, and since .ha/espeare
and poetry promote a discussion of feeling and emotion, they belong to sensitive people li/e
Ilarissa, who are in many ways antiestablishment!
%!ees an- (l#3e!s
Tree and flower images abound in Mrs7 Dallo?a'! The color, variety, and beauty of flowers
suggest feeling and emotion, and those characters who are comfortable with flowers, such as
Ilarissa, have distinctly different personalities than those characters who are not, such as 8ichard
and Lady 4ruton! The first time we see Ilarissa, a deep thin/er, she is on her way to the flower
shop, where she will revel in the flowers she sees! 8ichard and 1ugh, more emotionally
repressed representatives of the nglish establishment, offer traditional roses and carnations to
Ilarissa and Lady 4ruton, respectively! 8ichard handles the bou>uet of roses aw/wardly, li/e a
weapon! Lady 4ruton accepts the flowers with a Tgrim smileL and lays them stiffly by her plate,
also unsure of how to handle them! #hen she eventually stuffs them into her dress, the
femininity and grace of the gesture are rare and une7pected! Trees, with their e7tensive root
systems, suggest the vast reach of the human soul, and Ilarissa and .eptimus, who both struggle
to protect their souls, revere them! Ilarissa believes souls survive in trees after death, and
.eptimus, who has turned his bac/ on patriarchal society, feels that cutting down a tree is the
e>uivalent of committing murder!
Wa*es an- Wa$e!
#aves and water regularly wash over events and thoughts in Mrs7 Dallo?a' and nearly always
suggest the possibility of e7tinction or death! #hile Ilarissa mends her party dress, she thin/s
about the peaceful cycle of waves collecting and falling on a summer day, when the world itself
seems to say Tthat is all!L Time sometimes ta/es on waterli/e >ualities for Ilarissa, such as when
the chime from 4ig 4en Tflood+s,L her room, mar/ing another passing hour! 8eBia, in a rare
moment of happiness with .eptimus after he has helped her construct a hat, lets her words trail
off Tli/e a contented tap left running!L ven then, she /nows that stream of contentedness will
dry up eventually! The narrative structure of the novel itself also suggests fluidity! Cne
characterPs thoughts appear, intensify, then fade into anotherPs, much li/e waves that collect then
fall!
Traditional nglish society itself is a /ind of tide, pulling under those people not strong enough
to stand on their own! Lady 4radshaw, for e7ample, eventually succumbs to .ir #illiamPs
bullying, overbearing presence! The narrator says Tshe had gone under,L that her will became
Twater"loggedL and eventually san/ into his! .eptimus is also suc/ed under societyPs pressures!
arlier in the day, before he /ills himself, he loo/s out the window and sees everything as though
it is underwater! Trees drag their branches through the air as though dragging them through
water, the light outside is Twatery gold,L and his hand on the sofa reminds him of floating in
216
seawater! #hile .eptimus ultimately cannot accept or function in society, Ilarissa manages to
navigate it successfully! 9eter sees Ilarissa in a Tsilver"green mermaidPs dressL at her party,
T+l,olloping on the waves!L 4etween her mermaidPs dress and her ease in bobbing through her
party guests, Ilarissa succeeds in staying afloat! 1owever, she identifies with .eptimusPs wish to
fight the cycle and go under, even if she will not succumb to the temptation herself!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
%he P!ime Minis$e!
The prime minister in Mrs7 Dallo?a' embodies nglandPs old values and hierarchical social
system, which are in decline! #hen 9eter #alsh wants to insult Ilarissa and suggest she will sell
out and become a society hostess, he says she will marry a prime minister! #hen Lady 4ruton, a
champion of nglish tradition, wants to compliment 1ugh, she calls him TMy 9rime Minister!L
The prime minister is a figure from the old establishment, which Ilarissa and .eptimus are
struggling against! Mrs7 Dallo?a' ta/es place after #orld #ar I, a time when the nglish loo/ed
desperately for meaning in the old symbols but found the symbols hollow! #hen the
conservative prime minister finally arrives at IlarissaPs party, his appearance is unimpressive!
The old pyramidal social system that benefited the very rich before the war is now decaying, and
the symbols of its greatness have become pathetic!
Pe$e! Walsh:s P#cke$kni)e an- 2$he! Wea#ns
9eter #alsh plays constantly with his poc/et/nife, and the opening, closing, and fiddling with
the /nife suggest his flightiness and inability to ma/e decisions! 1e cannot decide what he feels
and doesnPt /now whether he abhors nglish tradition and wants to fight it, or whether he
accepts nglish civiliBation Must as it is! The poc/et/nife reveals 9eterPs defensiveness! 1e is
armed with the /nife, in a sense, when he pays an une7pected visit to Ilarissa, while she herself
is armed with her sewing scissors! Their weapons ma/e them e>ual competitors! Qnives and
weapons are also phallic symbols, hinting at se7uality and power! 9eter cannot define his own
identity, and his constant fidgeting with the /nife suggests how uncomfortable he is with his
masculinity! Iharacters fall into two groups2 those who are armed and those who are not! llie
1enderson, for e7ample, is Tweaponless,L because she is poor and has not been trained for any
career! 1er ambiguous relationship with her friend dith also puts her at a disadvantage in
society, leaving her even less able to defend herself! .eptimus, psychologically crippled by the
literal weapons of war, commits suicide by impaling himself on a metal fence, showing the
danger lur/ing behind man"made boundaries!
%he 2l- W#man in $he Win-#3
The old woman in the window across from IlarissaPs house represents the privacy of the soul
and the loneliness that goes with it, both of which will increase as Ilarissa grows older! Ilarissa
sees the future in the old woman2 .he herself will grow old and become more and more alone,
since that is the nature of life! As Ilarissa grows older, she reflects more but communicates less!
Instead, she /eeps her feelings loc/ed inside the private rooms of her own soul, Must as the old
woman rattles alone around the rooms of her house! Aevertheless, the old woman also represents
serenity and the purity of the soul! Ilarissa respects the womanPs private reflections and thin/s
beauty lies in this act of preserving onePs interior life and independence! 4efore .eptimus Mumps
out the window, he sees an old man descending the staircase outside, and this old man is a
parallel figure to the old woman! Though Ilarissa and .eptimus ultimately choose to preserve
their private lives in opposite ways, their view of loneliness, privacy, and communication
resonates within these similar images!
217
%he 2l- W#man Sin&in& an Ancien$ S#n&
Cpposite the 8egentPs 9ar/ Tube station, an old woman sings an ancient song that celebrates life,
endurance, and continuity! .he is oblivious to everyone around her as she sings, beyond caring
what the world thin/s! The narrator e7plains that no matter what happens in the world, the old
woman will still be there, even in Tten million years,L and that the song has soa/ed Tthrough the
/notted roots of infinite ages!L 8oots, intertwined and hidden beneath the earth, suggest the
deepest parts of peoplePs souls, and this womanPs song touches everyone who hears it in some
way! 9eter hears the song first and compares the old woman to a rusty pump! 1e doesnPt catch
her triumphant message and feels only pity for her, giving her a coincoin before stepping into a
ta7i! 8eBia, however, finds strength in the old womanPs words, and the song ma/es her feel as
though all will be o/ay in her life! #omen in the novel, who have to view patriarchal nglish
society from the outside, are generally more attuned to nature and the messages of voices outside
the mainstream! 8eBia, therefore, is able to see the old woman for the life force she is, instead of
simply a nuisance or a tragic figure to be dealt with, ignored, or pitied!
15. %# $he Li&h$h#'se
,i!&inia W##l)
[
Ionte7t
O
Firginia #oolf was born on 3anuary %', 100%, a descendant of one of Fictorian nglandPs most
prestigious literary families! 1er father, .ir Leslie .tephen, was the editor of the Di$tionar' o%
National ,iogra"h' and was married to the daughter of the writer #illiam Thac/eray! #oolf
grew up among the most important and influential 4ritish intellectuals of her time, and received
free rein to e7plore her fatherPs library! 1er personal connections and abundant talent soon
opened doors for her! #oolf wrote that she found herself in Ta position where it was easier on the
whole to be eminent than obscure!L Almost from the beginning, her life was a precarious balance
of e7traordinary success and mental instability!
As a young woman, #oolf wrote for the prestigious !imes Literar' Su""lement& and as an adult
she >uic/ly found herself at the center of nglandPs most important literary community! Qnown
as the T4loomsbury GroupL after the section of London in which its members lived, this group of
writers, artists, and philosophers emphasiBed nonconformity, aesthetic pleasure, and intellectual
freedom, and included such luminaries as the painter Lytton .trachey, the novelist ! M! 6orster,
the composer 4enMamin 4ritten, and the economist 3ohn Maynard Qeynes! #or/ing among such
an inspirational group of peers and possessing an incredible talent in her own right, #oolf
published her most famous novels by the mid"15%;s, including !he (o'age ut& Mrs7 Dallo?a'&
rlando& and !o the Lighthouse7 #ith these wor/s she reached the pinnacle of her profession!
#oolfPs life was e>ually dominated by mental illness! 1er parents died when she was young@
her mother in 105' and her father in 15;4@and she was prone to intense, terrible headaches and
emotional brea/downs! After her fatherPs death, she attempted suicide, throwing herself out a
window! Though she married Leonard #oolf in 151% and loved him deeply, she was not entirely
satisfied romantically or se7ually! 6or years she sustained an intimate relationship with the
novelist Fita .ac/ville"#est! Late in life, #oolf became terrified by the idea that another
nervous brea/down was close at hand, one from which she would not recover! Cn March %0,
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1541, she wrote her husband a note stating that she did not wish to spoil his life by going mad!
.he then drowned herself in the 8iver Cuse!
#oolfPs writing bears the mar/ of her literary pedigree as well as her struggle to find meaning in
her own unsteady e7istence! #ritten in a poised, understated, and elegant style, her wor/
e7amines the structures of human life, from the nature of relationships to the e7perience of time!
Wet her writing also addresses issues relevant to her era and literary circle! Throughout her wor/
she celebrates and analyBes the 4loomsbury values of aestheticism, feminism, and independence!
Moreover, her stream"of"consciousness style was influenced by, and responded to, the wor/ of
the 6rench thin/er 1enri 4ergson and the novelists Marcel 9roust and 3ames 3oyce!
This style allows the subMective mental processes of #oolfPs characters to determine the
obMective content of her narrative! In !o the Lighthouse $15%7*, one of her most e7perimental
wor/s, the passage of time, for e7ample, is modulated by the consciousness of the characters
rather than by the cloc/! The events of a single afternoon constitute over half the boo/, while the
events of the following ten years are compressed into a few doBen pages! Many readers of !o the
Lighthouse& especially those who are not versed in the traditions of modernist fiction, find the
novel strange and difficult! Its language is dense and the structure amorphous! Iompared with
the plot"driven Fictorian novels that came before it, !o the Lighthouse seems to have little in the
way of action! Indeed, almost all of the events ta/e place in the charactersP minds!
Although !o the Lighthouse is a radical departure from the nineteenth"century novel, it is, li/e its
more traditional counterparts, intimately interested in developing characters and advancing both
plot and themes! #oolfPs e7perimentation has much to do with the time in which she lived2 the
turn of the century was mar/ed by bold scientific developments! Iharles <arwinPs theory of
evolution undermined an un>uestioned faith in God that was, until that point, nearly universal,
while the rise of psychoanalysis, a movement led by .igmund 6reud, introduced the idea of an
unconscious mind! .uch innovation in ways of scientific thin/ing had great influence on the
styles and concerns of contemporary artists and writers li/e those in the 4loomsbury Group! !o
the Lighthouse e7emplifies #oolfPs style and many of her concerns as a novelist! #ith its
characters based on her own parents and siblings, it is certainly her most autobiographical
fictional statement, and in the characters of Mr! 8amsay, Mrs! 8amsay, and Lily 4riscoe, #oolf
offers some of her most penetrating e7plorations of the wor/ings of the human consciousness as
it perceives and analyBes, feels and interacts!
9lot Cverview
O
Aote2 !o the Lighthouse is divided into three sections2 TThe #indow,L TTime 9asses,L and TThe
Lighthouse!L ach section is fragmented into stream"of"consciousness contributions from
various narrators!
TThe #indowL opens Must before the start of #orld #ar I! Mr! 8amsay and Mrs! 8amsay bring
their eight children to their summer home in the 1ebrides $a group of islands west of .cotland*!
Across the bay from their house stands a large lighthouse! .i7"year"old 3ames 8amsay wants
desperately to go to the lighthouse, and Mrs! 8amsay tells him that they will go the ne7t day if
the weather permits! 3ames reacts gleefully, but Mr! 8amsay tells him coldly that the weather
loo/s to be foul! 3ames resents his father and believes that he enMoys being cruel to 3ames and his
siblings!
The 8amsays host a number of guests, including the dour Iharles Tansley, who admires Mr!
8amsayPs wor/ as a metaphysical philosopher! Also at the house is Lily 4riscoe, a young painter
who begins a portrait of Mrs! 8amsay! Mrs! 8amsay wants Lily to marry #illiam 4an/es, an old
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friend of the 8amsays, but Lily resolves to remain single! Mrs! 8amsay does manage to arrange
another marriage, however, between 9aul 8ayley and Minta <oyle, two of their ac>uaintances!
<uring the course of the afternoon, 9aul proposes to Minta, Lily begins her painting, Mrs!
8amsay soothes the resentful 3ames, and Mr! 8amsay frets over his shortcomings as a
philosopher, periodically turning to Mrs! 8amsay for comfort! That evening, the 8amsays host a
seemingly ill"fated dinner party! 9aul and Minta are late returning from their wal/ on the beach
with two of the 8amsaysP children! Lily bristles at outspo/en comments made by Iharles
Tansley, who suggests that women can neither paint nor write! Mr! 8amsay reacts rudely when
Augustus Iarmichael, a poet, as/s for a second plate of soup! As the night draws on, however,
these missteps right themselves, and the guests come together to ma/e a memorable evening!
The Moy, however, li/e the party itself, cannot last, and as Mrs! 8amsay leaves her guests in the
dining room, she reflects that the event has already slipped into the past! Later, she Moins her
husband in the parlor! The couple sits >uietly together, until Mr! 8amsayPs characteristic
insecurities interrupt their peace! 1e wants his wife to tell him that she loves him! Mrs! 8amsay
is not one to ma/e such pronouncements, but she concedes to his point made earlier in the day
that the weather will be too rough for a trip to the lighthouse the ne7t day! Mr! 8amsay thus
/nows that Mrs! 8amsay loves him! Aight falls, and one night >uic/ly becomes another!
Time passes more >uic/ly as the novel enters the TTime 9assesL segment! #ar brea/s out across
urope! Mrs! 8amsay dies suddenly one night! Andrew 8amsay, her oldest son, is /illed in
battle, and his sister 9rue dies from an illness related to childbirth! The family no longer
vacations at its summerhouse, which falls into a state of disrepair2 weeds ta/e over the garden
and spiders nest in the house! Ten years pass before the family returns! Mrs! McAab, the
house/eeper, employs a few other women to help set the house in order! They rescue the house
from oblivion and decay, and everything is in order when Lily 4riscoe returns!
In TThe LighthouseL section, time returns to the slow detail of shifting points of view, similar in
style to TThe #indow!L Mr! 8amsay declares that he and 3ames and Iam, one of his daughters,
will Mourney to the lighthouse! Cn the morning of the voyage, delays throw him into a fit of
temper! 1e appeals to Lily for sympathy, but, unli/e Mrs! 8amsay, she is unable to provide him
with what he needs! The 8amsays set off, and Lily ta/es her place on the lawn, determined to
complete a painting she started but abandoned on her last visit! 3ames and Iam bristle at their
fatherPs blustery behavior and are embarrassed by his constant self"pity! .till, as the boat reaches
its destination, the children feel a fondness for him! ven 3ames, whose s/ill as a sailor Mr!
8amsay praises, e7periences a moment of connection with his father, though 3ames so willfully
resents him! Across the bay, Lily puts the finishing touch on her painting! .he ma/es a definitive
stro/e on the canvas and puts her brush down, finally having achieved her vision!
Iharacter List
O
M!s. Ramsa. " Mr! 8amsayPs wife! A beautiful and loving woman, Mrs! 8amsay is a wonderful
hostess who ta/es pride in ma/ing memorable e7periences for the guests at the familyPs summer
home on the Isle of ./ye! Affirming traditional gender roles wholeheartedly, she lavishes
particular attention on her male guests, who she believes have delicate egos and need constant
support and sympathy! .he is a dutiful and loving wife but often struggles with her husbandPs
difficult moods and selfishness! #ithout fail, however, she triumphs through these difficult times
and demonstrates an ability to ma/e something significant and lasting from the most ephemeral
of circumstances, such as a dinner party!
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8ead an in"depth analysis of Mrs! 8amsay!
M!. Ramsa. " Mrs! 8amsayPs husband, and a prominent metaphysical philosopher! Mr! 8amsay
loves his family but often acts li/e something of a tyrant! 1e tends to be selfish and harsh due to
his persistent personal and professional an7ieties! 1e fears, more than anything, that his wor/ is
insignificant in the grand scheme of things and that he will not be remembered by future
generations! #ell aware of how blessed he is to have such a wonderful family, he nevertheless
tends to punish his wife, children, and guests by demanding their constant sympathy, attention,
and support!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Mr! 8amsay!
Lil. 8!isc#e " A young, single painter who befriends the 8amsays on the Isle of ./ye! Li/e Mr!
8amsay, Lily is plagued by fears that her wor/ lac/s worth! .he begins a portrait of Mrs! 8amsay
at the beginning of the novel but has trouble finishing it! The opinions of men li/e Iharles
Tansley, who insists that women cannot paint or write, threaten to undermine her confidence!
8ead an in"depth analysis of Lily 4riscoe!
=ames Ramsa. " The 8amsaysP youngest son! 3ames loves his mother deeply and feels a
murderous antipathy toward his father, with whom he must compete for Mrs! 8amsayPs love and
affection! At the beginning of the novel, Mr! 8amsay refuses the si7"year"old 3amesPs re>uest to
go to the lighthouse, saying that the weather will be foul and not permit it? ten years later, 3ames
finally ma/es the Mourney with his father and his sister Iam! 4y this time, he has grown into a
willful and moody young man who has much in common with his father, whom he detests!
8ead an in"depth analysis of 3ames 8amsay!
Pa'l Ra.le. " A young friend of the 8amsays who visits them on the Isle of ./ye! 9aul is a
/ind, impressionable young man who follows Mrs! 8amsayPs wishes in marrying Minta <oyle!
Min$a 1#.le " A flighty young woman who visits the 8amsays on the Isle of ./ye! Minta
marries 9aul 8ayley at Mrs! 8amsayPs wishes!
+ha!les %ansle. " A young philosopher and pupil of Mr! 8amsay who stays with the 8amsays
on the Isle of ./ye! Tansley is a pric/ly and unpleasant man who harbors deep insecurities
regarding his humble bac/ground! 1e often insults other people, particularly women such as
Lily, whose talent and accomplishments he constantly calls into >uestion! 1is bad behavior, li/e
Mr! 8amsayPs, is motivated by his need for reassurance!
William 8ankes " A botanist and old friend of the 8amsays who stays on the Isle of ./ye!
4an/es is a /ind and mellow man whom Mrs! 8amsay hopes will marry Lily 4riscoe! Although
he never marries her, 4an/es and Lily remain close friends!
A'&'s$'s +a!michael " An opium"using poet who visits the 8amsays on the Isle of ./ye!
Iarmichael languishes in literary obscurity until his verse becomes popular during the war!
An-!e3 Ramsa. " The oldest of the 8amsaysP sons! Andrew is a competent, independent young
man, and he loo/s forward to a career as a mathematician!
=ase! Ramsa. " Cne of the 8amsaysP sons! 3asper, to his motherPs chagrin, enMoys shooting
birds!
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R#&e! Ramsa. " Cne of the 8amsaysP sons! 8oger is wild and adventurous, li/e his sister
Aancy!
P!'e Ramsa. " The oldest 8amsay girl, a beautiful young woman! Mrs! 8amsay delights in
contemplating 9ruePs marriage, which she believes will be blissful!
R#se Ramsa. " Cne of the 8amsaysP daughters! 8ose has a talent for ma/ing things beautiful!
.he arranges the fruit for her motherPs dinner party and pic/s out her motherPs Mewelry!
7anc. Ramsa. " Cne of the 8amsaysP daughters! Aancy accompanies 9aul 8ayley and Minta
<oyle on their trip to the beach! Li/e her brother 8oger, she is a wild adventurer!
+am Ramsa. " Cne of the 8amsaysP daughters! As a young girl, Iam is mischievous! .he sails
with 3ames and Mr! 8amsay to the lighthouse in the novelPs final section!
M!s. Mc7a/ " An elderly woman who ta/es care of the 8amsaysP house on the Isle of ./ye,
restoring it after ten years of abandonment during and after #orld #ar I!
Macalis$e! " The fisherman who accompanies the 8amsays to the lighthouse! Macalister relates
stories of shipwrec/ and maritime adventure to Mr! 8amsay and compliments 3ames on his
handling of the boat while 3ames lands it at the lighthouse!
Macalis$e!:s /#. " The fishermanPs boy! 1e rows 3ames, Iam, and Mr! 8amsay to the
lighthouse!
%hemes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas e7plored in a literary wor/!
%he %!ansience #) Li)e an- W#!k
Mr! 8amsay and Mrs! 8amsay ta/e completely different approaches to life2 he relies on his
intellect, while she depends on her emotions! 4ut they share the /nowledge that the world around
them is transient@that nothing lasts forever! Mr! 8amsay reflects that even the most enduring of
reputations, such as .ha/espearePs, are doomed to eventual oblivion! This realiBation accounts
for the bitter aspect of his character! 6rustrated by the inevitable demise of his own body of wor/
and envious of the few geniuses who will outlast him, he plots to found a school of philosophy
that argues that the world is designed for the average, unadorned man, for the Tliftman in the
TubeL rather than for the rare immortal writer!
Mrs! 8amsay is as /eenly aware as her husband of the passage of time and of mortality! .he
recoils, for instance, at the notion of 3ames growing into an adult, registers the worldPs many
dangers, and /nows that no one, not even her husband, can protect her from them! 1er reaction
to this /nowledge is mar/edly different from her husbandPs! #hereas Mr! 8amsay is bowed by
the weight of his own demise, Mrs! 8amsay is fueled with the need to ma/e precious and
memorable whatever time she has on earth! .uch crafted moments, she reflects, offer the only
hope of something that endures!
A!$ as a Means #) P!ese!*a$i#n
In the face of an e7istence that is inherently without order or meaning, Mr! and Mrs! 8amsay
employ different strategies for ma/ing their lives significant! Mr! 8amsay devotes himself to his
progression through the course of human thought, while Mrs! 8amsay cultivates memorable
e7periences from social interactions! Aeither of these strategies, however, proves an ade>uate
means of preserving onePs e7perience! After all, Mr! 8amsay fails to obtain the philosophical
understanding he so desperately desires, and Mrs! "8amsayPs life, though filled with moments
that have the shine and resilience of rubies, ends! Cnly Lily 4riscoe finds a way to preserve her
e7perience, and that way is through her art! As Lily begins her portrait of Mrs! 8amsay at the
222
beginning of the novel, #oolf notes the scope of the proMect2 Lily means to order and connect
elements that have no necessary relation in the world@Thedges and houses and mothers and
children!L 4y the end of the novel, ten years later, Lily finishes the painting she started, which
stands as a moment of clarity wrested from confusion! Art is, perhaps, the only hope of surety in
a world destined and determined to change2 for, while mourning Mrs! 8amsayPs death and
painting on the lawn, Lily reflects that Tnothing stays, all changes? but not words, not paint!L
%he S'/Eec$i*e 7a$'!e #) Reali$.
Toward the end of the novel, Lily reflects that in order to see Mrs! 8amsay clearly@to
understand her character completely@she would need at least fifty pairs of eyes? only then
would she be privy to every possible angle and nuance! The truth, according to this assertion,
rests in the accumulation of different, even opposing vantage points! #oolfPs techni>ue in
structuring the story mirrors LilyPs assertion! .he is committed to creating a sense of the world
that not only depends upon the private perceptions of her characters but is also nothing more
than the accumulation of those perceptions! To try to reimagine the story as told from a single
characterPs perspective or@in the tradition of the Fictorian novelists@from the authorPs
perspective is to realiBe the radical scope and difficulty of #oolfPs proMect!
%he Res$#!a$i*e E))ec$s #) 8ea'$.
At the beginning of the novel, both Mr! 8amsay and Lily 4riscoe are drawn out of moments of
irritation by an image of e7treme beauty! The image, in both cases, is a vision of Mrs! 8amsay,
who, as she sits reading with 3ames, is a sight powerful enough to incite TraptureL in #illiam
4an/es! 4eauty retains this soothing effect throughout the novel2 something as trifling as a large
but very beautiful arrangement of fruit can, for a moment, assuage the discomfort of the guests at
Mrs! 8amsayPs dinner party!
Lily later complicates the notion of beauty as restorative by suggesting that beauty has the
unfortunate conse>uence of simplifying the truth! 1er impression of Mrs! 8amsay, she believes,
is compromised by a determination to view her as beautiful and to smooth over her comple7ities
and faults! Aevertheless, Lily continues on her >uest to TstillL or TfreeBeL a moment from life and
ma/e it beautiful! Although the vision of an isolated moment is necessarily incomplete, it is
lasting and, as such, endlessly seductive to her!
M#$i)s
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform
the te7tPs maMor themes!
%he 1i))e!in& 8eha*i#!s #) Men an- W#men
As Lily 4riscoe suffers through Iharles TansleyPs boorish opinions about women and art, she
reflects that human relations are worst between men and women! Indeed, given the e7tremely
opposite ways in which men and women behave throughout the novel, this difficulty is no
wonder! The dynamic between the se7es is best understood by considering the behavior of Mr!
and Mrs! 8amsay! Their constant conflict has less to do with divergent philosophies@indeed,
they both ac/nowledge and are motivated by the same fear of mortality@than with the way they
process that fear! Men, Mrs! 8amsay reflects in the opening pages of the novel, bow to it! Given
her rather traditional notions of gender roles, she e7cuses her husbandPs behavior as inevitable,
as/ing how men can be e7pected to settle the political and economic business of nations and not
suffer doubts! This understanding attitude places on women the responsibility for soothing menPs
damaged egos and achieving some /ind of harmony $even if temporary* with them! Lily 4riscoe,
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who as a "single woman represents a social order more radial and lenient than Mrs! 8amsayPs,
resists this duty but ultimately caves in to it!
8!acke$s
In TTime 9asses,L brac/ets surround the few sentences recounting the deaths of 9rue and Andrew
8amsay, while in TThe Lighthouse,L brac/ets surround the sentences comprising Ihapter FI!
ach set of sentences in brac/ets in the earlier section contains violence, death, and the
destruction of potential? the short, stabbing accounts accentuate the brutality of these events! 4ut
in Ihapter FI of TThe Lighthouse,L the purpose of the brac/ets changes from indicating violence
and death to violence and potential survival! #hereas in TTime 9asses,L the brac/ets surround
9ruePs death in childbirth and AndrewPs perishing in war, in TThe LighthouseL they surround the
TmutilatedL but Talive stillL body of a fish!
S.m/#ls
.ymbols are obMects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts!
%he Li&h$h#'se
Lying across the bay and meaning something different and intimately personal to each character,
the lighthouse is at once inaccessible, illuminating, and infinitely interpretable! As the destination
from which the novel ta/es its title, the lighthouse suggests that the destinations that seem surest
are most unobtainable! 3ust as Mr! 8amsay is certain of his wifePs love for him and aims to hear
her spea/ words to that end in TThe #indow,L Mrs! 8amsay finds these words impossible to say!
These failed attempts to arrive at some sort of solid ground, li/e LilyPs first try at painting Mrs!
8amsay or Mrs! 8amsayPs attempt to see 9aul and Minta married, result only in more attempts,
further e7cursions rather than rest! The lighthouse stands as a potent symbol of this lac/ of
attainability! 3ames arrives only to realiBe that it is not at all the mist"shrouded destination of his
childhood! Instead, he is made to reconcile two competing and contradictory images of the tower
@how it appeared to him when he was a boy and how it appears to him now that he is a man! 1e
decides that both of these images contribute to the essence of the lighthouse@that nothing is
ever only one thing@a sentiment that echoes the novelPs determination to arrive at truth through
varied and contradictory vantage points!
Lil.:s Pain$in&
LilyPs painting represents a struggle against gender convention, represented by Iharles TansleyPs
statement that women canPt paint or write! LilyPs desire to e7press Mrs! 8amsayPs essence as a
wife and mother in the painting mimics the impulse among modern women to /now and
understand intimately the gendered e7periences of the women who came before them! LilyPs
composition attempts to discover and comprehend Mrs! 8amsayPs beauty Must as #oolfPs
construction of Mrs! 8amsayPs character reflects her attempts to access and portray her own
mother!
The painting also represents dedication to a feminine artistic vision, e7pressed through LilyPs
an7iety over showing it to #illiam 4an/es! In deciding that completing the painting regardless
of what happens to it is the most important thing, Lily ma/es the choice to establish her own
artistic voice! In the end, she decides that her vision depends on balance and synthesis2 how to
bring together disparate things in harmony! In this respect, her proMect mirrors #oolfPs writing,
which synthesiBes the perceptions of her many characters to come to a balanced and truthful
portrait of the world!
%he Ramsa.s: H#'se
The 8amsaysP house is a stage where #oolf and her characters e7plain their beliefs and
observations! <uring her dinner party, Mrs! 8amsay sees her house display her own inner notions
224
of shabbiness and her inability to preserve beauty! In the TTime 9assesL section, the ravages of
war and destruction and the passage of time are reflected in the condition of the house rather than
in the emotional development or observable aging of the characters! The house stands in for the
collective consciousness of those who stay in it! At times the characters long to escape it, while
at other times it serves as refuge! 6rom the dinner party to the Mourney to the lighthouse, #oolf
shows the house from every angle, and its structure and contents mirror the interior of the
characters who inhabit it!
%he Sea
8eferences to the sea appear throughout the novel! 4roadly, the ever"changing, ever"moving
waves parallel the constant forward movement of time and the changes it brings! #oolf describes
the sea lovingly and beautifully, but her most evocative depictions of it point to its violence! As a
force that brings destruction, has the power to decimate islands, and, as Mr! 8amsay reflects,
Teats away the ground we stand on,L the sea is a powerful reminder of the impermanence and
delicacy of human life and accomplishments!
%he 8#a!:s Sk'll
After her dinner party, Mrs! 8amsay retires upstairs to find the children wide"awa/e, bothered by
the boarPs s/ull that hangs on the nursery wall! The presence of the s/ull acts as a disturbing
reminder that death is always at hand, even $or perhaps especially* during lifePs most blissful
moments!
%he (!'i$ 8aske$
8ose arranges a fruit bas/et for her motherPs dinner party that serves to draw the partygoers out
of their private suffering and unite them! Although Augustus Iarmichael and Mrs! 8amsay
appreciate the arrangement differently@he rips a bloom from it? she refuses to disturb it@the
pair is brought harmoniously, if briefly, together! The bas/et testifies both to the TfroBenL >uality
of beauty that Lily describes and to beautyPs seductive and soothing >uality!
225