S-72.

238 Wideband CDMA

systems (2 cr.)
Responsible teacher
Kalle Ruttik
Room 205 Otakaari 8.
Phone: 451 2356.
Email: Kalle.Ruttik@hut.fi

Goals of the course

To present the driving factors and ideas behind the
development of third generation cellular system standards.
To describe the characteristics of CDMA, its possibilities
and problems in a multipath radio channel.
To facilitate to understand of the WCDMA concept as
applied to the UMTS UTRA.
To give an overview of the UMTS core and radio access
network.

Literature
The Course book: WCDMA for UMTS. Radio Access For
Third Generation Mobile Communications. Edited by:
H.Holma, A. Toskala. 2000, John Wiley&Sons. 322 pp.
Also good reading:
UMTS Networks. Architecture, Mobility and Services. H.
Kaarinen et.al.. 2001,John Wiley&Sons. 302 pp.
Radio Network Planning and Optimisation for UMTS.
J.Laiho. et. al.. 2002. John Wiley&Sons. 484 pp.
The UMTS Network and Radio Access Technology. J.P.
Castro. 2001,John Wiley&Sons. 354 pp.
Specifications http://www.3gpp.org/

Outline of the course

1. Introduction to 3G cellular systems. Cellular propagation environment for 3G
radio links. Standardisation process.
2. Evolution from GSM to UMTS. UMTS network Architecture.
3. Packet traffic modelling.
4. Introduction to WCDMA: modulation demodulation methods made available at
the network level: handover, power control.
5. Radio Access Network architecture (chapter 5).
6. Physical layer (chapter 6).
7. Radio interface protocols (chapter 7).
8. WCDMA radio network planning (chapter 8).
9. Radio Resource management (chapter 9).
10. Packet access (Chapter 10).
11. Physical Layer performance (Chapter 11).

Outline of the lecture

History of mobile communication.

Radio Communication peculiarities.
Vision for UMTS.
Standardisation process.

History of mobile communications

1873 Maxwells equations.

1886 Hertz demonstrates the existence of radio waves.
1895 Marconi patents the wireless telegraph.
1900 Fessenden succeeds to transmit voice over radio:
Ship to shore radio communication,
Aircraft to ground radio communication.

1921 Police car radios, Detroit.

First private radio telephone systems.

1946 First public radio telephone systems, St. Louis.

Introduction of HF radio telephones.
Introduction of VHF radio telephones.
1970 Introduction of Finnish ARP-network

History of mobile communications 2

1979 Introduction of AMPS cellular networks.
1980 POCSAG paging standard.
1982 INMARSAT services.
1982 NMT450 cellular networks.
1984 TACS cellular networks,
CT1 cordless telephones.
1985 CT2 cordless telephones.
1991 GSM cellular networks.
1992 DECT cordless telephones.
1995 First CDMA network.
1995 ERMES paging network
1996 TETRA networks.
1991 Development of FPLMTS/IMT2000 and UMTS standards.

Fundamentals of Radio communications

Radio waves as a transmission medium

Time dependent electromagnetic fields produce waves that radiate from the
source to the environment.
The radio wave based radio communication system is vulnerable to the
environmental factors: mountains, hills reflectors, .
The radio signal depends on the distance from the base station, the wavelength
and the communication environment.
Main problems of radio communication are:
Multipath propagation phenomena
Fading phenomena
Radio resource scarcity

Multipath propagation

Advantage: connection in case of Non-lineof-Sight.

Fluctuation in the received signals
characteristics.

The factors affecting radio propagation:

Reflection: collision of the electromagnetic

waves with an obstruction whose
dimensions are very large in comparison
with the wavelength of the radio wave.
Reflected radio waves.
Diffraction, shadowing: collision of the
electromagnetic waves with an obstruction
which is impossible to penetrate.
Scattering: collision of the radio wave with
obstructions whose dimensions are almost
equal to or less than the wavelength of radio
wave.

Radio Channel description

Link budget: to determine the expected signal level at a a given distance from
transmitter.
Covering area, Battery life

Time dispersion: estimation of the different propagation delays related to the

replicas of the transmitted signal which reaches the receiver.

Fading Channel
Small-scale Fading
(Rayleigh, Rician)

Large-scale Fading

Path loss

Oscillation around
signal mean

Frequency selective
Fading

Flat Fading

Slow Fading

Fast Fading
(Short term/multipath)

Channel Bandwidth
Impact of wide bandwidth
The number of taps increases.
New tap amplitude statistics are
needed.

Wideband Channel Modelling

tx

rx

The channel can be represented as a

sum of flat fading Rayleigh- or Rician
components.
Each component has its own doppler
spectrum
Equivalent model is tapped delay line
M 1

h( , t ) = hk e j 2 k t ( k )
fast fading generator
noise
source
noise
source

90

k =0

a1s

A1

a2s

fast
fading
generator

A2

aNs
fast
fading
generator

AN

Geographical area from where

multipath components arrive to the
receiver can be divided into elliptical
zones.
The with of the zone gives enough
small delay variation of the zone.
The transmission function for a zone
is mostly constant.

Signal amplitude in the channel

impulssivaste

-70
-80
-90
dB

-100
-110
-120

1600

1560

1520

1480

1440

1400

1360

1320

1280

1240

1200

1160

1120

1080

1040

1000

960

920

880

840

800

760

720

680

640

600

560

520

480

440

-140

400

-130

viive (ns)

Yhteysvlin vaimennus (Path Loss)

-60
-70

am
plitudi (dB)

-80
-90
-100
-110
-120
-130
0

20

40

60

80

100
matka (m)

120

140

160

180

200

Examples of channel models used in

GSM development
Bad urban

i
1
0
i/s
Pim/dB 2.5
class
Typical urban
i
1
0
i/s
Pim/dB 3.0
class
Rural area
i
1
0
i/s
Pim/dB 0
Rice

2
0.3
0
class

3
1.0
3.0
class

4
1.6
5.0
class

5
5.0
2.0
class

6
6.6
4.0
class

2
0.2
0
class

3
0.5
2.0
class

4
1.6
6.0
class

5
2.3
8.0
class

6
5.0
10.0
class

2
0.1
4.0
class

3
0.2
8.0
class

4
5
6
0.3
0.4
0.5
12.0 16.0 20.0
class class class

tap coefficient
distributions

6 s

t
f

UMTS user environments

Satellite cells

suburban,
rural macrocells

urban,
microcells

indoor,
picocells

Cellular radio communication principles

Public radio communications should

offer duplex communication.
The signal strength deteriorates together
with distance.
Every transmitter can offer only limited
amount of simultaneous radio links to the
end-users.
Cellular concept:
large area is divided into a number of
sub-areas - cells.
Each cell has its BS which is able to
provide a radio link for number of
simultaneous users.

A clusters of cells in a cellular network

Architecture of mobile systems

Switching
Network

Mobile Stations

Fixed
Network

Base Stations

Basic structure of a cellular network

Problems
Interference due to the cellular structure, inter- and intra-cell interference
Mobility handling
Cell based radio resource scarcity

Interference

Assume the asynchronous users sharing the

same bandwidth and using the same radio
base station in each coverage area or cell.
Intra-cell/co-channel interference due to the
signal from the other users in the home cell.
Inter-cell/adjacentchannel interference due to
the signal from the users in the other cell.
Interference due to the thermal noise.

Intra-cell Interference
l

Inter-cell Interference

Inter-cell and intra-cell interference in a cellular system

Methods for reducing interference:

Frequency reuse: in each cell of cluster pattern different frequency is used
By optimising reuse pattern the problems of interference can be reduced significantly,
resulting in increased capacity.

Reducing cell size: in smaller cells the frequency is used more efficiently.
Multilayer network design: macro-, micro-, pico-cells

Signal and interference

P Signal received at the BS
I j Spectral density of
interference from other
users in the cell
In Spectral density of
interference from users in
other cells
N0 Thermal noise spectral density

P = E b Pb

Eb Energy per bit of data

Rb data rate

I nW
Ij W=(n-1)P

P
Eb Rb
CIR =
=
(I j + I n + N 0 ) I 0 W

Cell breathing
30

Reasons

25
N = 40
N = 50
N = 60
N = 70
N = 80

20

15

10

s,i

P [dBm]

same spectrum for all users

power control
interference depends on location
of users

Outcome

10
0

200

400
600
Distance from BS [m]

800

1000

system capacity sensitive to instantaneous conditions in the cell

for bad users configuration the demanded capacity will be more
than available capacity
all users increase their transmission power
some users reach their available power and CIR requirement for
them will be violated

Mobility

Mobility provides the possibility of being reachable anywhere and any time for
the end-user
The mobility is provided through:
Handover: gurantees that whenever the mobile is moving from one BS
area/cell to another, the signal is handed over to the target BS.
When there is no continuous active radio link between mobile and BS the mobility
is supported by:
Location update: user registers in the network that it can be found in given
area. Mobile always initiates the location update procedure.
Paging: indication to the user about the the need for transaction. Paging
procedure is always initiated by the network.

Cellular generations
1G Systems: NMT, AMPS, TACS.
3G
2G Systems: GSM, DAMPS,
- Seamless Roaming
- Service Concepts & Models
IS-136, IS-95,PDC.
- Global Radio Access
- Global Solution
3G Systems:
2G
WCDMA
- Advanced Mobility (Roaming)
(UMTS,UTRA
- More Services (Data Presence)
- More Global solution
FDD+TDD)
cdma2000
1G
EDGE
- Basic Mobility
- Basic Services
- Incompatible

1980

1990

2000

Vision for UMTS

Well specified system with major interfaces open and standardised. The
specifications generated should be valid world-wide.
Added value to the GSM. However, in the beginning the system must be
backward compatible at least with GSM and ISDN.
Multimedia and all of its components must be supported throughout the system
The radio access of the 3G must provide wideband capacity be generic enough
in order to become available world-wide. The term wideband was adopted to
reflect the capacity requirements between 2G narrowband capacity and the
broadband capacity of the fixed communications media.
The services for end-users must be independent from radio access technology
details an the network infrastructure must not limit the services to be
generated. That is, the technology platform is one issue and the services using
the platform are totally another issue.

User aspects of UMTS

Telecommunication aspects of UMTS

reaching mass market

common standards enabling

connection everywhere
interconnection between networks
billing and accounting functions for all various
interest
security
Network management is cost efficient and
spectrum efficient manner

low cost mass production

open interfaces

global standards
public and private networks
ubiquitous services

Mobile aspects of UMTS

terminal mobility
personal mobility
service mobility

System providers:

Service choice and flexibility thorough a large

variety of service providers and network
operators.
Simple and user friendly access.
Personalised of user service profiles and user
interfaces.
Transparent services.
Universal accessibility.
Convergence of telecommunications, computer
technology, and content provision
Multimedia services

Examples of new services or applications

Information services:
Interactive shopping,
On-line equivalents of printed media,
Location based broadcasting,
services.
Educational services:
Virtual schools,
On-line library,
Training.
Entertainment services:
audio on demand,
games on demand.
Community services
emergency services,
governmental procedures.

Business information:
mobile office,
virtual workshop.
Special services:
tele-medicine,
security monitoring,
instant help line,
personal administration.
Communication services:
video telephony,
video conference,
personal location.
Business and financial services
virtual banking,
on-line billing.

3G technical requirements

Bit Rate:
Rural outdoor 144 kbps (500 km/h).
Suburban outdoor 384 kbps (120 km/h) .
Indoor 2 Mbps (10 km/h).

Variable bit rate capability: granularity, circuit and packet bearers.

Service Multiplexing.
Varying delay and quality of service requirements. ( priorities of traffic).
Handover: seamless between the cells and different operators. Co-existence
with and handover to 2G systems (with WCDMA to GSM).
Support of asymmetric traffic.
High spectrum efficiency.
Coexistence of FDD and TDD modes.

Basic telecommunication services

Bearer services: which are telecommunication services providing the capability

of transmission of signals between access points.

Teleservices: which are telecommunication services providing the complete

capability, including terminal equipment functions, for communication between
users according to protocols established by agreement between network operators.

Some teleservices are standardised because that interworking with other systems have been
recognised as a requirement.

Supplementary services:A supplementary service modifies or supplements a

basic telecommunication service. Consequently, it cannot be offered to a user as a
stand alone service.
Teleservices
Bearer services

TE

TAF

MT

UE
UE: User Equipment
MT: Mobile Termination
TE: Terminal Equipment
TAF: Teminal Adaption Function

PLMN

possible
transit
network

Terminating
network

TE

Definitions (1)

Basic telecommunication service : this term is used as a common reference to both bearer services
and teleservices.
Bearer service : is a type of telecommunication service that provides the capability of transmission of
signals between access points.
Call : a logical association between several users (this could be connection oriented or connection
less).
Connection : is a communication channel between two or more end-points (e.g. terminal, server etc.).
Multimedia service : Multimedia services are services that handle several types of media. For some
services, synchronisation between the media is necessary (e.g. synchronised audio and video). A
multimedia service may involve multiple parties, multiple connections, and the addition or deletion of
resources and users within a single call.
Quality of Service : the collective effect of service performances which determine the degree of
satisfaction of a user of a service. It is characterised by the combined aspects of performance factors
applicable to all services, such as;

service operability performance:

service accessibility performance;
service retention performance;
service integrity performance;
other factors specific to each service.

Definitions (2)

Service Capabilities: Bearers defined by parameters, and/or mechanisms needed to realise services.
These are within networks and under network control.

Service Capability Feature: Functionality offered by service capabilities that are accessible via the
standardised application interface

Services: Services are made up of different service capability features.

Supplementary service : is a service which modifies or supplements a basic telecommunication

service. Consequently, it cannot be offered to a user as a standalone service. It shall be offered
together with or in association with a basic telecommunication service. The same supplementary
service may be common to a number of basic telecommunication services.

Teleservice; is a type of telecommunication service that provides the complete capability, including
terminal equipment functions, for communication between users according to standardised protocols
and transmission capabilities established by agreement between operators.

Bearer Services

Bearer services provide the capability for information transfer between access
points and involve only low layer functions.
The user may choose any set of high layer protocols for his communication.
A communication link between access points provides a general service for
information transport.
The communication link may span over different networks.
Bearer services are characterised by a set of end-to-end characteristics with
requirements on QoS. QoS is the end-to-end quality of a requested service as
perceived by the customer.
Requirements on the Bearer Services
Information transfer:
Traffic type: quaranteed/constant bit rate, non-quaranteed/dynamic variable bit rate, real
time dynamic variable bit rate with a minimum guaranteed bit rate.

Traffic characteristics: the user can require on of the following configurations

Pont-to-point: uni-directional, bi-directional: symmetric, assymmetric.
Uni-directional point-to-multipoint: multicast,broadcast.

Information quality

Maximum transfer delay: Transfer delay is the time between the request to
transfer the information at one access point to its delivery at the other access
point.

Delay variation: The delay variation of the information received information

over the bearer has to be controlled to support real-time services.

Bit error ratio: The ratio between incorrect and total transferred information
bits.

Data rate: The data rate is the amount of data transferred between the two
access points in a given period of time.

UMTS QoS Classes

Error
tolerant

Conversational
voice and video

Voice messaging

E-commerce,
Error
WWW browsing,
Telnet,
intolerant interactive games

Streaming audio
and video

FTP, still image,

paging

Conversational
Interactive
Streaming
(delay <<1 sec) (delay approx.1 sec) (delay <10 sec)

Fax

E-mail arrival
notification

Background
(delay >10 sec)

Conversational: end-to-end delay is low and the traffic is symmetric of nearly

symmetric.
Speech, Video telephony, .

Streaming: data is transferred such that it can be processed as a steady continuous

stream.
Video, audio, .

Interactive: interaction between human or machine and remote equipment.

Web browsing, tele-mechanics, ... .

Background: non real time data traffic.

email .

QoS requirements
Real Time (Constant Delay)

Non Real Time (Variable Delay)

Operating
BER/Max Transfer Delay
BER/Max Transfer Delay
environment
Max Transfer Delay less than 400 ms
Max Transfer Delay 1200 ms or more
Satellite
(Note 2)
(Terminal
relative speed to BER 10-3 - 10-7
(Note 1)
BER = 10-5 to 10-8
ground up to
1000 km/h for
plane)
Max Transfer Delay 20 - 300 ms
Max Transfer Delay 150 ms or more
Rural outdoor
(Note 2)
(Terminal
relative speed to BER 10-3 - 10-7
BER = 10-5 to 10-8
ground up to 500 (Note 1)
km/h) (Note 3)
Max Transfer Delay 150 ms or more
Urban/ Suburban Max Transfer Delay 20 - 300 ms
(Note 2)
outdoor
BER
10-3
10-7
(Terminal
BER = 10-5 to 10-8
relative speed to (Note 1)
ground up to 120
km/h)
Max Transfer Delay 20 - 300 ms
Max Transfer Delay 150 ms or more
Indoor/ Low
(Note 2)
range outdoor
BER
10-3
10-7
(Terminal
BER = 10-5 to 10-8
relative speed to (Note 1)
ground up to 10
km/h)
NOTE 1; There is likely to be a compromise between BER and delay.
NOTE 2; The Max Transfer Delay should be here regarded as the target value for 95% of the data.
NOTE 3; The value of 500 km/h as the maximum speed to be supported in the rural outdoor environment
was selected in order to provide service on high speed vehicles (e.g. trains). This is not meant
to be the typical value for this environment (250 km/h is more typical).

End-user performance expectation

conversational/real time traffic
Medium

Audio

Application

Degree of
symmetry

Data rate

Conversational
voice

Two-way

4-25 kb/s

Video

Videophone

Two-way

32-384
kb/s

Data

Telemetry
- two-way
control
Interactive games
Telnet

Two-way

<28.8
kb/s

Data
Data

Two-way
Two-way
(asymmetri
c)

< 1 KB
< 1 KB

Key performance parameters and target values

End-to-end Oneway
Delay

Delay
Variation
within a
call

Information
loss

<150 msec
preferred
<400 msec limit
Note 1
< 150 msec
preferred
<400 msec limit
Lip-synch : < 100
msec
< 250 msec

< 1 msec

< 3% FER

< 1% FER

N.A
Zero

< 250 msec

< 250 msec

N.A
N.A

Zero
Zero

End-user Performance Expectations Interactive Services

Medium

Audio

Application

Voice messaging

Degree of
symmetry

Data rate

Primarily
one-way

Key performance parameters and target values

One-way

Delay

Delay

Variation

< 1 sec for

playback

< 1 msec

4-13 kb/s

Information loss

< 3% FER
< 2 sec for
record

Data

Web-browsing

Primarily
one-way

< 4 sec /page

N.A

- HTML
Data

Data

Zero

Transaction
services high
priority e.g. ecommerce, ATM

Two-way

E-mail

Primarily

(server access)

One-way

< 4 sec

N.A
Zero

< 4 sec

N.A

Zero

End-user Performance Expectations

- Streaming Services
Medium

Application

Degree of
symmetry

Data rate

Audio
High quality
streaming audio

Primarily
one-way

32-128
kb/s

Video

One-way

One-way

32-384
kb/s

Data

Bulk data
transfer/retrieval

Primarily
one-way

Key performance parameters and target values

One-way

Delay

Delay

Variation

< 10 sec

< 1 msec

< 10 sec

< 10 sec

Information loss

< 1% FER

< 1% FER

N.A
Zero

Data

Still image

One-way

Data

Telemetry

One-way

- monitoring

<28.8
kb/s

< 10 sec

N.A

Zero

< 10 sec

N.A

Zero

Teleservices

A teleservice can be viewed as set of upper layer capabilities utilising the

lower layer capabilities.
Teleservices can be single media or multimedia services.
Multimedia services are classified:

multimedia conference services,

multimedia conversational services,
multimedia distribution services,
multimedia retrieval services,
multimedia messaging services,
multimedia collection services.

The terminal and network should support the service.

The principle of the network design has been that upper layer and lower layer
are made as independent as possible. (Layers are understood accordingly OSI
model).

Service Capability features

Services Capability Features are open, technology independent building blocks

accessible via a standardised application interface.
Application/Clients access the service capability features via the standardised
application interface.
Framework service capability features: these shall provide commonly used
utilities, necessary for the non-framework service capability features to be
accessible, secure, resilient and manageable.
Authentication, User-Network Authentication, Application-Network Authentication,
User-Application Authentication, Authorisation, Application-Network Authorisation,
User-Application Authorisation, Registration, Discovery, Notification. TS22.121.

Non-Framework service capability features: these shall enable the applications

to make use of the functionality of the underlying network capabilities (e.g. User
Location service capability features).
Session Control, Security/Privacy, Address Translation, Location, User Status, Terminal
Capabilities, Messaging, Data Download, User Profile Management, Charging.

When applications use the generic service capability features, these applications
become independent of (portable over) underlying service capabilities.

Execution environment

The execution environment is a set of standardised capabilities that shall allow the
support of home environment/serving network (HE/SN) specific services (i.e. both
applications, teleservices and supplementary services). The execution environment
shall be distributed between the IC card, terminal and network nodes
Building blocks of execution environment:
A standardised content description language for support of HE/SN specific user interfaces
(both for information output and user input).
A standardised procedural language for
support of HE/SN specific scripts. This
language shall be common to all types of
platforms.
The scripts could be used for e.g. improving
the user interface, adding new features to the
terminal like the latest version of a codec,
controlling the execution of a service.

Standardised application programming

interfaces for opening platform resources and
capabilities to the scripts written with the
standardised procedural language.

Execution Environment
Service
Logic 1

Mobility
Man.

Service
Logic 2

Call /Session
Control

Terminal/IC card

Service
Logic N

Bearer
Control

3GPP standardised user service capabilities

UMTS R99 will standardise the technical means by which a UE may implement the
following UE Service Capabilities.

Tele services:

Speech.
Emergency call.
Short Message Service.
Cell Broadcast service CBS.

Bearer Services:

Information transfer rate,

Information transfer
characteristics .

Information quality
attributes.

Bit error ratio, Maximum

transfer delay Delay
variation .

Defined in GSM R'99. Examples:

Call Forwarding
Advice of Charge.
Explicit Call transfer.

Service capabilities:
Mobile Service Execution
Environment.
Location Services.
SIM application toolkit.

Circuit-switched data.
Packet-switched data.
Defined by their attributes:
Information transfer
attributes.

Supplementary services:

GSM systems features:

Network identity and time
zone.
Unstructures supplementary
service data.

Regulation
Legal-administrative aspects:
Spectrum allocation.
Technical standardisation.
Economic-political aspects:
The spectrum made available such
that:
System providers and users are
satisfied.
Spectrum efficiently used.

Technical-engineering
factors

Regulation
Legal-administrative
factors

Economic-political
factors

Factors in the regulation process

Specification process for 3G

In Europe 3G has become UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication

System), following the ETSI perspective.
In Japan and US IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telephony 2000). The name
comes from the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) development
projects.
Evolution of IS-95 system is covered under the name CDMA2000.
ITU FPLMTS project - promotion of common architectural principles among
the family of IMT-2000 systems.
Different short-term targets.
Europe: need for commercial mobile data service.
Far East: need for additional spectrum for speech services.

3G Spectrum
ITU

EUROPE

JAPAN

USA

IMT200

GSM1800

IMT200

PHS

IMT2000

PCS

MSS

IMT2000

MSS

MSS

IMT200

MSS

MSS

IMT200

MSS

MSS

MSS
MHz

1900

2000

2100

In Europe:
WCDMA-FDD 2110-2170 MHz downlink. 1920-1980 MHz uplink,
WCDMA-TDD 1900-1920 and 2020-2025.

2200

EU projects

Several pre-standardisation research projects:

1992-1995 RACE MoNet project (financed by EU)
System Techniques.
System integration
Modelling methods for describing function allocation between the radio access and core
parts of network.

1995-1998 ACTS FRAMES project.

Multiple access method.

Participants: Nokia, Siemens, Ericsson, Universities

Single air interference proposal for ETSI: input 13 proposals, output 2 modes.
ETSI
Concept
groups

RACE I
basic studies

1988

RACE II
ATDMA
CODIT

1992

ACTS/FRAMES
FMA1:WTDMA
FMA2:WCDMA

1995

1997

1998

ETSI decision
WCDMA for
FDD operation

ETSI Technology selection (1)

WCDMA
The basic system features
considered
Wideband CDMA
operation with 5 MHz,
Physical layer flexibility for
integration of all data rates
on a single carrier,
Frequency reuse 1.

The enhancements covered

Transmit diversity,
Adaptive antennae
operations,
Support for advanced
receiver structures.

WB-TDMA/CDMA
The basic system features considered
Equalisation with training sequences in
TDMA bursts,
Interference averaging with frequence
hopping,
Link adaptation,
Two basic burst types,
Low reuse size.

The enhancements covered

Inter-cell interference supression,

Support of adaptive antennas,
TDD operation,
Less complex equalisers for large delay
spread environment.

ETSI Technology selection (2)

WB-TDMA/CDMA

The basic system features considered

OFDMA

TDMA burst structure with midamble

for channel estimation,
CDMA concept applied on top of the
TDMA structure for additional
flexibility,
Reduction of intracell interference with
multiuser detection,
Low reuse size (< 3)

The enhancement covered included

Frequency hopping,
Inter-cell interference cancellation,
Support of adaptive antennas
Operation in TDD mode,
Dynamic Channel Allocation.

The basic system features considered

Operation with slow frequency hopping
with TDMA and OFDM multiplexing,
A 100kHz wide bandslot from the
OFDM signal as the basic resource unit,
Higher rates build by allocating several
bandslots, creating a wideband signal,
Diversy by dividing information over
several bandslots.
The enhancement covered included
Transmit diversity,
MUD,
Adaptive antennas solution.

ODMA (opportunity driven MA)

terminal outside of cell coverage use
other terminals as retransmitters.

UMTS standardisation procedure

3GPP is a umbrella aiming to form compromised standards by taking into account,
political, industrial, and commercial pressures from local specification bodies:
ETSI
European Telecommunication Standard Institute /Europe
ARIB
Association of Radio Industries and Business /Japan
CWTS China Wireless Telecommunication Standard group /China
T1
Standardisation Committee T1 Telecommunications /US
TTA
Telecommunication Technology Association /Korea
TTC
Telecommunication Technology Committee /Japan

ETSI

T1P1

ARIB

TTA

3GPP

TTC

CWTS

3GPP evolvement
Different switching systems can be
combined with different radio access
parts.
Release 99:
strong GSM presence:
Backward compatibility with GSM,
Interoperation between UMTS and
GSM.

Va ria n t

Ra d io a c c e s s

3 G (US )

WCDMA, EDGE, IS 4 1

IS - 9 5 , GS M19 0 0 ,

CDMA2 0 0 0

TDMA

3 G (Eu ro p e )

2 G Ba s is

WCDMA, GS M, ED
Ad va n c e d GS M NGS M9 0 0 /18 0 0
a n d p a c ke t c o re

3 G (J a p a n )

UTRAN
Release 4:
Separation of user data flows and control mechanisms,
Narrowband TDD with 1.28 Mchips/s,
Position location functionality.

S witc h in g

Release 5:
End-to-end packet switched cellular network using IP,
Downlink data rate more than 10 Mbits/s.
GERAN.

WCDMA

Ad va n c e d GS M NP DC
a n d p a c ke t c o re

WCDMA in ITU IMT 2000

3GPP covers CDMA direct spread and TDD

ITU provides references to 3GPP specifications and does not make
specifications of its own.
Based on the standardisation ITU has the following grouping:

IMT200
TDMA
Single Carrier

Multi-Carrier

CDMA
Multi-Carrier

Direct Spread

3.84 Mcps

3.6864 Mcps

TDD
3.84 Mcps
1.28 Mcps

2G (GSM) vs 3G (WCDMA)
Carrier spacing
Frequency reuse factor
Power control frequency
Quality control
Frequency diversity
Packet data
Dowlink transmit
diversity.

WCDMA

GSM

5 MHz
1
1500 Hz
Radio resource management
algorithms
5 MHz bandwidth gives multipath
diversity with RAKE receiver
Load based packet scheduling

200 kHz
1-18
2 Hz or lower
Network planning
(Frequency planning)
Frequency hopping

Time slot based scheduling

with GPRS
Supported for improving downlink Not supported by the
capacity.
standard but can be applied.

Evolution from GSM to UMTS

Outline of the lecture

Evolutions form GSM to UMTS.
3G network architecture.
Service provision in UMTS.

Evolution types
Technical Evolution
2G

Network Evolution

3G

Service Evolution

Evolution contains not only technical evolution but also expansion to network
architecture and services.
Technical evolution: how network elements are developed and with witch
technology.
Network evolution: in result of network element evolutions the general
functionality of the network is changing.

Technical evolution different for different vendors.

Service evolution: demand generated by the end-users that can be supported by

the technical features of the network.

Evolution of the wireless networks

1000k
UMTS

et
k
c
Pa

100k
64k
t
cui
r
i
C

10k

E
D
G
E

HSCSDG
P
14.4
R
S

9.6

SMS
1k
1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

Basic GSM network (1)

Driving idea in GSM: to define several open interfaces.

Operator may obtain different network components form different suppliers.
Strictly defined interface determines how the functions are proceeding in the network
and which functions are implemented internally by the network element.

GSM provides a means to distribute intelligence in the network. Network

divided into four subsystems:

Network Subsystem (NSS): call control.

Base station Subsystem (BSS): radio path control.
Network Management Subsystem (NMS): operation and maintenance.
Mobile Station (MS).

Difference between 1G and 2G:

Symmetric data transfer possibility.
Service palette adopted from Narrowband ISDN.

Basic GSM network (2)

Network Management (NMS)
Um

MS

BSS
BTS

BSC

TRAU

NSS
MSC/VLR

GMSC

ISDN
PSTN

PSPDN

CSPDN

HLR/AuC/EIR

GSM Network elements

MS: mobile equipment + subscriber data (Service Identity Module)

Base Station Controller (BSC):
Maintains radio connections towards Mobile Station.
Maintains terrestrial connection towards the NSS.

Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

Air interface signalling, ciphering and speech processing.

Mobile Service Switching Centre (MSC):

Call control.
BSS control functions.
Internetworking functions.
Charging,
Statistics,
Interface signalling towards BSS and external networks.

Serving MSC: BSS connections, mobility management, inter-working.

Gateway MSC: Connections to the other networks.
Visitor Location Register (VLR): local store for all the variables and functions
needed to handle calls in the area related to VLR.

Value Added Service platform

Network Management (NMS)
Um

MS

BSS
BTS

BSC

TRAU

NSS
MSC/VLR

GMSC

ISDN
PSTN

PSPDN

CSPDN

HLR/AuC/EIR

V
A
S

Value Added Service (VAS) platform: simple platform for supporting certain
type of services in GSM. (Short Message Service Centre (SMSC), Voice Mail
System (VMS))
Use standard interface towards GSM. May or may not have external interfaces
towards other networks.

Intelligent Network (IN)

Network Management (NMS)
Um

MS

BSS
BTS

BSC

TRAU

NSS
MSC/VLR

ISDN

GMSC

PSTN

PSPDN

CSPDN

HLR/AuC/EIR

V
A
S

I
N

Intelligent network: a platform for creating and providing additional services.

Enables service evolution.
Changes in the GSM switching elements to integrate the IN functionality.
Example pre paid subscription.

IN adopted from fixed network.

Not possible to transfer service information between networks.

IN CS-1 (capability set 1)

Incoming Call
Processing

1. O_Null & Authorize

Origination_Attempt

Outgoing Call
Processing

6. O_Exeption

10

O_Abandon

Orig. Attempt_Authorized

2. Collect_Info

Term._Attempt_Authorized

Collected_Info

3. Analyse_Info

13

4. Routing & Alerting

T_Abandon

12

8. Select Facility &

Present_Call

18

T_Called_Party_Busy

Analyzed_Info

7. T_Null & Authorize

Termination_Attempt

11. T_Exeption

14

9. T_Alerting

Route_Select_Failure
O_Disconnect
9

O_Answer

5. O_active

15

T_Answer

O_Call_Party_Busy
6

T_No_Answer

O_Mid_Call O_No_Answer

Originating Basic Call State Model

(BCSM) for CS-1

10. T_Active

17

T_Disconnect
T_Mid_Call

16

Terminating BCSM for CS1

BCSM

BCSM is a high-level finite state machine description of call control function

(CCF) activities required to establish and maintain communication paths for
users.
BCSM identifies points in basic call and connection processing when IN
service logic instances are permitted to interact with basic call and connection
control capabilities.
Point In Call (PIC) identify CCF activities required to complete one or more
basic call/connection states or interest to IN service logic instances.
Detection Point (DP) indicate points in basic call and connection processing at
which transfer of control can occur.
Transition indicate the normal flow of basic call/connection processing from
one PIC to another.
Events cause transitions into and out of PICs.

HSCSD
Network Management (NMS)
Um

MS

BSS
BTS

BSC

TRAU

NSS
MSC/VLR

ISDN

GMSC

PSTN

PSPDN

CSPDN

HLR/AuC/EIR

HW&SW Changes for HSCSD

V
A
S

The data throughput of the system is increased:

Channel coding is improved (9.6 kb/s -> 14 kb/s).

High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD).

Several traffic channels can be used.
Max data rate 40 -50 kb/s.

I
N

GPRS
Network Management (NMS)
Um

MS

BSS
BTS

BSC

NSS

TRAU

MSC/VLR

ISDN

GMSC

PSTN

PSPDN

CSPDN

HLR/AuC/EIR

HW&SW Changes for GPRS

Gb

V
A
S

I
N

GPRS Packet Core

General Packet Radio Service

(GPRS)

For supporting packet switching traffic

in GSM network. No voice channel
reservation.
Support for asymmetric traffic.

SGSN

GGSN

Internet
Other Data NW

Requires new service nodes:

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN).
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN).

Can not guarantee the QOS.

EDGE (1)

Exchanged Data Rates for Global/GSM Evolution (EDGE):

New modulation scheme. (8 PSK)
Different coding classes. Maximal data rate 48 kbps per channel.

EDGE phase 1:
channel coding and modulation methods to provide up to 384 kbps data rate.
One GPRS terminal gets 8 time slots. The channel should be good.

EDGE phase 2:
Guidelines for achieving high data speed for circuit switching services.

Data rates achieved almost equal to the ones provided by UMTS.

Data rates not available everywhere in the cell.

EDGE (2)
Network Management (NMS)
Um

A
E-RAN

MS

BTS

BSC

NSS

TRAU

MSC/VLR

ISDN

GMSC

PSTN

PSPDN

CSPDN

HLR/AuC/EIR

HW&SW Changes for EDGE

Gb

V
A
S

I
N

E-GPRS Packet Core

SGSN

GGSN

Internet
Other Data NW

3G network R99 (1)

Network Management (NMS)
Um

A
E-RAN

MS

BTS

CN CS Domain

BSC

MSC/VLR

ISDN

GMSC

PSTN

PSPDN

CSPDN

HLR/AuC/EIR

Iu
Uu

V
A
S

C
A
M
E
L

M U
W
E S
A
X A
P
E T

Gb
CN PS Domain

UTRAN

UE
BS

RNC
SGSN

GGSN

Internet
Other Data NW

Iu

3G network R99 (2)

New Radio interface.

More suitable for packet data
support.
Interoperability with GSM:
GSM radio interface modified to
broadcast CDMA system
information. WCDMA networks
transfer also GSM data.
Possibility to set 2G MSC/VLR to
handle the wideband radio access,
UTRAN.

Customised applications for Mobile

network Enhanced Logic (CAMEL):
Possibility to transfer service
information between networks.
In the future almost CAMEL will be
involved in all transactions between
networks.

CS domain elements are able to handle

2G and 3G subscribers.
Changes (upgrades) in MSC/VLR and
HLR/AC/EIR.
For example SGSN
2G responsible for mobility management
(MM) for packet connections
3G MM divided between RNC and
SGSN.

Services
Initially 3G offers same services as 2G.
Services transformed into PS domain.

Trends
Separation of connections in control and
services.
Conversion of the network towards all
IP.
Multimedia services provided by the
network.

3GPP R4 (2)

The 3GPP R4 introduces separation of connection, its control, and services for
CN CS domain.
Media Gateway (MGW): an element for maintaining the connection and
performing switching function when required.
MSC server: an element controlling MGW.
Packet switched voice (Voice Over IP).
The CS call is changed to the packet switched call in MGW.
For higher uniformity the CS and PS domain is mediated by IP Multimedia
Subsystem.

CAMEL will have a connection to the PS domain elements.

3GPP R4 (1)
Network Management (NMS)
Um

Iu
GERAN

MS

BTS

BSC

MSC Server

CN CS Domain

MGW

ISDN

MGW

PSTN CSPDN

UTRAN

UE
BS

CN PS Domain

IMS

RNC
SGSN

GGSN

IP, Multimedia
Uu
HSS

V
A
S

C
A
M
E
L

M U
W
E S
A
X A
P
E T

3GPP R5 (All IP)

Network Management (NMS)
Um

Iu
GERAN

MS

BTS

BSC

ISDN
PSTN CSPDN

IP/
ATM

CN PS Domain

UTRAN

UE
BS

IP/
ATM

IMS

RNC

IP/
ATM

SGSN

GGSN

IP, Multimedia

Uu
HSS

Network looks to the users always same

V
A
S

Development inside the network

New transport technology: R99 ATM based; R4, R5 IP based.

All traffic from UTRAN is supposed to be IP based.

C
A
M
E
L

M U
W
E S
A
X A
P
E T

Future trends

Techniques:

Further separation of the user plane from the control plane.

Towards packet switching network.
Transparency of access technologies. Greater emphasis to services and quality.
4G ?
Data rate ~20 Mbps (200 Mbps)
Self planning dynamic topologies.
Integration of IP.

OFDM

Services
Location based services. Many services existing at the same time at different
resolution.
Separation of users:
Commercial.
Private users.
Private users with specific needs.

3G Network architecture

3G is to prepare a universal infrastructure able to carry existing and future

services.
Separation of access technology, transport technology, service technology.
The network architecture can be divided into subsystems based on the nature
of traffic, protocol structures, physical elements.
Conceptual network model
Structural network model
Resource management architecture
UMTS service and bearer architecture

Conceptual network model

Home
Network

Non-Access Stratum
CS Domain

Based on nature of traffic:

USIM

Mobile
Equipment

packet switched (PS)

circuit switched (CS)

Domain is a highest level

of group of physical
entities and the defined
interfaces between such
domains. (3GPP spec. TR
21-905)

Access
Network

Serving
Network

Access Stratum

Cu

Uu

PS Domain
Iu

Access Network
Domain
User Equipment Domain

Transit
Network

Yu

Core Network Domain

Infrastructure Domain

Protocol structure and responsibilities divided as:

access stratum: protocol handling activities between UE and access network,
non-access stratum: protocol handling activities between UE and Core Network,

Stratum is the way of grouping protocols related to one aspect of the services
provided by one or several domains. (3GPP spec. TR 21-905)

UMTS architecture domains

User Equipment domain: dual mode and multi-mode handsets, removable smart
cards .
Mobile Equipment (ME) domain:
Mobile Termination (MT) entity performing the radio transmission and related
functions
Terminal Equipment (TE) entity containing the end-to-end application.

User Service Identity Module (USIM) domain:

contains data and procedures to unambiguously and securely identify itself.

Infrastructure domains:
Access network domain: physical entities managing the access network
resources and provides the users with mechanisms to access the core network.
Core network domain: physical entities providing support for the network
features and telecommunication services: management of user location
information, control of network features and services, switching and
transmission.

Core network domains

Serving Network (SN) domain representing the core network functions
local to the users access point and location changes when user moves.
Home Network (HN) domain representing the core functions
conducted at a permanent location regardless of the users access point.
The USIM is related by subscription to the HN.
Transit Network (TN) domain: the CN part between the SN and the
remote party.

UMTS stratums

USIM - MT

Home Stratum

Application Stratum

USIM - HN

Application

MT - SN

SN - HN

Serving Stratum
USIM - MT

Serving Stratum

MT - SN

TE - MT

MT - SN

Transport Stratum

Transport Stratum
Access Stratum
MT - AN

Access Stratum

AN - SN

MT - AN
MT

TE
USIM

MT/ME

Access
Network
Domain

Serving
Network
Domain

Home
Network
Domain

AN - SN

Mobile
Equipment
Domain

Access
Network
Domain

Serving
Network
Domain

Transit
Network
Domain

Remote
Party

Transport stratum
Supports the transport of user data and network control signalling from other strata
through UMTS
consideration of physical transport formats used for transmission.
Mechanisms for error correction and recovery.
Mechanisms to encrypt data over the radio interface and in the infrastructure
part if required.
Mechanisms for adaptation of data to use the supported physical format.
Mechanism to transcode data to make efficient use of the radio interface.
May include resource allocation and routing local to the different interfaces.
The access stratum, which is specified to UMTS as the part of the trasnport
stratum.

Access stratum

Consists of User Equipment (UE) and infrastructure parts, as well as accesstechnique specific protocols between these parts.
Provides services related to the transmission of data over the radio interface
and the management of the radio interface to the other parts of UMTS.
The access stratum includes the following protocols:
Mobile termination - Access network (MT-AN) protocol supporting transfer of
detailed radio-related information to coordinate the use of radio resources
between MR and AN.
Access network - Serving Network (AN - SN) protocol supporting the access
from the SN to the resources provided by the AN. It is independent of the
specific radio structure of the AN.

Serving stratum
Consists of protocols and functions to route and transmit user of network
generated data/information form source to destination. The source and
destination may be within the same of different networks. It contains functions
related to telecommunication services, and includes:
USIM - Mobile termination (USIM - MT) protocol supporting access to
subscriber-specific information to allow functions in the user equipment
domain.
Mobile Termination - Serving Network (MT -SN) protocol supporting access
from MT to the services provided by the serving network domain.
Terminal Equipment - Mobile Termination (TE -MT) protocol supporting
exchange of control information between the TE and the MT.

Home stratum

Consists of protocols and functions related to the handling and storage of

subscription data and possibly home network specific services.
Functions to allow domains other than the home network domain to act on
behalf of the home network.
Functions related to subscription data management and customer care, as well
as billing and charging, mobility management and authentication.
The home stratum include the following protocols:
USIM - Home Network (USIM - HN) protocol supporting co-ordination of
subscriber-specific information between USIM and HN.
USIM - Mobile Termination (USIM - MT) protocol providing the MT with
access to user specific data and resources necessary to perform actions on
behalf of the home network.
Mobile Termination - Serving Network (MT - SN) protocol supporting user
specific data exchange between the MT and the SN.
Serving Network - Home Network (SN - HN) protocol providing the SN with
access to HN data and resources necessary to perform its actions on behalf of
the HN.

Application stratum

It represents the application process itself, provided to the end user.

It includes end-to-end protocols and functions making use of services provided
by the home, serving, and transport strata and necessary infrastructure
supporting services and/or value added services.
The functions and protocols within the application stratum may adhere to
GSM/UMTS standards or may be outside the scope of the UMTS standards.
End-to-end functions are applications consumed by users at the edge
of/outside the overall network.
Authentication and authorised users may access the applications by using any
variety of available user equipment.

Structural Network Architecture

UE user equipment
ME mobile equipment
USIM UMTS Service Identity
Module
RAN Radio Access Network
UTRAM UMTS RAN
GERAN GSM/EDGE RAN

Node B Base Station (BS)

RNC Radio Network Controller
RNS Radio Network Subsystem
CS Core network
Iur Interface between two RNS

Uu
UE

UTRAN
BS

Iu

CN

RNS
CN CS Domain
3G MSC/VLR

RNC

3G GMSC

BS
UE

Iur
BS

UE

HLR/Au/EIR

RNS
CN PS Domain

RNC
BS

Registers

SGSN

GGSN

Resource Management Architecture

Communication Management: functions and procedures related to the user

connections.
Mobility Management: functions and procedures related to mobility and
security.
Radio Resource Management: algorithms related to the radio resource.
The functions are related to the
control mechanisms:
Communication Control.
Mobility Control.
Radio Resource Control.

Communication Control

CM

CM
Mobility Control

Mobility Control

MM

MM

MM

Radio Resource Control

RRM

RRM

Open Interface Uu

Terminal (UE)

Open Interface Iu

UTRAN

CN

NMS

UMTS Services

The lower location the layer

has, the bigger is the
investment in the network
elements.

Content Provider layer

Service Creation Layer
Network Element Layer
Physical Transmission Layer

Security Functions

3G is designed as platform for

providing services

Network Management

The higher location the layer has the bigger is the investment in people and ideas.

Challenges: network management and securities.

Methods for supporting service creation:
Virtual Home Environment: concept for personal service environment portability
across network boundaries and between terminals.
Mobile Station Execution Environment: provides a standardised execution
environment in an MS, and an ability to negotiate its supported capabilities with a
MExE service provider, allowing applications to be developed independently of any
MS platform.
CAMEL network feature: subscriber can use of Operator Specific Services (OSS)
even when roaming outside the HPLMN.

Service Provision, user point of view

USER

The concept of the VHE is such that users are

consistently presented with the same personalised
features:

Value Added
Service Provider

Personalised services.
Personalised User Interface (within the capabilities
of terminals).
Consistent set of services from the user's perspective
irrespective of access e.g. (fixed, mobile, wireless
etc.) Global service availability when roaming.

Personal
Service
Environment

Provided and
Controlled by

Home
Environment

Contains
1:N
User
Profile

N:N

HE Value Added
Service Provider

The User's personal service environment is a combination of services and

personalisation information (described in the user profile).
The Home Environment provides services to the user in a managed way, possibly by
collaborating with HE-VASPs, but this is transparent to the user.
User may access services directly from Value Added Service Providers.

Implementation of Services
Applications / Clients

Application
Interface

Personal Service Environment

(Customised/Portable)

Applications/Clients

Proprietary
Service

Built using Service

Capability Features
Application Interface
Service
Capability Features
Accessible to Applications/Clients
via Standardised Application
Interface

Proprietary
Service
Capability
Feature

Proprietary
Service
Capability

Standardised

ervice
apability
eatures (+)
Service
capabilities

SC 1

SC 2

SC 3

SC 4

SC n

GSM/GPRS/UMTS protocols, CAP/MAP

(*)

Network

Service
Capabilities
Pre-set by Standards, e.g.
CAMEL, SAT, MExE, access to
bearers etc.

GSM/GPRS/UMTS protocol (*)

MS functionality, Standardized Services

API (e.g. MExE, SAT)
(*) ... standardisedinterfaces
(+) ... to bestandardised

client2 ... clientn

terminal view

Standardised Services: Vendor specific implementation using standardised

interfaces for service communication.
Operator Specific services: Operator specific implementation of services by
using vendor specific toolkits with standardised interfaces.
Other Applications: implementions using standardised interfaces to the Service
Capabilities (Bearers, Mechanisms). The functionality offered by the different
Service Capabilities are defined by Service Capability Features.
Within the terminals Service Capabilities are accessible via APIs, for example,
MExE.

User Requirements for VHE

The Personal Service Environment describes how the user wishes to manage
and interact with their communications services.
User Interface Profile:
Menu settings: menu items shown, menu structure, the placement of icons.
Terminal settings: ringing tone and volume, font type and size, screen and text
colour, language, content types and sizes accepted.
Network related preferences: language used for announcements .

User Service Profile:

A list of services subscribed to and references to Service Preferences for each of
those services if applicable.
Service status (active/deactive).

Use could have more than one service profile.

Home environment requirements for

VHE provision

Control access to services:

depending on the location of the user, and serving network.
on a per user basis e.g subject to subscription.
depending on available service capabilities in the serving network, and terminals.

Define the scope for management of services by the user, for services provided by the
HE.
Manage:
service delivery based on for example end to end capabilities and/or user preferences.
the prepaid accounts (e.g. increase, decrease the credit, or pass the information to an.
application which manages the credit).
provision of services to users or groups of users.

Request:
version of specific services supported in serving network and terminal.
details (e.g. protocol versions and API versions) of available service capabilities supported in
the serving network, and terminals.

Handle charging for services.

Inform the serving network:
of the type of charging (i.e. prepaid or/and postpaid) for any required service.
of the threshold set for a given service required by the user and charged on a prepaid account.
how to manage a service for which the threshold has been reached.

Deploy services to users or groups of users.

Serving Network requirements for VHE

provision
The serving network should not need to be aware of the services offered via the
home environment.
It shall be possible for the serving network to perform the following:
The serving network shall support user access to services in the home
environment.
The serving network shall provide the necessary service capabilities to support
the services from the home environment as far as possible.
Dynamically provide information on the available service capabilities in the
serving network.
Provide transparent communication between clients and servers in terminals
and networks.
Request the charging information (type of charging, threshold for prepaid
services and behaviour if the threshold is reached) for any service possibly
required by the user.
Handle the call according to the instructions received by the home
environment regarding charging activities.
Inform the home environment of the chargeable events.

Bearer Service
TE

MT

UTRAN

CN Iu EDGE

CN gateway

End-toend Service

Local Bearer
Service

External Bearer
Service

UMTS Bearer Service

Radio Access Bearer Service

CN
Bearer Service

Radio
Bearer Service

Iu
Bearer Service

Backbone
Bearer Service

UTRA
Service

Physical
Bearer Service

Backbone Phys.
Bearer Service

Lecture 3
Introduction to WCDMA

Outline

What is spread spectrum.

Spreading.
Correlation and RAKE receiver.
Uplink and Downlink Diversity.
WCDMA Power control.
Closed loop.
Open loop.

WCDMA handovers.
Soft handover.
Softer handover.

Properties of the Spread Spectrum

Transmission bandwidth is much larger than information bandwidth.

Bandwidth does not depend on the informational signal.
Processing gain = Transmitted bandwidth/ Information bandwidth.
Classification:
Direct sequence: Data is scrambled by user specific pseudo noise code at the
transmitter side.

Frequency Hopping: The signal is spread by changing the frequency over the
transmitted time of the signal:
Fast frequency hopping.
Slow frequency hopping.

Time Hopping: The data is divided into frames, that itself are divided into time
intervals. The data is burst is hopped over the frames by utilising code sequences.

Background of SS

First publications late 40s.

Patent proposal in 1941.

1949 C. Shannon and R. Pierce develop basic ideas of CDMA.

First applications 50s.
Military with very low C/I, Anti-jam.

RAKE receiver patent 1956.

Cellular applications proposed late 70s.
Investigations for cellular use 80s.
IS-95 standard 1993.
Commercial introduction in 1995.

1997/1998 3G technology choice in ETSI/ARIBA/TTA .

TDMA based system

f2

f2
f1
f3

f1
f3

f2
f1

f1
f3

f2

f1
f1

f3
f2

f1

f3
f2

f2
f1

Frequency reuse >1.

Frequency divided by time slots.
0
20
z
kH

WCDMA based system

f1
f1
f1

f1
f1

f1
f1

f1
f1

f1

f1
f1
f1

All users share the same frequency

time domain.
Users separated by the bcodes.

Codes are orthogonal: c1 (t )c2 ( t ) dt = 0

z
kH

f1

00
50

f1

f1
f1

f1

f1
f1

FDD frequency division duplex.

Uplink, downlink in separate
frequency bands

TDD time division duplex.

Uplink, downlink in the same
frequency band and separated in
time.

Processing Gain and Spreading

Power density W/Hz

A narrowband signal is spread to a

wideband signal.
Information rate at the input of the
encoder is R bits
s
Available bandwidth is W Hz
In order to utilize the entire available
bandwidth the phase of the modulator
is shifted pseudo randomly, according
to the pattern from the PN generator at
times
a rate W s
Chip is the rectangular pulse which occupies
the whole bandwidth 1 = Tc
W

Unspread narrowband signal

The duration of Tcis called chip interval

High bit rate means less processing gain and
higher transmit power or smaller coverage.

Spread wideband signal

Frequency

PN
generator

Mod-2
adder

modulator

I
PN
generator

Local
oscillator

Q
PN
generator

Mod-2
adder

modulator

Adder

Symbol

Spreading

Data
Chip

Spreading
Code
Data x Code
Spreading
Code
Data

Despreading

Detection own signal

Own Data
+1

Own Spreading
Code

-1
+1
Own Data x Code

Despreading
Spreading
Code

-1
+1
-1
+1

Data after
multiplication

-1
+4

Data after
integration

-4

Detection other signal

Other Data
+1

Other Spreading
Code

-1
+1
Other Data x Code

Despreading
Own Spreading
Code
Data after
multiplication
Data after
integration

-1
+1
-1
+1
-1
+4

-4

Codes (1)

Requirements for the spreading codes:

Good auto-correlation properties. For separating different paths.
Good cross-correlation properties. For separating different channels.

Channelisation codes used for channel separation from the same source.

Same codes from all the cells.

Short codes: used for channel separation in Uplink and Downlink.

Othogonality property, reduce interference.

Different spreading factors, different symbol rates.
Limited resource, must be managed.
Do not have good correlation properties, need for additional long code.

Scrambling codes.

Long Codes:
Good correlation properties.
Uplink: different users.
Downlink: different BS.

Long and Short Codes

+1
Short Code
-1
+1
Long Code
-1
+1
Combined Code
-1

The tree of orthogonal codes

Orthogonal short codes will only be

useful if channel can be synchronised
in the symbol level.

C41=(1,1,1,1)

C21=(1,1)

Mainly used in DL.

Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor

technique.
Orthogonality preserved across the
different symbol rates.
Codes must be allocated in RNC.
Code tree may become fragmented
code reshuffling may be needed.
Provision of multiple code trees
within one sector by concatenation
with multiple sector specific long
codes.

C42=(1,1,-1,-1)
C11=(1)

C43=(1,-1,1,-1)

C22=(1,-1)
C44=(1,-1,-1,1)

SF1

SF2

SF3

Generation of a scrambling codes

Spreading code is output of the binary shift register generator.

Pseudo random codes are used: cyclic.
Maximal length codes m-sequences: sequences that have maximal possible
sequence given the length of the shift registers.
UL long scrambling code: complex scrambling codes, sum of two msequences (Gold sequence) generators:
X25+X3+1.
X25+X3+X2+X+1.
MSB

LSB

UL short scrambling codes.

clong,2,n

Used to supporting Multiuser detection.

Sequence length around 255 chip.

DL scrambling sequences:

Configuration of uplink long

scrambling sequence generator

Constructed by combining two real sequences with generator polynomials:

1+X7+X18
1+X5+X7+ X10+X18

clong,1,n

Direct sequence (DS) Spread Spectrum

sn (t )
PSK
modulator

xn ( t )

yn ( t )

rn (t )
radio
channel

cn (t )

PSK
demodulator

correlator

znn (t )

x (t )

decision
circuit

n(t )

user n information signal.

user n spreading code.
user n transmit signal.
n(t ) noise.
rn (t ) user n receive signal.
znn (t ) user n correlation signal.
x (t ) user n output information signal.

xn ( t )
cn (t )
sn (t )

znn (t ) = yn (t )cn (u + t )du

T

symbol duration.

With ideal spreading codes and

correct timing the cross correlation
between different users is zero

Channel Repeating
M 1

A multipath channel: h( , t ) = h e ( )
Received signal is convolution of the received signal and the channel.
y (t ) = h e s ( t )
k =0

L 1

l =0

j2

j2

kt

kt

amplitude
amplitude
amplitude

The codes are orthogonal if they are

synchronised, start at the same
moment
If the codes are not synchronised the
cross correlation is not zero.
In multipath channel signal
components arrive at different time
moments.
If the receiver is syncronised to a
tap. The integration covers part of
the previous symbol and next
symbol from an another tap.

amplitude

Multipath will destroy the codes orthogonality:

1
first tap
0
-1
0
1

chips

10
second tap

0
-1
0
1

chips

10
third tap

0
-1
0
1

chips

10
received signal

0
-1
0

6
chips

10

Maximal ratio RAKE

combining of symbols
Transmitted Received
symbol
symbol

Modified
Combined
with channel
symbol
estiamate

Finger #1
Finger #2
Finger #3

Channel can rotate the signal to any phase and to any amplitude.
QPSK symbols carry information in phase.
Energy splitted to many finger -> combining.
Maximal ratio combining corrects channel phase rotation and weights
components with channel amplitude estimate.
Same method used also for antennae combining (BTS, MS), and softer
handover (BTS), and soft/softer handover (MS)

RAKE diversity receiver

Input signal
(from RF)
Phase
rotator

Correlator

Code
Generators

Delay
Equalizer

Channel
Estimator

Finger #1
Finger #2
Finger #3
Timing (Finger Allocation)
Matched
filter

Combiner

Ortogonality in multipath channel

Detection own signal
Own Data
+1

Own Spreading
Code

-1
+1

Own Data x Code

Path 1

-1
+1

Own Data x Code

Path 2

Despreading
Spreading
Code
Data after
multiplication
path 1
Data after
multiplication
path 2
Data after
integration
Path 1
Data after
integration
path 2

-1
+1
-1
+1
-1
+1
-1
+4

-4
+4

-4

Correlation in the receiver

correlation of the signal

correlation of the received signal

1
0.9

0.8

0.8
0.6

0.7
0.6

0.4

0.5
0.2

0.4
0

0.3
0.2

-0.2

0.1
-0.4
-8

-6

-4

-2

Correlation functions are not delta

functions. Correlation functions of
neighbouring paths could overlap.
If the channel taps are near enough the
correlation functions overlap and
create interference.

0
-2.5

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

1.5

1.5

2.5

2.5

Matched filter
Predefined Parallel data

tap 127

tap 126

...

tap 0

Register 1

X
Incoming
Serial data

X
tap 127

tap 126

...

tap 1

Register 2

RAKE receiver needs data timing.

When samples of incoming serial data bits are equal to bits of predefined data,
there is a maximum at filter output.

Delay profile estimation

Sum of the signals from different paths.

Multipath propagation causes several peaks in matched filter output.
Allocate RAKE fingers to these peaks.
Later: track and monitor the peaks.

Signal in the channel

Signal after correlation in receiver

un ,l

j l
Pk ,l e mk ,1 sk ( t uk ,l ) sk ( t ) dt
T

zk (t ) = 1T

0
L
+
Pk ,l e jl mk ,0 sk ( t uk ,l ) sk (t )dt

n
l
,

Pk ,l e jl mk sk ( t l ) + n ( t )

The correlation generates multipath + n ( t ) sk ( t ) dt

T
interference from other paths.

Performance of a DS-CDMA receiver

Signal in the channel in a channel with multiple users: Pn ,l mn sn ( t ) + n ( t )
N L
Signal sample at the receiver:
T0
un ,l

j k ,l
j k ,l
z ( t ) = Pk ,l e
mk ,1 sk ( t uk ,l ) sk ( t ) dt + Pk ,l e
mk ,0 sk ( t uk ,l ) sk (t )dt

L
un ,l
T1

un ,l
+
N L T1

n k

Pn ,l e

j n ,l

mn , 1 sn ( t un ,l ) sk ( t ) dt +

T0

un ,l

Pn ,l e

j n ,l

mn ,0 sn ( t un ,l )

sk (t )dt

+ n ( t ) sk ( t ) dt
T

Pn ,l is the received power of the signal for user

n.
mn is the transmitted symbol to user n.

sn ( t ) is the spreading code of user n.

n(t ) is the random noise after the carrier

demodulator.
un ,l Delay of the user n path compared to the

user k path.

The first term on the right side represents

the desired signal sample of the kth user.
The second term represents the multiple
access interference (MAI) and can be
modelled as Gaussian.
The third term represents the random
noise.
Index k is used to select the parts from
the equation with the user signal.

Performance of a DS-CDMA receiver (2)

Receiver performance in a Gaussian channel is fully characterised by the first

and second moment of the received signal:
E
Pbe = Q
2

Example.

Assume:
Single symbol transmission with single symbol transmission.
Only one multipath component for each user ( L=1 ) and a real channel.
Single cell network.

The received signal can be simplified.

Variance of the interference is:

2
MAI

= E Pn mi Rn ,k ( ui )

nNk

n2 = E n0 (t ) sk (t )

T
= E {n0 (t )n0 (u )}sk (t ) sk (u )dtdu

N N

= E PP
i j mi m j Rik ( ui ) R jk ( u j )
ii =0k jj =0k

T T

=
T T

2
= PP
i j E {mi m j } Rik ( ui ) R jk ( u j ) = PR
i ik ( ui )
N

i = 0 j =0
i k j k

i =0
i k

N0
(t u )sk (t ) sk (u )dtdu
2

N0 2
N
sk (t )dt = 0 Rkk (0)

2 T
2

Performance of a DS-CDMA receiver (3)

By using definition of the autocorrelation:
z (t ) = Pk mk Rkk (0) + Pn mn Rnk (u ) + n(T )
N
n k

Rkk (0) is the code autocorrelation function of user k.

Rnk (u ) is the codes crosscorrelation function between spreading codes of user n and
user k.
n(T ) is the cross correlation function between the random noise and the spreading
code of user k.
The performance of the receiver is expressed in terms of the Q function:

P
R
(0)
E
k
kk

Pbe = Q
= Q
N0
2
Pn Rnk (un ) + 2 Rkk (0)
I +
N

n
k

In the asynchronous case when the delay u is uniformly distributed over the
symbol interval, the expected value of the correlation function ratio is about:

Rnk2 (un )
1
E 2

R
(0)
kk
3Gc

where Gc = N =

Rc
chip rate
=
= processing gain
Rs symbol rate

Performance of a DS-CDMA receiver (4)

The average bit error probability can be calculated as a function of number of users:

E
=
I +

Pk
Rnk2 (un )
+
Pn 2

(0)
R
N
kk

N0
2

Rkk (0)

nk

Pk
Rs
+
P

n
3W
N

Assume: Pk = Pn
N0
2

Rs

nk

If the target SIR ratio given we can estimate the average capacity in the cell.
Assumptions made:
Powers have the same level:
Near far effect.
power control suitable for uplink.

No intracell interference:
can be considered by the intracell interference factor.
Other cells change the transmission power in the same way than the users cell.

Orthogonality:
In downlink all the codes from one BS synchronous - codes orthogonal - no
interference.
Multipath channel ruins orthogonality.
Can be considered in downlink as orthogonality factor.

CDMA capacity an another approach

Same assumptions as before. We attempt directly evaluate the equation

I0 =
Eb =

E
I +

I
Total interference
= the noise density in demodulator =
W
entire spread bandwidth
Pn
received signal power
= received energy per bit =
Rn
data rate

The total interference power is:

I = ( N 1) Pn

where N is number of users.

I
W R
Total number of users in the system is: N 1 =
=
Pn Eb I 0
Compared to analyse in previous slides we assume here that Coding Gain (G) is equal
to WRn . Before we assumed it to be 3RWn . In practice both of these values are only
assumptions and the real coding gain depends on the particular codes and multipath
delays in the system.

Capacity in multicell environment

Problems:
We assume that all the powers are the same (suitable only for uplink).
No other cell interference:
Other cell interference can be considered by the interference factor f. Assume that
other cells generate that is added to the own cell interference. Thus capacity in the
whole system is reduced. f + 1 = interference from other cell + 1

interference from own cell

I 1
W R 1
N 1 =
=
Pn 1 + f Eb I 0 1 + f

The new capacity is:

Codes that are synchronised are orthogonal:

In downlink all the signals are emitted from the same source and propagate along
the same path. The spreading codes that are synchronised are orthogonal.
Can be considered by the orthogonality factor . That is a term that describes how
much the interference is reduced due to the codes orthogonality.

SIR =

W
W
CIR =
R
R

Pk
(1 ) Pn +
N
n k

Simple equation describing quality of

CDMA system
CIR =

P0,0
K0 1

P
k =1

k ,0

N K j 1

+ Pk , j +
j =1 k =1

Equations for all users

P0 ,0
CIR

+ P1,0 + ... + PK 0 ,0 +

P0 ,0

P1 ,0
CIR

+ ... + PK 0 ,0 +

K j 1

Pk , j + = 0

j =1 k =1

K j 1

j =1 k =1

Pk , j + = 0

M
P0 ,0 + P1,0 + ...

PK 0 ,0
CIR

K j 1

j =1 k =1

Pk , j + = 0

where
Pk ,i

signal power for user k in cell I

noise power

Near far effect

Uplink: Because of different attenuation signals to/from users nearer to BS are
stronger than signals to/from further located users.

M
S
2

Without Power Control

M
S
3

Received power at BS

Received power at BS

Radio tower

M
S
1

M
S
1

M
S
2

M
S
3

With Power Control

Downlink: Beacause of the nature of attenuation at the cell border the users
experience higher interference that near to the BS. They have high level of
interfering signals from own BS and from other BS.

Purpose of Power Control in WCDMA

Removes near far effect.

Mitigates fading.
Compensates changes in propagation conditions.
In the system level

Amplitude

decrease interference from other users

increase capacity of the system

Uplink
Power control in uplink must make signal powers from different users nearly
equal in order to maximise the total capacity in the cell.

Downlink
In downlink the power control must keep the signal at minimal required level in
order to decrease the interference to users in other cells.

Time

Power Control types in WCDMA

Open Loop power control: for initial power setting of MS
Transmitter

Across the air interface

Channel
Encoder

Source
Encoder

Modulation

Fast closed loop power control:

Mitigates fast fading rate 1.5 kbps.
On UL and DL.
Uses a fixed quality target set in MS/BS.

Outer loop power control:

Multiple access
interference

Channel
C/I target

Noise

Receiver
Source
Decoder

Power
control

Channel
decoder

FER

Compensates changes in environment.

Adjust the SIR target to achieve the required FER/BER/BLER.
Depends on: MS speed available, multipath diversity.
In the soft handover comes after frame selection.

Demodulation

BER

C/I

Open Loop PC
What is initial transmission power?

BCCH

RACH/CPCH
- MS sets the initial transmission power Ptr
in RACH/CPCH and waits for ack.
- if no ack during TCPCH
Ptr(i+1) = Ptr(i) + P

The BS transmits in BCCH

power of the PRACH.
power step P.

Closed Loop Fast PC

Uses channel in other direction for transmitting the order for power change.
coder

decoder

m odulator

channel

dem odulator

dem odulator

channel

m odulator

coder

Applied only to dedicated channels.

Makes Eb/No requirements lower.
Introduces peaks into the transmit power.
PC speed 0.666 ms, compensates the fading for slow and medium speed.
PC step
uplink 1, 2, 3 dB
downlink 0.5, 1 dB

decoder

Control range
uplink
80 dB
downlink 30 dB

Fast PC
Uplink:
Behaviour precisely standardised.

Downlink:
Precise algorithm not standardised

Equalizes received powers at BS

BS measures the received CIR
and compares to the target CIR
value
BS transmits the TPC command
in downlink and orders the MS to
increase/decrease the
transmission power
MS change the transmitted power
accordingly to the TPC command

MS estimates the received SIR and

compares it with required SIR target
MS transmits the TPC command in first
available TPC field
In soft handover (diversity transmission)
two downlink PC modes
MS sends unique PC command in each
slot
MS repeats the same PC command over
3 slots

Changes of power are multiplies of the

minimum step size
it is mandatory for BS to support 0.5 and
1 dB step size

Outer loop PC

Used for long term quality control

Controls of the channel by setting target Eb/No
the quality requirement is given as long term average of FER/BER
Uplink
SRNC sets the target value
Control is located in the Node B for FDD
for TDD function is performed by UTRAN but target quality value is sent to the
MS

Downlink
located in UE, the initial control parameters are set by UTRAN
receives inputs of the quality estimates of the transport channel

FER and FEP are calculated upon number of frames

Example function for outer loop PC
EbNoTarget(t+1) = EbNoTarget(t) + [dB]
where
=fs-Fs
f is 1 if frame has error accordingly CRC and 0 if not
F is the wanted FER
s is the step size.

Effectiveness of PC (1)
The figure of fading from the file.
Uplink:
In uplink an effective power control follows fading as good as possible.
In the own BS received powers are equal. In other BS high variations.

Downlink:
The power control attempts to estimate the overall interference level in the
cell (system).
The PC attempts to provide good CIR to the as many users as possible.

WCDMA handover types.

Intra-system handovers:
Intra-frequency handovers.
MS handover within one cell between different sectors: softer
MS handover between different BS:

Soft.
Hard.

Inter-frequency handovers.
Hard

Inter-system handovers:
Handover between WCDMA <--> GSM900/1800: Hard
Handower between WCDMA/FDD <--> TDD: Hard

WCDMA handovers

Avoidance of near far situation for circuit switched connections

for high mobility users shadow fading + (slow) hard handovers would create near
far situations.

Soft/Softer handovers will improve cell capacity (around 40-60 %)

Soft/Softer provide macrodiversity gain: compared the hard handover larger
cell range.
Gain against shadow fading ( 1 -3 dB).
Gains against fast fading, typically 0.5 - 2 dB assumed.

Soft/Softer essential interference mitigating tool.

Softer handover

Radio tower

MS in overlapping cell coverage area of

two adjacent sectors of a BS.
Communication between MS and BS is
via two air interface channels (one for
each separate sector).
Different sectors have different
scrambling codes.
UL: MS tunes the RAKE fingers to
different sectors and combines the
outputs.
DL: BS receives signals with different
antennas and decodes and combines
them.

Soft handover

User has at the same time connection to more than one BS.
Except PC bits exactly the same information is sent via air interface.
Soft handover probability 20-40 %.
UL/DL processing different.
MS: At Rake Maximal Ratio Combining of signals from different BS.
BS: Frame selection. Extra transmission across Iub.

me
Fra

CN
RNC

info
y
t
i
l
abi
reli

Fra
me
reli
a

bili
ty

Radio tower

info
Radio tower

Handover impact to capacity

Attenuation in the channels
H a n d o ff
w in d o w

P
[d b ]

Transmitted power in UL
P
[d b ]

in c re a s e o f
tra n sm itte d p o w e r

Transmitted power in DL
P
[d b ]

C e ll s ite 1

C e ll
b o u n d a ry

C e ll s ite 2

Handover procedure
Signal Strength

Handover margin
Summed Signal

Signal B

Signal A

Time
Cell B

Cell A
Radio tower

Radio tower

Strength of the A becomes equal to

defined lower threshold. The
neighbouring signal has adequate
strength. B is added to active set.
Quality of signal B starts to become
better than signal A. The RNC keeps
that point as starting point for
handover margin calculation.
The strength of signal B becomes
equal or better than the defined lower
threshold. Thus its strength is
adequate to satisfy the required QoS
of the connection. The strength of the
summed signal exceeds the
predefined upper threshold, causing
additional interference to the system.
As a result, RNC deletes signal A
from the Active Set.

Parameter in the handover algorithm

Upper threshold: the level at which the signal strength of the connection is at
the maximum acceptable level in respect with the requested QoS.
Lower threshold: is the level at which the signal strength of the connection is
at the minimum acceptable level to satisfied the required QoS. Thus the signal
strength of the connection should not fall below it.
Handover margin: is a predefined parameter, which is set at the point where
the signal strength of the neighbouring cell (B) has started to exceed the signal
strength of current cell (A) by a certain amount and/or for a certain time.
Active Set: is a set of signal branches (Cells) through which the MS has
simultaneously connection to the UTRAN.
Candidate Set: is a list of cells that are not presently used in the soft handover
connection, but whose pilot E/I are strong enough to be added to the active set.
Candidate set is not used in WCDMA handover algorithm.

Neighbour Set: The neighbour set or monitored set is the list of cells that the
mobile station continuously measures, but whose pilot E/I are not stron enough
to be added to the active set.

User Traffic Modeling for Future Mobile Systems

The goal was to gain new knowledge and develop expertise about the fine
structure functionality of packet data traffic for the development of future mobile
data systems.
To create a model, which adequately describes the characteristics of the
individual users connection over different time scales.
A special interest in the lower levels of the time scale
Packet data traffic measurements for
- WWW service in laboratory LAN 1996 and 1999 and WLAN 1997.
- WAP over GSM data and over GPRS from a test WAP-gateway 2000-2002
The data was grouped by individual connections and analyzed based on the
protocols used.
The statistics were modeled based on events of WWW session
- Developed from the ETSI packet data model (referred Ch. 10.1)
- measured distributions are fitted to some analytic distributions
- aim is to get parameters for simulation model(s)
- intended to developing radio link protocols and radio network planning

Wired vs. Mobile Data Traffic

In fixed networks
- bandwidth is large and rapidly growing and transmission errors are rare
- most crucial elements are the centralized components like main trunks, routers
or servers
- one of the main problems is the aggregate traffic of numerous users, which
overloads these relatively few "bottlenecks"
=> the traffic should be measured from the "hot spots".
In mobile networks
- Bandwidth is quite limited and the probability of transmission errors is rather
high
- Few active users can make use of most of the traffic capacity available in a
cell
- The main "bottleneck" is the air interface at the edge of network
=> the traffic should be measured as close to the client as possible.
In WCDMA BER/FER performance is optimized based on average Eb/N0
- The average Eb/N0 is not accurate if high bit rate packet users cause rapid
changes in interference.

WWW traffic

One of the most spread services in the Internet

Often used as user interface for new services
HTTP protocol
Uses TCP and IP protocols for transmission

The technology develops on various levels => has impact on the results
- Internet bandwidth is increasing
- Processing power of both clients and servers is increasing
- New software versions offer more capabilities
Changes in the user behavior and the contents of Internet
- Amount of data in Internet is increasing
- People use WEB more frequently
- Number of items per page is increasing
Physical distances remain => Round trip time (RTT)

The UMTS-network
aimed to cover almost all the data transmission needs of the users
different delay and other quality demands
the behavior of most significant services present in the network is needed to
- follow the effects of changes loading
- evaluate the functionality of the network
- evaluate the service quality
(see lect. 1 p. 32-36)
- control them (for example the usage of priorities)

WAP traffic
to provide a mobile user a WWW like access to the Internet.
a HTTP-like protocol optimized to the wireless domain.
Uses TCP and IP protocols for transmission

The measurements used circuit switched GSM data and WAP protocol 1.0.
The traffic logged simultaneously from both sides of the gateway.
The effects of wireless and Internet connection and the gateway separated
already the activity during WAP-transaction < voice activity (esp. uplink)

=> advantages by multiplexing several sources to shared channels.

implementation errors generate "pseudo traffic"

Figure 1: The WAP Environment

The normal structure for a WAP-transaction is

1) WAP-request,
2) WWW-connection
3) WAP-response
Delay is always larger than with WWW-connection in fixed network
Two protocols used
- Wireless Transaction Protocol (WSP/WTP UDP) port number 9201 and
- Wireless Datagram Protocol WSP/WDP UDP port number 9200.

Packet data traffic measurements

Data packets were collected by TCPDUMP
analyzed by C and MATLAB programs.
The data was grouped and analyzed based by
- Users (or PC) indicated by IP- and MAC-addresses
- Services indicated by ports used by TCP/UDP-protocols.
Packet level statistics 42 figures
- size of every IP- and data packet both directions
- delays between packets in both directions
- comparisons of delay distributions
- delays between packets on the same WAP-item
- number of WWW-items/page and -pages/session
Bursts, Nibbles, WAP-items, -connections, -pages and WAP-sessions, 24 figures
each
- size of groups in packets and in bytes
- delay from previous group
- length of the group
- cumulative distributions
- distributions of bytes based on length of group

The used definitions

Packet

IP-packet

Nibble

Smallest burst of data, which UMTS would distinguish.

group separated with idle > 10 ms.

Burst

active transmission, group separated with idle > 2 s.

TCP/ WSPconnection

A numbered connection/transaction between WWWserver and -client or WAP-gateway and -client.

One TCP-connection can carry tens of WWW-items.

WWW/WAPitem

A request/response pair transferring NEW payload data text,

picture etc., on same TCP/WSP-connection

WWW/WAPpage

WAP-items that forms one visual display unit. Separated

by a reading period, defined from 1 to 300 seconds.

WWW/WAPsession

A period when client is active. Separated by inactivity of no

WWW/WAP-page during 5 minutes (= reading time > 5 min.)

Creating the model

Modeling is done by fitting the cdf of the result to analytic distributions / their
mixtures.
To maintain the information over different time scales, the fitting is done using
logarithmic x-axis
A discrete vector of size 221 samples covers the time scale from 10-6 (1 s) to
105 (1,25 days) with a resolution of 20 points/decade.
The model is fitted to the measured distribution by numerical iterations.
The correctness of fitting is evaluated visually
The distributions used are exponential, Pareto and for small discrete values also
geometric.
the distributions have been enhanced to fit better to the measured data
no zero length delays => shift (= fixed delay) added to exponential distribution
bias (= fixed value of zero)

The Pareto distribution

is defined by

k
f x ( x) = +1
x
0
Fx ( x) =
k )
1

x
k
=
1
k 2
2
=
( 2) ( 1)

,x k

(0.1)

,k < x
,k x

(0.2)

, 1

(0.3)

, > 2

(0.4)

when < 2 the variance and when < 1 also the mean become infinite
normally the Pareto distribution is limited to area 1 < < 2

Truncating the Pareto distribution

parameter T added to compress the in principle unlimited Pareto distribution to
the practice
0

1 (k x )
Fx ( x) =

1 ( k T )

,k < x
,k x T

(0.5)
,x >T

closes unlimited Pareto, when T/k and increase

if k = 10-3 , the difference in cdf between T = 103 and T = 10333 (~ infinity ) is
- only 10-9, when = 1.5
- but 10-3, when = 0.5
in many cases small values of (min = 10-5) give a pretty good fit to measured
data. Then the graph becomes a slope line in semi logarithmic domain.

Geometric CDF
directly from Matlab defined as
F ( x p) =

floor ( x )

i =0

pq i

where q = 1 p

(0.6)

Since the mathematical distribution starts from zero to reach the aimed mean P
must be set
P=

1
1 + mean

(0.7)

The developed traffic data models

The selected statistics were fitted to analytic distributions
simple model is one CDF and partial model is weighted sum of one exponential
and two truncated Pareto CDFs
models are a collection of several measurable distributions on different levels in
top-down order
the mean and variance for the measured data and the models
error value used as the measure in curve fitting

WWW-traffic data model

model is a collection of eleven measurable distributions on three levels as
described in figure 3 in top-down order:
1. The WWW-session interarrival time Dwww
2. The number of packet calls (pages) per WWW-session Npc
3. The reading time between packet calls (WWW-pages) Dpc
4. The number of items per WWW-page Ni.
5. The time intervals between items belonging the same WWW-page Dpii

6. The number and size of packets belonging to an WWW-item are conducted

about the information about the TCP-protocols mechanisms and their influences
and the distributions of
6.1. WWW-item sizes on Uplink Siu
6.2. WWW-item sizes on Downlink Sid
7. The time intervals between packets belonging the same WWW-item are divided
in four subcategories to adapt to the different delay behavior depending on the
direction of transmission
7.1. the time int. between two consecutive Uplink packets inside an item Diuu
7.2. the time interval from Uplink to Downlink packet inside an item Diud
7.3. the time int. between two cons. Downlink packets inside an item Didd
7.4. the time interval from Downlink to Uplink packet inside an item Didu
To make comparison easier each distribution for both models are presented in a
table for both 1996 and 1999 measurements. In a third table there is a comparison
of the mean and variance for the measured data and the both models. There is
also the error value, which was used as the measure in numerical curve fitting and
optimization. It is the sum of squared error between the CDF vectors for measured
data and the model.

A sample distribution for Dwww

4.1

The WWW-session interarrival time, Dwww

1996
1999
Dwww
Distribution
% Parameters
% Parameters
Truncated k=
100
346.7 100
260.52 s
0.3675
0.4195
Pareto
=
3.32e+06
3.8236e+33
s
T=
Table 4.1 The simple model for WWW-session interarrival time Dwww
1996
1999
Dwww
Distribution
% Parameters
% Parameters
3.18
3136.6
16.14
254.90 s
Exponential =
0.001
301.51 s
start is shifted
Truncated k= 70.46
295.9 74.53
257.93 s
0.3842
0.3766
Pareto
=
1.012e+20
1.155e+19
s
T=
Truncated k= 26.36
643.51 9.33
1498.9 s
0.4624
0.2129
Pareto
=
7.103e+16
73509 s
T=
Table 4.2 The partial model for WWW-session interarrival time Dwww
1996
1999
Dwww
Distribution
Measured Simple
Accurate Measured Simple
Accurate
Mean
16877.9
16639.4
16791.9
13358.3
14005.4
14005.0
Variance
31053.0
30805.4
31346.9
26959.0
29103.0
28691.1
Error
0.010323 0.004739
0.011458 0.004435
Table 4.3 The mean, variance and modeling error for WWW-session interarrival time Dwww

WAP-traffic data model

model is a collection of twelve measurable distributions on three levels as
described in figure 3 in top-down order:
1. The WAP-session interarrival time Dwap
2. The number of packet calls (pages) per WWW-session Npc
3. The reading time between packet calls (WAP-items) Dpc
4. The number and size of packets belonging to an WAP-item are conducted about
the information about the TCP-protocols mechanisms and their influences and
the distributions of
- WAP-item sizes on Uplink Siu
- WAP-item sizes on Downlink Sid
5. The timing during a WAP-item is divided in five (WDP) or seven (WTP) parts to
correspond to the model presented in figure 2
- the transmission time of the Uplink packet (WAP-request, begin an item) Dwu
- the processing time of WAP-request Dpu
- the WWW-transaction waiting time Dwww
- the processing time of WAP-response Dpd
- the transmission time of the Downlink packet (WAP-response) Dwd
- the acknowledgement times on Uplink Dau and Downlink Dad

 Presently there are distributions for the WAP-item size and WAP-transactions
internal timings
With Dwap , Npc and Dpc the problem is that IP address often changes during
WAP-sessions, when GSM-data connection disconnects for idle periods. After
that there in no information about the original user.
a browser-session does not model users on the higher levels.
122 550 WAP/WWW-items are distributed to 11697 browser-sessions of which
~ 10 % do overlap and only ~60 % are separated by over 5 minute period.

Figure 4.1

w a p

D www
D

p c

S e s s io n
N p c

D pc

Session
Npc
T

0 b

0 e

W S P /
W D P
T

0 a

0 d

2 b

Page
Ni

2 e

D pii

D pii

W S P /
W T P
T

2 a

0 c

2 d

D iud

2 f

2 c

Didu

Item

W W W Ite m

D iuu

Figure 2. The model of WAP transaction timing.

D idd

Figure 3. The model of WWW-session timing.

The ETSI Non-Real Time Traffic Model

Referred later as ETSI model. Presented in D-ETR SMG-50402 v0.9.3: 4/1997,
Annex 2, and enhanced in Technical Report TR 101 112 V3.2.0 (1998-04) Annex
B, in both Paragraph 1.2.2. Traffic models / Non-real time services

The instans of packet arrivals

to base station buffer

A packet call
t

A packet service session

First packet arrival

to base station buffer

Last packet arrival

to base station buffer

Figure 1.0. Typical characteristic of a packet service session.

 Figure 1.0 depicts a typical WWW browsing session, which consists of a

sequence of packet calls.
We only consider the packets from a source, which may be at either end of the
link but not simultaneously.
The user initiates a packet call when requesting an information entity.
During a packet call several packets may be generated, which means that the
packet call constitutes of a bursty sequence of packets.
It is very important to take this phenomenon into account in the traffic model.
The burstyness during the packet call is a characteristic feature of packet
transmission in the fixed network.
A packet service session contains one or several packet calls depending on the
application. For example in a WWW browsing session a packet call corresponds
the downloading of a WWW document.
After the document is entirely arrived to the terminal, the user is consuming
certain amount of time for studying the information. This time interval is called
reading time.
It is also possible that the session contains only one packet call. In fact this is the
case for a file transfer (FTP). Hence, the following must be modeled in order to
catch the typical behavior described in Figure 1.0:

 Session arrival process

Modeled as a Poisson process. Has nothing to do with call termination.
N pc Geom( Npc ) .
Number of packet calls per session, Npc
Reading time between packet calls, Dpc

Dpc Geom( Dpc )

Number of datagrams within a packet call, Nd

N d Geom( Nd ) .
Inter arrival time between datagrams (within a packet call) Dd
Dd Geom( Dd ) .
Size of a datagram, Sd
Pareto distribution is used
The session length is modeled implicitly by the number of events during the session.
Table 1.1 Characteristics of connection-less information types (default mean values for the distributions of typical
www service)
Packet based
information types

WWW surfing
UDD 8 kbit/s
UDD 32 kbit/s
UDD 64 kbit/s
UDD 144 kbit/s
UDD 384 kbit/s
UDD 2048 kbit/s
(originally
UDD 8 kbit/s)

Average number
of packet calls
within a session

Average reading
time between
packet calls [s]

Average amount of
packets within a
packet call []

Average
interarrival
time between
1
packets [s]

5
5
5
5
5
5

412
412
412
412
412
412

25
25
25
25
25
25

0.5
0.125
0.0625
0.0277
0.0104
0.00195

12

15

0.96

The different interarrival times correspond to average bit rates of 8, 32, 64, 144, 384 and 2048 kbit/s.

Parameters for
packet size
distribution

k = 81.5
= 1.1

According to the values for and k in the Pareto distribution, the average packet size n is 480 and average requested filesize is Nd x = 25 x 480 bytes 12 kBytes. The packet size is limited to 66 666 bytes, giving a finite variance to the distribution. (First the truncations effect were neglected giving n = 896 bytes and Nd x = 15 x 896 bytes 13,4 kBytes.)

The principle of dividing the model to layers like session, packet call and a
packet is very good and describes the quite closely the actual process
major drawback in the presented model are:
1. it does not take in to the consideration the direction of the packets
- measured WWW traffic has great asymmetry
- delays are different for example up to Down (~RTT) and down to up
- used protocols can differ between Uplink and Downlink
2. WWW-pages are often composed of several (on average 4.8) WWW-items which use
more than one parallel TCP-connections.
3. the systematic usage of selected statistic distributions can mask out some typical
features.
- For example the datagram (=packet) size and average interarrival time distributions.

The timing diagram presented in the figure 2. WAP transaction is there divided in
following parts:
1. WAP-request transmitting time T0A/T2A. Calculated by dividing the packet size
by line speed 9,6 kbit/s
2. WAP-request processing time in Gateway T0B/T2B
3. WWW-transaction waiting time T0C/T2C
4. WAP-response processing time T0D/T2D
5. WAP-response transmitting time T0E/T2E. Calculated by dividing the packet size
by line speed 9,6 kbit/s.
6. WAP-response acknowledgement time T2F (only in WTP). The time used by to
the Mobile terminal to (process and) accept the WAP-response. The minimum =
26 ms. The measured from 32 ms to 12,6 s (mean 778 ms).

WSP/WDP WAP1 ( =
WSP/WTP WWW
(WAP0)
WAP2+rep) (WAP2)
(WAP3)
Packets up
35 726
245 350
238 948 1 001 830
Packets down
35 831
297 241
242 609
940 535
Data-Packets up
35 726
123 288
122 550
137 550
Data-Packets down
35 831
175 996
121 366
321 312
IP-bytes up [kB]
4 838
14 777
14 508
95 673
IP-bytes down [kB]
17 287
66 681
56 262
153 376
Data-bytes up [kB]
3 802
7 044
6 974
55 035
Data-bytes down [kB]
16 248
57 466
48 740
179 741
Mean Item size up
136
136
136
136
Mean Item size down
479
479
479
479
Bursts
27 901
137 064
97 435
392 309
WAP/WWW-items
35 604
122 550
122 550
136 999
WSP/TCP-connections
35 604
122 651
122 651
138 299
WAP/WWW -pages
28 882
85 243
89 492
122 500
WAP/WWW-sessions
3 028
11 722
11 723
7 467
Burst time [s]
15 178
171 667
160 526
127 716
Item time [s]
52 856
404 943
128 039
78 789
TCP-connection time [s]
52 856
541 389
270 440 75 731 900
Page time [s]
46 614
491 371
269 959
77 703
Session time [s]
491 546 1 901 940 1 708 820 2 369 690
Table 1. The main statistics of data measured Packets, IP-bytes and Data-bytes, the mean sizes of
WAP&WWW-Items, the numbers and total lengths of Bursts, Nibbles, WSP-connections, WAP&WWWitems, -pages and -sessions.

Measures for average

Times
WSP/WDP
WAP-request transmitting
WAP-request processing
WWW-transaction
WAP-response processing
WAP-response transmitting
Total
WSP/WTP
WAP-request transmitting
WAP-request processing
WWW-transaction
WAP-response processing
WAP-response transmitting
[Acknowledgement from
mobile]
Total

Means

Medians

ms
%
ms
%
113,36
6,9
112,00 20,0
24,80
1,5
2,00
0,4
541,59 32,8
79,40 14,2
591,33 35,8
50,10
9,0
381,38 23,1
316,00 56,5
1652,46 100
559,50 100
ms
%
ms
%
75,23
6,7
63,10 10,1
22,37
2,0
2,51
0,4
469,48 41,8
141,00 22,6
101,94
9,1
20,00
3,2
454,17 40,4
398,00 63,7
777,72 69,2
708,00 113,4
1123,19

100

624,61

100

Mean for
models
ms
113,30
6,07
453,72
73,62
393,74
1040,44
ms
75,81
19,24
451,04
352,89
452,98
764,21

%
10,9
0,6
43,6
7,1
37,8
100
%
5,6
1,4
33,4
26,1
33,5
56,5

1351,95 100

Table 2. The average times for different parts of WAP-transaction.

Measures for average Times

Means

Medians

WSP/WDP
WAP-Transaction duration
WAP-Page duration
WAP-session duration
WAP-Transaction separation
WAP-Page separation
WAP-session separation
WSP/WTP
WAP-Transaction duration
WAP-Page duration
WAP-session duration
WAP-Transaction separation
WAP-Page separation
WAP-session separation

Mean for
models
s

1,979
0,636
2,109
0,695
162,828
71,295
881
5,815
1087
9,505
10223 1119,505
s
s
s
2,280
1,335
3,092
1,855
145,842
70,875
254
7,865
348
14,025
2537 446,925

Table 3. The average times for duration and separation for WAP-transactions, WAP-pages and
WAP-sessions.

The activity during WAP-transactions and -sessions

The activity we defined as the minimum time needed to transfer the measured IP-packets over the given
bandwidth
Activity during
By mean
By median
By model
Transactions
WDP-Transaction up
113,36 6,9 112,00 20,0 113,30 10,9
WDP-Transaction down
381,38 23,1 316,00 56,5 393,74 37,8
WDP-Transaction duration 1652,46
559,50
1040,44
WTP-Transaction up
75,23 4,0
63,10 4,7
75,81 3,6
WTP-Transaction down
454,17 23,9 398,00 29,9 452,98 21,4
WTP-Transaction duration 1900,91
1332,61
2116,17
Table 4. The Activity during WAP-transactions.
Activity during sessions
By mean
By median By model
WDP-Transaction duration
1,98 1,2
0,64 0,9
WDP-Transaction number
10,76
10,76
10,76
WDP-Transactions total
21,29 13,1
6,84 9,6
WDP-session duration
162,83
71,29
WTP-Transaction duration
2,28 1,6
1,34 1,9
WTP-Transaction number
9,46
9,46
9,46
WTP-Transactions total
21,58 14,8 12,63 17,8
WTP-session duration
145,84
70,88
Table 5. The Activity of WAP-transactions during WAP-sessions.

 The user activity during WAP-sessions will be a result from multiplication of

- the activity factor inside WAP-transactions (Table 4) and
- the part WAP-transactions take during the WAP-sessions (table 5).
- WSP/WDP uses uplink 7- 20 % and WTP/WSP only 4-5 %.
- WSP/WDP uses downlink 23- 57 % and WTP/WSP only 21-30 %.
- The ratios between uplink and downlink are 1: 2,8-3,5 for WDP and about 1: 6
for WTP.
- The relations between IP bytes transferred are 1: 3,6 for WDP and 1: 3,9 for
WSP (incl. opening and closing).
In matched transactions the WAP has compressed the data on average to 20 43 % compared to WWW
The total relation of transferred bytes is 37 % with 92,9 Mb of WAP (WDP and
WTP together) and 249 MB of WWW traffic.
If an end-to-end WWW would be used the wireless link activity would increase
168 % and the times in table 2 would increase 0,9 - 1,2 seconds
The WWW-items created by WAP are smaller and time intervals between
WWW-packets are mostly larger than with normal WWW-items. Most request
and responses fit to a single packet.
Keep-alive packets should be excluded from all the statistics of WWW-items,
pages and sessions.

Radio Access Network

Architecture
Jussi Tuominen

3GPP Release 99 Reference Architecture

Node B
RNC
Uu

UE

Node B

Iub

IuCS

SMSC
/VLR

Iur

SS7

SS7

GMSC

HLR EIR

Auc

Node B
SGSN

RNC
Uu

Node B

IuPS

Iub

UTRAN
Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

GGSN
Gn

Gi

Core Network

UMTS Terrestial Radio Access Network

(UTRAN)
WCDMA Radio Interface Key Change from GSM
UTRAN elements are comparable to GSM BSC & BTS
Common Interface (Iu) for both PS and CS Core
Core elements do not change dramatically
- 3G SMSC/VLR provides ATM based Iu-CS interface
- 3G SGSN supports ATM based Iu-PS interface

Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

UTRAN Architecture
Hierarchical Architecture

Node B

Radio Network Subsystem

(RNS)

RNC
Node B
Uu

UTRAN Elements:
Iub

Iur

IuCS

Radio Network Controller

Node B (Base Station)
One RNC controls number of
Node Bs

Node B
RNC
Node B
Uu

Iub

RNS

UTRAN
Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

IuPS

Node B is only connected to

one RNC
New interface Iur for
Macrodiversity

Macro Diversity
Node B

Iu

RNC
Uu

Node B

Iub

Softer Handover

Iur

UE

1 RNC

Node B
RNC
Uu

Node B

Iub
RNS
UTRAN

Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

1 BS

Macro Diversity
Node B

Iu

RNC
Uu

Node B

Iub

Soft Handover

Iur

UE

1 RNC (MDC)

Node B
RNC
Uu

Node B

Iub
RNS
UTRAN

Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

Number of BSs

Macro Diversity
Node B

Iu

SRNC
Uu

Node B

Iub

Iur

UE

DRNC
Node B

Iub
RNS
UTRAN

Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

Number of BSs
1 Serving RNC (MDC)

Node B

Uu

Soft Handover

Number of Drift RNC

Macro Diversity
Node B

Iu

SRNC
Uu

Node B

Iub

Iur

UE
Node B
DRNC
Uu

Node B

Iub
RNS
UTRAN

Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

SRNC Anchoring
Iu

Macro Diversity
Node B

Iu

RNC
Uu

Node B

Iub

SRNC Relocation

Iur

UE
Node B
SRNC
Uu

Node B

Iub
RNS
UTRAN

Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

Iu

Node B
Standardisation term (normally called as Base Station)
Comparable to Base Tranceiver Station in GSM
Responsible for Air Interface Layer 1
Key Node B Functions:
Modulation and spreading
RF Processing
Inner-loop power control
Rate matching
Macro diversity combining/splitting inside Node B

Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

Radio Network Controller (RNC)

Comparable to Base Station Controller in GSM
Responsible for L2 processing of user data
Responsible for Radio Resource Management
Key RNC Functions:
Closed loop power control
Handover control
Admission control
Code allocation
Packet scheduling
Macro diversity combining/splitting over number of
Node Bs
Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

General Protocol model for UTRAN

Radio
Network
Layer

Control Plane

User Plane

Application
Protocol

Data
Stream(s)

Transport
Network
Layer

Transport Network
User Plane

Transport Network
Control Plane

ALCAP(s)
Signalling
Bearer(s)

Signalling
Bearer(s)

Physical Layer

Lhde: 3GPP TS25401-380

Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

Transport Network
User Plane

Data
Bearer(s)

3GPP Release 99 Reference Architecture

Node B
RNC
Uu

UE

Node B

Iub

IuCS

SMSC
/VLR

Iur

SS7

SS7

GMSC

HLR EIR

PSTN

Auc

Node B
SGSN

RNC
Uu

Node B

IuPS

Iub

UTRAN
Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

GGSN
Gn

PDN
Gi

Core Network

Radio Access Network Application Part

(RANAP)
Key RANAP functions:
Radio Access Bearer (between UE-CN)
RAB Set-UP
RAB Modification
Clearing RAB
Iu Bearer Release
SRNC Relocation
Paging Commands
Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

Lhde: 3GPP TS 25410-360

Iu-CS
Radio
Network
Layer

Transport
Network
Layer

Control Plane

User Plane

RANAP

Iu UP Protocol
Layer

Transport Network
User Plane

Transport Network
Control Plane

Transport Network
User Plane

Q.2630.1

SCCP

Q.2150.1

MTP3b

MTP3b

SSCF-NNI

SSCF-NNI

SSCOP

SSCOP

AAL5

AAL5

AAL2

ATM
Physical Layer

Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

Lhde: 3GPP TS 25410-360

Iu-PS
Radio
Network
Layer

Control Plane

User Plane

RANAP

Iu UP Protocol
Layer

Transport
Network
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UDP
IP

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Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

GTP-U

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Lhde: 3GPP TS 25410-360

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Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

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TCP
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Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

Lhde: 3GPP TS 25410-360

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Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

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Radio Link
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Common Control Channel (CCCH) Signalling Transfer
Paging
Relocation Execution
Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

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Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

Lhde: 3GPP TS 25420-340

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Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

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Cell Configuration Management
Common Transport Channel Management
System Information Management
Configuration Verification/Alignment
Measurements on Common Resources
Radio Link Management & Supervision

Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

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Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

Lhde: 3GPP TS 25420-340

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Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

Core Network

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Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

Core Network

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Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

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Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

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Jussi Tuominen 30.1.2002

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WCDMA Physical Layer (Chapter 6)

Peter Chong, Ph.D. (UBC, Canada)
Research Engineer
Nokia Research Center, Helsinki, Finland

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Introduction
This lecture presents a general WCDMA or UTRA (Universal
Terrestrial Radio Access) FDD (Frequency Division Duplex)
physical layer issues.

Spreading and Scrambling

Transport Channels
Physical Channels
Signaling
Physical Layer Procedures

26.01.2002

Mapping
to

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Some Parameters of WCDMA Physical Layer

26.01.2002

Carrier Spacing

5 MHz (nominal)

Chip Rate

3.84 Mcps

Frame Length

10 ms (38400 chips)

No. of slots/frame

15

No. of chips/slot

2560 chips (Max. 2560 bits)

Uplink SF

4 to 256

Downlink SF

4 to 512

Channel Rate

7.5 Kbps to 960 Kbps

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Spreading and Scrambling

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Spreading Operation
Spreading means increasing the signal bandwidth
Strickly speaking, spreading includes two operations:

Channelisation (increases signal bandwidth) - using orthogonal

codes

Scrambling (does not affect the signal bandwidth) - using pseudonoise codes
channelization codes (SF) scrambling codes

Data
bit rate
5

26.01.2002

chip rate

chip rate
WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Channelisation (1/3)
Channelisation codes are orthogonal codes, based on Orthogonal
Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) technique
The codes are fully orthogonal, i.e., they do not interfere with each
other, only if the codes are time synchronized
Thus, channelisation codes can separate the transmissions from a
single source
In the downlink, it can separate different users within one cell/sector
Limited orthogonal codes must be reused in every cell
Problem: Interference if two cells use the same code
Solution: Scrambling codes to reduce inter-base-station interference

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Channelisation (2/3)
In the uplink, it can only separate the physical channels/services of one
user because the mobiles are not synchronised in time.
It is possible that two mobiles are using the same codes.
In order to separate different users in the uplink, scrambling codes are
used.
The channelisation codes are picked from the code tree as shown in
next slide.
One code tree is used with one scrambling code on top of the tree.
If c4,4 is used, no codes from its subtree can be used (c8,7 , c8,8 , ).

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Channelisation (3/3)
Code tree
c4,1=(1,1,1,1)

c8,2

c2,1=(1,1)
c1,1=(1)
(c)

(c,c)

c2,2=(1,-1)

(c,-c)

26.01.2002

c4,2=(1,1,-1,-1)

c8,3

c4,3=(1,-1,1,-1)

c8,4
c8,5

c4,4=(1,-1,-1,1)

c8,6
c8,7

...

c8,8

S F =1

c8,1

S F =2

S F =4

S F =8

...

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Scrambling
In the scrambling process the code sequence is multiplied with a
pseudorandom scrambling code.
The scrambling code can be a long code (a Gold code with 10 ms
period) or a short code (S(2) code).
In the downlink scrambling codes are used to reduce the inter-basestation interference. Typically, each Node B has only one scrambling
code for UEs to separate base stations. Since a code tree under one
scrambling code is used by all users in its cell, proper code
management is needed.
In the uplink scrambling codes are used to separate the terminals.

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Summary
Usage

10

Channelisation code

Scrambling code

UL: Separation of physcial data

and control channels from same UE
DL: Seperation of different users
within one cell

UL: Separation of terminals

DL: Separation of
cells/sectors

Length

UL:4 256 chips same as SF

DL:4 512 chips same as SF

Limited codes in each

cell for DL.
UL: 10ms=38400 chips
38400
DL: 10ms=38499
chips

No. of
codes

No. of codes under one scrambling

code = SF

UL: Several millions

DL: 512

Code
family

Orthogonal Variable Spreading

Factor

Spreading

Yes, increase transmission

bandwidth

Long 10ms code: Gold code

Short code: Extended S(2)
code family
No, does not affect
transmission bandwidth

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Transport Channels

11

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Channel Concepts
Three separate channels concepts in the UTRA: logical, transport, and
physical channels.
Logical channels define what type of data is transferred.
Transport channels define how and with which type of characteristics the
data is transferred by the physical layer.
Physical data define the exact physical characteristics of the radio channel.

RLC layer
L2

Logical Channel

MAC layer
Transport Channel

PHY layer

L1

Physical Channel
12

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Transport Channels -> Physical Channels

(1/3)
Transport channels contain the data generated at the higher layers,
which is carried over the air and are mapped in the physical layer to
different physical channels.
The data is sent by transport block from MAC layer to physical layer
and generated by MAC layer every 10 ms.
The transport format of each transport channel is identified by the
Transport Format Indicator (TFI), which is used in the interlayer
communication between the MAC layer and physical layer.
Several transport channels can be multiplexed together by physical
layer to form a single Coded Composite Transport Channel
(CCTrCh).

13

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Transport Channels -> Physical Channels

(2/3)
The physical layer combines several TFI information into the
Transport Format Combination Indicator (TFCI), which indicate
which transport channels are active for the current frame.
Two types of transport channels: dedicated channels and common
channels.
Dedicated channel reserved for a single user only.
Support fast power control and soft handover.
Common channel can be used by any user at any time.
Dont support soft handover but some support fast power control.
In addition to the physical channels mapped from the transport
channels, there exist physical channels for signaling purposes to
carry only information between network and the terminals.

14

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Transport Channels -> Physical Channels (3/3)

Transport Channel

Physical Channel

(UL/DL) Dedicated channel DCH

Dedicated physical data channel DPDCH

(UL) Random access channel RACH

Dedicated physical control channel DPCCH

Physical random access channel PRACH

(UL) Common packet channel CPCH

Physical common packet channel PCPCH

(DL) Broadcast channel BCH

Primary common control physical channel P-CCPCH

(DL) Forward access channel FACH

Secondary common control physical channel S-CCPCH

(DL) Paging channel PCH

(DL) Downlink shared channel DSCH

Physical downlink shared channel PDSCH

Synchronisation channel SCH
Common pilot channel CPICH

Signaling physical channels

Acquisition indication channel AICH

Paging indication channel PICH
CPCH Status indication channel CSICH
Collision detection/Channel assignment indicator channel
CD/CA-ICH

15

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

UL Dedicated Channel DCH (1/3)

Due to audible interference to the audio equipment caused from the
discontinuous UL transmission, two dedicated physical channels are
I-Q/code multiplexing (called dual-channel QPSK modulation)
instead of time multiplexing.
Data (DPDCH)

DTX Period

Data (DPDCH)

Layer 1 Control Information (DPCCH)

complex

channelization code, cD

scrambling code
Data
(DPDCH)
Control
(DPDCH)

I+jQ

*j
BPSK for each channel
channelization code, cC

16

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

UL Dedicated Channel DCH (2/3)

Dedicated Physical Control Channel (DPCCH) has a fixed spreading factor
of 256 and carries physical layer control information.
DPCCH has four fields: Pilot, TFCI, FBI, TPC.
Pilot channel estimation + SIR estimate for PC
TFCI bit rate, channel decoding, interleaving parameters for every
DPDCH frame
FBI (Feedback Information) transmission diversity in the DL
TPC (Transmission Power Control) power control command
2560 chips
DPDCH

Data

DPCCH
Uplink DPCH

PILOT
0

TFCI

FBI

TPC
14

10 ms
17

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

UL Dedicated Channel DCH (3/3)

Dedicated Physical Data Channel (DPDCH) has a spreading factor
from 4 to 256 and its data rate may vary on a frame-by-frame basis.
Parallel channel codes can be used in order to provide 2 Mbps user
data
DPDCH SF

3.84 Mcps/256=15 kbps

18

26.01.2002

256

DPDCH channel
bit rate (kbps)
15

Max. user data rate with

rate coding (approx.)
7.5 kbps

128

30

15 kbps

64

60

30 kbps

32

120

60 kbps

16

240

120 kbps

480

240 kbps

960

480 kbps

4, with 6 parallel codes

5740

2.3 Mbps
WCDMA Phys ical Layer

UL Multiplexing and Channel Coding Chain

TrCH 1

TrCH 2

CRC attachment

DPDCH#1 DPDCH#2 DPDCH#N

TrBlk concatenation/
code block
segmenation

PhyCH mapping

Channel coding
Radio frame
equalization
1st interleaving
Radio frame
segmentation

...
Other TrCHs

2nd (intra-frame)
interleaving
PhyCH segmentation

CCTrCh
TrCH multiplexing

Rate matching

19

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

DL Dedicated Channel DCH (1/3)

In the DL no audible interference is generated with DTX because the
common channels are continuously transmitting.
Downlink DCH is transmitted on the Downlink Dedicated Physical
Channel (Downlink DPCH); thus, DPCCH and DPDCH are timemultiplexed and using normal QPSK modulation.
No FBI

Slot
Downlink
DPCH

DPCCH

DPDCH

2560 chips
DPCCH

TPC

DATA

TFCI

DPDCH

DPCCH

DATA

PILOT

14
10 ms

20

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

DL Dedicated Channel DCH (2/3)

A code tree under one scrambling code is shared by several users. Normally,
one scrambling code and thus only one code tree is used per sector in the BS.
DCH SF does not vary on a frame-by-frame basis; thus, data rate is varied by
rate matching operation, puncturing or repeating bits, or with DTX, where the
transmission is off during part of the slot.
The SF is the same for all the codes with multicode transmission.

Downlink DPCH slot

21

A full rate

TFCI

A half rate

TFCI TrCh A DTX

26.01.2002

TrCh A

TPC

TrCh B

PILOT

TPC

TrCh B

PILOT

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

DL Dedicated Channel DCH (3/3)

UL DPDCH consists of BPSK symbols whereas DL DPDCH consists of QPSK
symbols. The bit rate in the DL DPDCH can be almost double that in the UL
DPDCH.

22

Spreading factor

Channel
symbol rate
(kbps)

Channel
bit rate
(kbps)

DPDCH channel
bit rate range
(kbps)

Max. user data rate

with rate coding
(approx.)

512

7.5

15

3-6

1-3 kbps

256

15

30

12-24

6-12 kbps

128

30

60

42-51

20-24 kbps

64

60

120

90

45 kbps

32

120

240

210

105 kbps

16

240

480

432

215 kbps

480

960

912

456 kbps

960

1920

1872

936 kbps

4, with 3 parallel
codes

2880

5760

5616

2.3 Mbps

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

DL Multiplexing and Channel Coding Chain

TrCH 1

TrCH 2

CRC attachment

DPDCH#1 DPDCH#2 DPDCH#N

TrBlk concatenation/
code block
segmenation

PhyCH mapping

Channel coding
Rate matching
1st insertion of DTX
indication

...
Other TrCHs

2nd (intra-frame)
interleaving
PhyCH segmentation

CCT rCh
1st interleaving
Radio frame
segmentation
23

26.01.2002

2nd insertion of DTX

indication
TrCH multiplexing
WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Downlink Shared Channel (DSCH)

Used for dedicated control or traffic data (bursty traffic).
Shared by several users. Each user may allocate a DSCH for a short
period of time based on a particular packet scheduling algorithm.
Support the use of fast power control, but not soft-handover.
Use a variable spreading factor on a frame-by-frame basis so that bit
rate can be varied on a frame-by-frame basis.
Associated with a DL DPCH with the use of DPCCH. Such a DL
DPCCH from TFCI provides the power control information, an
indication to which terminal to decode the DSCH and spreading
code of the DSCH.
Since the information of DSCH is provided from an associated DL
DPCH, the PDSCH frame may not be started before 3 slots after the
end of that associated DL DPCH.
24

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Random Access Channel (RACH)

A contention-based uplink transport channel; thus, no scheduling is
performed.
Use of RACH
Carry control information from the UE to set up an initial
connection. For example, to register the UE after power-on to the
network or to perform location update or to initiate a call.
Send small amount of packet data to network for 1 to 2 frames.
Since it is needed to be heard from the whole cell for signaling
purposes, the data rate is quite low.
No power control is supported.

25

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

RACH Operation
First, UE sends a preamble.

The SF of the preamble is 256 and contain a signature sequence of 16

symbols a total length of 4096 chips.
Wait for the acknowledged with the Acquisition (AICH) from the BS.
In case no AICH received after a period of time, the UE sends another
preamble with higher power.
When AICH is received, UE sends 10 or 20 ms message part.

The SF for the message is from 32 to 256.

BS
UE
RACH Preamble
26

26.01.2002

AICH Preamble

RACH Message
WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Common Packet Channel (CPCH)

A contention-based uplink transport channel for transmission of
bursty data traffic.
Different from RACH, channel can be reserved for several frames
and it uses fast power control.
Information of CPCH is provided by
DL DPCCH for fast power control information.
Forward Access Channel (FACH) for higher layer DL signaling.
CPCH operation is similar to RACH operation except that it has
Layer 1 Collision Detection (CD).
In RACH, one RACH message is lost, whereas in CPCH an
undetected collision may lose several frames and cause extra
interference.

27

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

CPCH Operation
After receiving CPCH AICH,
UE sends a CPCH CD preamble with the same power from another
signature.
If no collision after a certain time, the BS echo this signature back to the
UE on the CD Indication Channel (CD-ICH).
Then, the UE sends data over several frames with fast power control.
The CPCH status indicator channel (CSICH) carries the status of different
CPCH information.

BS

UE
CPCH Preamble
CPCH CD
28

26.01.2002

AICH Preamble

CPCH Message

CPCH CD-ICH
WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Broadcast Channel (BCH)

Downlink common transport channel.
The physical channel of BCH is Primary Common Control Physical
Channel (Primary CCPCH).
BCH:

broadcast the system and cell-specific information, e.g., random

access codes or slots.

terminals must decode the broadcast channel to register to the cell.

uses high power in order to reach all users within a cell.

29

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Forward Access Channel (FACH)

Downlink common transport channel.
It can be multiplexed with PCH to the same physical channel,
Secondary CCPCH, or standalone.
FACH:

carry control information to UEs within a cell.

carry small amount of packet data.
no power control.
can have several FACHs. But the primary one must have low data
rate in order to be received by all terminals.

In-band signaling is needed to inform for which user the data was
intended.

30

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Paging Channel (PCH)

Downlink common transport channel for transmission of paging and
notification messages, i.e., when the network wants to initiate
communication with the terminal.
It can be multiplexed with FACH to the same physical channel,
Secondary CCPCH, or standalone.
The identical paging message can be sent in a single cell or hundreds
of cells. The paging message has to be reached by all the terminals
within the whole cell.
Its transmission is associated with transmission of paging indicator in
paging indicator channel (PICH).

31

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Signaling Physical Channels

32

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Common Pilot Channel (CPICH)

Downlink channel with a fixed rate of 30 Kbps or SF of 256.
Scrambled with the cell-specific primary scrambling code.
Use for channel estimation reference at the terminal.
Two types: primary and secondary CPICH
Primary CPICH

the measurements for the handover and cell selection / reselection.

phase reference for SCH, primary CCPCH, AICH and etc.
Secondary CPICH may be phase reference for the secondary
CCPCH.

33

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Synchronisation Channel (SCH) Cell

Searching
SCH is used for cell search.
Two subchannels: primary and secondary SCH.
P-SCH and S-SCH are only sent during the first 256 chips of each
slot in parallel and time-multiplexed with the Primary CCPCH.
256 chips

P-SCH

14

S-SCH

14

2560 chips
10 ms
34

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Synchronisation Channel (SCH) Cell

Searching
Cell search using SCH has three basic steps:

The UE searches the 256-chip primary synchronisation code,

which is common to all cells and is the same in every slot. Detect
peaks in the output of the filter corresponds to the slot boundary
(slot synchronisation).

The UE seeks the largest peak secondary synchronisation code

(SSC). There are 64 unique SSC sequences. Each SSC sequence
has 15 SSCs. The UE needs to know 15 successive SSCs from the
S-SCH, then it can determine the code group in order to know the
frame boundary (frame synchronisation).

Each code group has 8 primary scrambling. The correct one is

found by each possible scrambling code in turn over the CPICH
of that cell.
35

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

SSC Sequences
Secondary Synchronisation Code (SSC) and Code Group
Code
group

#0

#1

#2

#3

#4

#5

#6

#7

#8

#9

#10 #11 #12 #13 #14

30

11

11

16

16

14

14

31

13

12

16

16

13

12

32

16

13

12

13

12

16

:
:

:
:

16 6 9 16 13 12 2 6 2 13 3 3 12 9 7 16 6 9 16 13 12
Start Frame
36

26.01.2002

Received sequence of SSCs from S-SCH

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Primary Common Control Physical Channel

(Primary CCPCH)
Carries broadcast channel (BCH).
Needs to be demodulated by all terminals within the cell.
Fixed rate of 30 kbps with a spreading factor of 256.
Contains no power control information.
Primary CCPCH is time-multiplexed with SCH; thus, it does not use
the first 256 chips. Channel bit rate is reduced to 27 kbps.

37

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Secondary Common Control Physical Channel

(Secondary CCPCH)
Carries two transport channels: FACH and PCH, which can be
mapped to the same or separate channels.
Variable bit rate.
Fixed spreading factor is used. Data rate may vary with DTX or rate
matching parameters.
Contains no power control information.

38

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Physical Layer Procedures

39

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Power Control Procedure

Frame reliabilty info.

DL

SIRtarget adjustment

UL

commands

RNC
Outer Loop Power Control
if quality<target,
increase SIRtarget

40

26.01.2002

BS
Fast Power Control
if SIRestimate<SIRtarget,
send "power up" command

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Power Control (PC) (1/2)

Fast Closed Loop PC Inner Loop PC
Feedback information.
Uplink PC is used for near-far problem. Downlink PC is to ensure
that there is enough power for mobiles at the cell edge.
One PC command per slot 1500 Hz
Step 1 dB or 0.5 dB (1 PC command in every two slots).
The SIR target for fast closed loop PC is set by the outer loop PC.
Two special cases for fast closed loop PC:

41

26.01.2002

Soft handover: how to react to multiple power control commands

from several sources. At the mobile, a power down command
has higher priority over power up command.
Compressed mode: Large step size is used after a compressed
frame to allow the power level to converge more quickly to the
correct value after the break.
WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Power Control (PC) (2/2)

Closed Loop PC - Outer Loop PC

Set the SIR target in order to maintain a certain frame error rate
(FER). Operated at radio network controller (RNC).
Open loop PC

No feedback information.
Make a rough estimate of the path loss by means of a downlink
beacon signal.

Provide a coarse initial power setting of the mobile at the

beginning of a connection.

Apply only prior to initiating the transmission on RACH or

CPCH.

42

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Transmit Diversity (BS) (1/2)

Antenna diversity means that the same signal is transmitted or
received via more than one antenna.
It can create multipath diversity against fading and shadowing.
Transmit diversity at the BS - open-loop and closed-loop.
Open Loop Mode

No feedback information from the UE to the BS.

BS decides the appropriate parameters for the TX diversity.
Normally use for common channels because feedback
information from a particular UE may not be good for others
using the same common channel.

Uses space-time-block-coding-based transmit diversity (STTD).

43

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Transmit Diversity (BS) (2/2)

Closed Loop Mode

Feedback information from the UE to the BS to optimize the

transmission from the diversity antenna.

Normally use for dedicated channels because they have the

feedback information bits (FBI).

Based on FBI, the BS can adjust the phase and/or amplitude of

the antennas.

44

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Compressed Mode (1/2)

The compressed mode is needed when making measurement from
another frequency.
The transmission and reception are halted for a short time to perform
measurements on the other frequencies.

Measurement
gap

Normal
Frame

45

26.01.2002

Compressed
Mode

Normal
Frame

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Compressed Mode (2/2)

Three methods for compressed mode:

Lowering the data rate from higher layers.

Increasing the data rate by changing the spreading factor.
Reducing the symbol rate by puncturing at the physical layer
multiplexing chain.
More power is needed during compressed mode.
No power control during compressed mode. Large step size is used
after a compressed frame to allow the power level to converge more
quickly to the correct value after the break.

46

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

Handover
Intra-mode handover

Include soft handover, softer handover and hard handover.

Rely on the Ec/No measurement performed from the CPICH.
Inter-mode handover

Handover to the UTRA TDD mode.

Inter-system handover

Handover to other system, such as GSM.

Make measurement on the frequency during compressed mode.

47

26.01.2002

WCDMA Phys ical Layer

UTRAN Radio Interface

protocols

Outline of the lecture

UTRAN Radio Interface protocol architecture.

Transport Channels, Logical Channels, Radio Bearers.
Radio Protocols
Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol.
Radio Link Control (RLC) protocol.
Packet Data Convergence (PDC) protocol.
Broadcast/Multicast Control (BMC) protocol.
Radio Resource Control (RRC) protocol.

UMTS Bearer services

TE

MT

UTRAN

CN Iu EDGE

CN gateway

End-toend Service

Local Bearer
Service

External Bearer
Service

UMTS Bearer Service

Radio Interface
protocols

Radio Access Bearer Service

CN
Bearer Service

Radio
Bearer Service

Iu
Bearer Service

Backbone
Bearer Service

UTRA
Service

Physical
Bearer Service

Backbone Phys.
Bearer Service

Channel types in UTRAN

UE

BS

RNC

Physical channel: form the physical

existence of the Uu interface between
the UE domain and access domain.
Different kind of bandwidth allocated
for different purposes.

Logical Channels

Transport Channels

Physical Channels

RNC deals with transport channels:

carry different information flows over
the Uu interface and the physical
elements.
Logical channels: different tasks the
network and the terminal should
perform in different moments of time.
These structures are mapped to
transport channels.

Functions using logical different channels

Network informs the UE about the radio environment. The information is

provided through the Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
the code values in the cell and in the neighbouring cells, power levels

Paging in order to find out the actual location of the user. Th network request
is carried out in the logical channel Paging Control Channel (PCH).
Task common for all UE residing in the cell. Common Control Channel
(CCCH). Since many users may use CCH simultaneously they are identified
by U-RNTI ( UTRAN Radio Network Temporary Identity).
The control information of dedicated and active connection is send in
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH).
The dedicated user traffic in DL is sent through Dedicated Traffic Channel
(DTCH).
In DL the information to all UE or a specific group of UE in the cell can be
transmitted on Common Traffic Channel (CTCH)

UTRAN Radio Interface Protocol

Architecture
GC

Nt

DC

Duplication avoidance
GC

Nt

DC
UuS boundary
U-plane information

C-plane signalling

L3

control

Radio
Bearers

control
control

control

control

RRC

PDCP

PDCP

L2/PDCP

RLC
RLC

BMC

L2/BMC

RLC

L2/RLC

RLC

RLC
RLC

RLC

RLC
Logical
Channels

MAC

L2/MAC
Transport
Channels

PHY

L1

Transport channels: How

data is transferred
Logical channels: what type
of data is transferred.
Measurements reports:
measurements and control
and configuration.

Transport Channels
Service provided by L1 to L2
(MAC). Defined how data is
transported.
Common transport channels
(where there is a need for inband
identification of the UEs when
particular UEs are addressed);
Dedicated transport channels
(where the UEs are identified by
the physical channel, i.e. code and
frequency for FDD and code, time
slot and frequency for TDD).
Dedicated transport channel types are:

Dedicated Channel (DCH):

A channel dedicated to one UE used in uplink
or downlink.

Common transport channel types are:

Random Access Channel (RACH):

A contention based uplink channel used for
transmission of relatively small amounts of
data, e.g. for initial access or non-real-time
dedicated control or traffic data.

Common Packet Channel (CPCH):

A contention based channel used for transmission of bursty
data traffic. This channel only exists in FDD mode and only
in the uplink direction. The common packet channel is shared
by the UEs in a cell and therefore, it is a common resource.
The CPCH is fast power controlled.

Forward Access Channel (FACH):

Common downlink channel without closed-loop power
control used for transmission of relatively small amount of
data.

Downlink Shared Channel (DSCH):

A downlink channel shared by several UEs carrying
dedicated control or traffic data.

Uplink Shared Channel (USCH):

An uplink channel shared by several UEs carrying dedicated
control or traffic data, used in TDD mode only.

Broadcast Channel (BCH):

A downlink channel used for broadcast of system information
into an entire cell.

Paging Channel (PCH):

A downlink channel used for broadcast of control information
into an entire cell allowing efficient UE sleep mode
procedures. Currently identified information types are paging
and notification. Another use could be UTRAN notification
of change of BCCH information.

Logical Channels

Service provided by MAC to higher layers.

Defined what type of data is transferred.
Control Channels:
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) (DL)
Paging Control Channel (PCCH) (DL)

RLC
Logical Channels

MAC

Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) (UL&DL): a point-to-point bidirectional channel that

transmits dedicated control information between a UE and the network. Established during
RRC connection establishment procedure.
Common Control Channel (CCCH) (UL&DL): a bidirectional channel for transmitting
control information between a UE and the network.

Traffic Channels:
Dedicated Traffic Channels (DTCH) (UL&DL)
Common Traffic Channels (CTCH) (DL)

Mapping between logical and transport

channels (Uplink)
Uplink
DCCH
DTCH

CCCH

Examples of carried data:

Logical
Channels

RACH: control information from UE to

the UTRAN.
Connection set-up request.
Small amounts of packet data.

RACH

CPCH

DCH

Transport
Channels

Physical
Channels
PRACH

DCPCH DPDCH DPCCH

DCH: dedicated traffic and control

information. It may contain several
DTCH. (Similar to the one in DL)
CPCH: a common transport channel for
packet data transmission. (Extention of
RACH)

Mapping between logical and transport

channels (Downlink)
Downlink
Logical
Channels

PCCH

BCCH

CCCH

CTCH

Examples of carried data:

DCCH
DTCH

random access codes, access slot

information,

Transport
Channels

BCH: UTRA specific information

PCH

BCH

FACH

DSCH

DCH

Response to the random access

message.

Physical
Channels
S-CCPCH

P-CCPCH

PDSCH

DPDCH

PCH: Paging information. Network

wishes to initiate connection.
FACH: Control information to the UE
known to be in the cell.

DPCCH

DCH: dedicated traffic and control

information. It may contain several
DTCH.
DSCH: Dedicated user information for
packet traffic.

Radio Bearers

Service provided by
RLC/PDCP/BMC to higher layers.
Defined by:
RLC/PDCP/BMC parameters.
Transport channel parameters.
Physical channel parameters??
Mapping between Radio
bearer(s) logical channels and
transport channels.

RRC
Signalling
Radio Bearers

U-Plane Radio Bearers

PDCP
BMC

RLC

Medium Access Control protocol functions

control plane

RRC

user-plane

U-Plane Radio Bearers

Mapping between logical channels and transport

Signalling
PDCP
channels.
Radio Bearers
BMC
Selection of appropriate Transport Format for each
Transport Channel depending on instantaneous
RLC
source rate.
Logical Channels
Priority handling between data flows of one UE.
MAC
Priority handling between UEs by means of
Transport Channels
dynamic scheduling.
Identification of UEs on common transport
PHY
channels.
Multiplexing/demultiplexing of upper layer PDUs into/from transport block sets
delivered to/from the physical layer on dedicated transport channels.
Traffic volume measurement.
Transport Channel type switching.
Ciphering for transparent mode RLC.
Access Service Class selection for RACH and CPCH transmission.

L3

L2

L1

MAC layer logical architecture

BCCH

PCCH

BCCH

CCCH

CTCH

DCCH

DTCH DTCH

Logical
Channels

MACControl

MAC-d
MAC-b

MAC-c/sh

Transport
Channels
BCH

PCH

FACH

RACH

CPCH

DSCH

DCH

DCH

Services provided to upper layers

Data transfer: This service provides unacknowledged transfer of MAC SDUs
between peer MAC entities without data segmentation.
Reallocation of radio resources and MAC parameters: This service
performs on request of RRC execution of radio resource reallocation and
change of MAC parameters.
Reporting of measurements: Local measurements are reported to RRC.

MAC PDU Format

MAC header

MAC SDU

TCTF UE-Id UE-Id C/T

MAC SDU
MAC header consist of:
type
Target Channel Type field (TCFT): a flag that
provides identification of the logical channel
MAC PDU
class on FACH and RACH transport channels.
(BCCH, CCCH, CTCH, SHCCH or dedicated logical channel information).
C/T field: provides identification of the logical channel instance when multiple
logical channels are carried on the same transport channel.
UE-Id field: provides an identifier of the UE on common transport channels.

UTRAN Radio Network Temporary Identity (U-RNTI) may be used in the MAC header
of DCCH when mapped onto common transport channels in downlink direction; the URNTI is never used in uplink direction;
Cell Radio Network Temporary Identity (C-RNTI) is used on DTCH and DCCH in
uplink, and may be used on DCCH in downlink and is used on DTCH in downlink when
mapped onto common transport channels;
the UE id to be used by MAC is configured through the MAC control SAP.

UE-Id Type field: is needed to ensure correct decoding of the UE-Id field in MAC
Headers

MAC c/sh
TCTF MUX: this function represents the handling (insertion for uplink

PCCH

SHCCH (TDD only) CCCH

channels and detection and deletion for downlink channels) of the TCTF
field in the MAC header, and the respective mapping between logical and
transport channels.The TCTF field indicates the common logical channel
type, or if a dedicated logical channel is used;

CTCH

BCCH

MAC Control

MAC-c/sh
to MAC d
add/read
UE Id
TCTF MUX

Scheduling/Priority
Handling (1)

add/read UE Id:
the UE Id is added for CPCH and RACH transmissions
the UE Id, when present, identifies data to this UE.
UL: TF selection: in the uplink, the possibility of transport format
selection exists. In case of CPCH transmission, a TF is selected based on
TF availability determined from status information on the CSICH;
ASC selection: For RACH, MAC indicates the ASC associated with the
PDU to the physical layer. For CPCH, MAC may indicate the ASC
associated with the PDU to the Physical Layer. This is to ensure that
RACH and CPCH messages associated with a given Access Service Class
(ASC) are sent on the appropriate signature(s) and time slot(s). MAC also
applies the appropriate back-off parameter(s) associated with the given
ASC. When sending an RRC CONNECTION REQUEST message, RRC
will determine the ASC; in all other cases MAC selects the ASC;
scheduling /priority handling: this functionality is used to transmit
the information received from MAC-d on RACH and CPCH based on
logical channel priorities. This function is related to TF selection.
TFC selection: transport format and transport format combination
selection according to the transport format combination set (or transport
format combination subset) configured by RRC is performed,

UL: TF selection

TFC
selection

ASC
selection

PCH

DSCH DSCH

USCH USCH

FACH

FACH

RACH

ASC
selection (2)

CPCH ( FDD only )

TDD only

TDD only

Note 1: Scheduling /Priority handling is applicable for CPCH.

Note 2: In case of CPCH, ASC selection may be applicable for AP preamble.

UE side MAC-c/sh details

PCCH

BCCH

SHCCH

CCCH

MAC Control

CTCH

(TDD only)

MAC-c/sh

Flow Control
MAC-c/sh / MAC-d

TCTF MUX / UE Id MUX

Scheduling / Priority Handling/ Demux

TFC selection

TFC selection

PCH

FACH

FACH

DL: code
allocation

DSCH

DSCH

USCH

USCH

TDD only

TDD only

RACH

CPCH
(FDD only )

UTRAN side MAC-c/sh details

to MAC d

MAC-d
DCCH DTCH DTCH

MAC Control

Transport Channel type switching: performed based on

decision taken by RRC. This is related to a change of radio resources.
If requested by RRC, MAC shall switch the mapping of one
designated logical channel between common and dedicated transport
channels.
C/T MUX: The C/T MUX is used when multiplexing of several
dedicated logical channels onto one transport channel is used. An
unambiguous identification of the logical channel is included.
Ciphering: Ciphering for transparent mode data to be ciphered is
performed in MAC-d.
Deciphering: Deciphering for ciphered transparent mode data is
performed in MAC-d.
UL TFC selection: Transport format and transport format
combination selection according to the transport format combination
set (or transport format combination subset) configured by RRC is
performed.
DL Scheduling/Priority handling: in the downlink,
scheduling and priority handling of transport channels is performed
within the allowed transport format combinations of the TFCS
assigned by the RRC.
Flow Control: a flow control function exists toward MAC-c/sh
to limit buffering between MAC-d and MAC-c/sh entities. This
function is intended to limit layer 2 signalling latency and reduce
discarded and retransmitted data as a result of FACH or DSCH
congestion.

MAC-d
Transport Channel Type Switching
Deciphering
C/T MUX
C/T
MUX

to MAC-c/sh

UL: TFC selection

Ciphering

DCH

DCH

Note 1: For DCH and DSCH different scheduling mechanism apply

Note 2: Ciphering is performed in MAC-d only for transparent RLC mode

UE side MAC-d details

DCCH DTCH DTCH

MAC-Control
UE

Transport Channel Type Switching

C/T MUX
/ Priority
setting

to MAC-c/sh

Flow Control
MACc/sh /
MAC-d

Deciphering
C/T
MUX

MAC-d

DL scheduling/
priority handling
Ciphering

DCH

DCH

UTRAN side MAC-d details

Radio Link Control protocol

Segmentation and reassembly.

Concatenation.
Padding.
Transfer of user data.
Error correction.
In-sequence delivery of upper layer
PDUs.
Duplicate detection.
Flow control.
Sequence number check.
Protocol error detection and recovery.
Ciphering.
SDU discard.

control plane

user-plane

U-Plane Radio Bearers

RRC
Signalling
Radio Bearers

L3

PDCP
BMC

RLC

L2

Logical Channels

MAC
Transport Channels

PHY

L1

RLC logical architecture

Tr-SAP

AM-SAP

UM-SAP

RLCControl

Transmitting
transparent
entity

Receiving
transparent
entity

BCCH/PCCH/
CCCH/DCCH/DTCH

Acknowledged
mode entity

DTCH/DCCH

Transmitting
unacknowledged
entity

Receiving
unacknowledged
entity

CCCH/CTCH/
DTCH/DCCH

Provides segmentation/reassembly (payload units, PU) and retransmission

service for both user(Radio Bearer) and control data (Signalling Radio bearer).
Transparent mode (Tr): no overhead is added to higher layer data.
Unacknowledged mode (UM): no retransmission protocol is used and data
delivery is not guaranteed.
Acknowledged mode (AM): Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) mechanism is
used for error correction.

RLC Services provided to upper layers

Transparent data transfer Service:

The following functions are needed to
support transparent data transfer:

Segmentation and reassembly.

Transfer of user data.
SDU discard.

Unacknowledged data transfer

Service:
The following functions are needed to
support unacknowledged data transfer:

Segmentation and reassembly.

Concatenation.
Padding.
Transfer of user data.
Ciphering.
Sequence number check.
SDU discard.

Acknowledged data transfer Service:

The following functions are needed to
support acknowledged data transfer:

Segmentation and reassembly.

Concatenation.
Padding.
Transfer of user data.
Error correction.
In-sequence delivery of upper layer
PDUs.
Duplicate detection.
Flow Control.
Protocol error detection and recovery.
Ciphering.
SDU discard.

Maintenance of QoS as defined by

upper layers.
Notification of unrecoverable errors.

RLC transparent mode (TM) entity (1)

UE/UTRAN

UTRAN/UE

Radio Interface (Uu)

Receiving TM-RLC entity:

TM-SAP

TM-SAP

Transmission
buffer

Transmitting
TM- RLC
entity

Segmentation

Receiving
TM- RLC
entity

Reassembly

Reception
buffer

CCCH/DCCH/DTCH/SHCCH UE
BCCH/PCCH/DCCH/DTCH UTRAN

CCCH/DCCH/DTCH/SHCCH UTRAN
BCCH/PCCH/DCCH/DTCH UE

The receiving TM-RLC entity receives

TMD PDUs through the configured
logical channels from the lower layer.
If segmentation is configured by upper
layers, all TMD PDUs received within
one TTI are reassembled to form the
RLC SDU.
If segmentation is not configured by
upper layers, each TMD PDU is treated
as a RLC SDU.
The receiving TM RLC entity delivers
RLC SDUs to upper layers through the
TM-SAP.

RLC transparent mode (TM) entity (2)

Transmitting TM-RLC entity:

The transmitting TM-RLC entity receives RLC SDUs from upper layers through
the TM-SAP.
All received RLC SDUs must be of a length that is a multiple of one of the valid
TMD PDU lengths.
If segmentation has been configured by upper layers and a RLC SDU is larger
than the TMD PDU size used by the lower layer for that TTI, the transmitting
TM RLC entity segments RLC SDUs to fit the TMD PDUs size without adding
RLC headers. All the TMD PDUs carrying one RLC SDU are sent in the same
TTI, and no segment from another RLC SDU are sent in this TTI.
If segmentation has not been configured by upper layers, then more than one
RLC SDU can be sent in one TTI by placing one RLC SDU in one TMD PDU.
All TMD PDUs in one TTI must be of equal length.
When the processing of a RLC SDU is complete, the resulting one or more TMD
PDU(s) are/is submitted to the lower layer through either a BCCH, DCCH,
PCCH, CCCH, SHCCH or a DTCH logical channel.

RLC unacknowledged mode entity

Receiving UM-RLC entity:
The receiving UM-RLC entity receives UMD
PDUs through the configured logical
channels from the lower layer.
The receiving UM RLC entity deciphers (if
ciphering is configured and started) the
received UMD PDUs (except for the UMD
PDU header). It removes RLC headers from
received UMD PDUs, and reassembles RLC
SDUs (if segmentation and/or concatenation
has been performed by the transmitting UM
RLC entity).
RLC SDUs are delivered by the receiving
UM RLC entity to the upper layers through
the UM-SAP.

UE/UTRAN

UTRAN/UE

Radio Interface (Uu)

UM-SAP

UM-SAP

Transmission
buffer

Segmentation &
Concatenation

Transmittin
g
UM RLC
entity

Receiving
UM RLC
entity

Reassembly
Remove RLC
header

Add RLC header

Reception
buffer

Ciphering

Deciphering

CCH/DTCH UE
DCCH/DTCH UTRAN
CCH/SHCCH/DCCH/DTCH/CTCH UTRAN CCCH/SHCCH/DCCH/DTCH/CTCH UE

RLC unacknowledged mode entity (2)

Transmitting UM-RLC entity:

The transmitting UM-RLC entity receives RLC SDUs from upper layers
through the UM-SAP.
The transmitting UM RLC entity segments the RLC SDU into UMD PDUs of
appropriate size, if the RLC SDU is larger than the length of available space in
the UMD PDU. The UMD PDU may contain segmented and/or concatenated
RLC SDUs. UMD PDU may also contain padding to ensure that it is of a valid
length. Length Indicators are used to define boundaries between RLC SDUs
within UMD PDUs. Length Indicators are also used to define whether Padding
is included in the UMD PDU.
If ciphering is configured and started, an UMD PDU is ciphered (except for the
UMD PDU header) before it is submitted to the lower layer.
The transmitting UM RLC entity submits UMD PDUs to the lower layer
through either a CCCH, SHCCH, DCCH, CTCH or a DTCH logical channel.

RLC acknowledged mode entity (1)

UE/UTRAN

AM-SAP

AM RLC entity
Segmentation/Concatenation
RLC Control Unit
Add RLC header
Piggybacked status
Optional
Retransmission
buffer &
management

Reassembly

Received
acknowledgements

The receiving side of the AM-RLC entity

receives AMD and Control PDUs through the
configured logical channels from the lower
layer.
AMD PDUs are routed to the Deciphering Unit
and then delivered to the Reception buffer.
The AMD PDUs are placed in the Reception
buffer until a complete RLC SDU has been
received. The Receiver acknowledges
successful reception or requests retransmission
of the missing AMD PDUs by sending one or
more STATUS PDUs to the AM RLC peer
entity, through its transmitting side.

MUX

Transmission
buffer

Remove RLC header & Extract

Piggybacked information

Reception buffer
& Retransmission
management

Acknowledgements

Deciphering
Set fields in PDU Header (e.g. set poll
bits) & piggybacked STATUS PDU
Ciphering (only for AMD PDU)

Receiving side

Transmitting side

DCCH/
DTCH**

Demux/Routing

DCCH/
DTCH*

DCCH/
DTCH**

DCCH/
DTCH**

DCCH/
DTCH*

DCCH/
DTCH**

The associated AMD PDUs are reassembled by the Reassembly Unit and delivered
to upper layers through the AM-SAP.
RESET and RESET ACK PDUs are delivered to the RLC Control Unit for
processing. If a response to the peer AM RLC entity is needed, an appropriate
Control PDU is delivered, by the RLC Control Unit to the transmitting side of the
AM RLC entity.

RLC acknowledged mode entity (2)

The transmitting side of the AM-RLC entity receives RLC SDUs from upper layers
through the AM-SAP.
RLC SDUs are segmented and/or concatenated into AMD PDUs of a fixed length.
The segmentation is performed if the received RLC SDU is larger than the length of available
space in the AMD PDU.
The PDU size is set during AM-RLC establishment.
The packets could be segmented, concatenated, padded.
Boundaries between the packets are indicated by a length indicator.
After the segmentation and/or concatenation are performed, the AMD PDUs are placed in the
Retransmission buffer at the MUX.

AMD PDUs buffered in the Retransmission buffer are deleted or retransmitted.

The MUX multiplexes AMD PDUs from the Retransmission buffer that need to be
retransmitted, and the newly generated AMD PDUs delivered from the
Segmentation/Concatenation function.
The PDUs are delivered to the function that completes the AMD PDU header and
potentially replaces padding with piggybacked status information. A Piggybacked
STATUS PDUs can be of variable size in order to match the amount of free space in the
AMD PDU.
The ciphering (if configured) is then applied to the AMD PDUs.
The AMD PDU header is not ciphered.
Control PDUs (i.e. STATUS PDU, RESET PDU, and RESET ACK PDU) are not ciphered.

AMD PDUs are submitted to either one or two DCCH or DTCH logical channels.

Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP)

PDPC SAPs
(Radio Bearers)

PDCP-SDU

PDCPControl
PDCP entity

PDCP entity
Header
comp. entity
Alg. Type 1

Header
comp. entity
Alg. Type 2

Header
comp. entity
Alg. Type 1

Header
comp. entity
Alg. Type 2

PDU
numbering

PDU
numbering

PDCP entity
Header
comp. entity
Alg. Type 1

RLC-SDU

RLC SAPs
UM-SAP

AM-SAP

Tr-SAP

The Packet Data Convergence Protocol shall perform the following functions:
Header compression and decompression of IP data streams (e.g., TCP/IP and
RTP/UDP/IP headers for IPv4 and IPv6) at the transmitting and receiving entity,
respectively. (In Release 99 compression accordingly RFC 2507).
Transfer of user data. This function is used for conveyance of data between users of
PDCP services.
Maintenance of PDCP sequence numbers for radio bearers that are configured to
support lossless SRNS Relocation.

PDCP uses the services provided by the Radio Link Control (RLC) sublayer.

Broadcast Multicast Control (BMC)

BMC SAP
BMCControl

BMC entity

RLC SAPs
UM-SAP

Storage of Cell Broadcast

Messages.
Traffic volume monitoring and
radio resource request for CBS.
Scheduling of BMC messages.
Transmission of BMC messages
to UE.
Delivery of Cell Broadcast
messages to upper layer.

Radio Resource Control (RRC)

Used for setting up, reconfigure and reestablish radio bearers.

Cell Broadcast Service (CBS) control.

Initial cell selection and cell re-selection.
Paging.
Broadcast of information:
related to the non-access stratum (Core Network).
related to the access stratum.

Establishment, maintenance and release

of an RRC connection between the UE and UTRAN.
of Radio Bearers.

Assignment, reconfiguration and release of radio resources for the RRC connection.
Control of requested QoS.
UE measurement reporting and control of the reporting.
RRC message integrity protection.
Arbitration of radio resources on uplink DCH.
Slow Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA) (TDD mode).
Timing advance (TDD mode).
RRC connection mobility functions (RNC relocation).
Outer loop power control.
Control of ciphering.

RRC logical architecture

Message Routing
BMCControl
SAP
PDCPControl
SAP
RLCControl
SAP

DCFE

PNFE

BCFE

MACControl
SAP
l1-Control
SAP

RLC SAPs
AM-SAP AM-SAP AM-SAP

UM-SAP

Tr-SAP

Dedicated Control Functional

Entity (DCFE): Handles functions
and signalling specific to UE. One
DCFE entity for each UE.
Paging and Notification control
Functional Entity (PNFE): paging
of idle mode UE. At least one
PNFE in the RNC for each cell.
Broadcasting Control Functional
Entity (BCFE): handles the
broadcasting of system
information. There is at least one
BCFE for each cell in the RNC.

RRC states and state transitions

including GSM
UTRA RRC Connected Mode
URA_PCH
out of
service

in
service

CELL_DCH

out of
service

in
service

Establish RRC Release RRC

Connection
Connection

in
service

GSM
Connected
Mode

GPRS
Packet
Transfer
Mode

CELL_FACH
out of
service

Release RRC
Connection

GSM:
Handover

UTRA:
Inter-RAT
Handover

CELL_PCH

Cell reselection

Establish RRC
Connection

Release of
temporary
block flow

Release RR
Connection
Initiation of
temporary
block flow

GPRS Packet Idle Mode1

Camping on a UTRAN cell1

Camping on a GSM / GPRS cell1

Idle Mode

Establish RR
Connection

RRC service states

Idle Mode:
After UE is switched on it will camp in the a suitable cell. After camping:
User is able to send and receive system and cell broadcasting information.
In the idle mode until it transmits a request to establish RRC connection.

Cell_DCH
Entered from Idle Mode or by establishing a DCH from the Cell_FACH state.
DPCH and physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH) is allocated to UE.
UE is in this mode until explicit signalling for Cell_FACH.

Cell_FACH
No dedicated channel allocated. Data transmitted through RACH and FACH.
UE listens BCH.
Cell reselection is performed (RNC is informed).

Cell_PCH
UE known at a cell level but can be reached via PCH.
Usel listens BCH, some terminals also BMC.
In case of Cell reselection automatically moved to Cell_FACH state.

URA_PCH
UE executes the cell update procedure only if the UTRAN Registration Area is changed.
DCCH can not be used in this state, all the activities initiated by the network through the
PCCH or RACH.

WCDMA network planning

Outline of the lecture

Purpose of planning process.

Peculiarities of 3G network.
Dimensioning.
Soft capacity.
Capacity and coverage planning.
Dynamic simulations.

Planning

Planning should meet current standards and demands and also comply with future
requirements.
Uncertainty of future traffic growth and service needs.
High bit rate services require knowledge of coverage and capacity enhancements methods.
Real constraints
Coexistence and co-operation of 2G and 3G for old operators.
Environmental constraints for new operators.

Network planning depends not only on the coverage but also on load.

Objectives of Radio network planning

Capacity:
To support the subscriber traffic with sufficiently low blocking and delay.

Coverage:
To obtain the ability of the network ensure the availability of the service in the entire service area.

Quality:
Linking the capacity and the coverage and still provide the required QoS.

Costs:
To enable an economical network implementation when the service is established and a controlled
network expansion during the life cycle of the network.

What is new
Multiservice environment:
Highly sophisticated radio interface.
Bit rates from 8 kbit/s to 2 Mbit/s,
also variable rate.

Cell coverage and service design for

multiple services:

Air interface:
Capacity and coverage coupled.
Fast power control.
Planning a soft handover overhead.
Cell dominance and isolation
Vulnerability to external interference

different bit rate

different QoS requirements.

Various radio link coding/throughput

adaptation schemes.
Interference averaging mechanisms:
need for maximum isolation between
cells.

Best effort provision of packet data.

Intralayer handovers

2G and 3G:
Coexistence of 2G 3G sites.
Handover between 2G and 3G
systems.
Service continuity between 2G and
3G.

Radio network planning process

DIMENSIONING
Network
Configuration
and
Dimensioning

Requirements
and strategy
for coverage,
quality, and
capacity,

per services

PLANNING and IMPLEMENTATION

Coverage
Planning and
Site Selection

Propagation
measurements
Coverage
Prediction
Site
acquisition
Coverge
optimisation

Capacity Requirements

Traffic distribution
Service distribution
Allowed blocking/queuing
System features

Parameter
Planning
Area/Cell
specific
Handover
stategies

Externernal Interface
Analysis
Identification
Adaptation

Using information from 2G networks

Maximum
loading
Other
RRM

New issues in 3G planning

O&M
Network
Optimisation

Survey
measurements

Statistical
eprformance
analysis

Quality
Efficiency
Availability

Capacity estimation in a CDMA

cell
-

P0 , 0
CIR

N K j -1

+ P1, 0 +...+ PK0 , 0 + Pk , j + h = 0

P0, 0 -

P1, 0
CIR

j =1 k =1
N K j -1

+...+ PK0 , 0 + Pk , j + h = 0
M

P0, 0 + P1, 0 +...-

PK0 , 0
CIR

j =1 k =1

N K j -1

+ Pk , j + h = 0
j =1 k =1

Impact of uncertainties to the capacity in

the cell
Location of users in the cell

20
0
20

s,i

depending where users are located in

the cell they get different interference
from other cells and capacity varies

Number of users per cell = 50

40

[dBm]

Speed of users

min distance
uniform distribution
max distance

40
60

target CIR function of speed

80
0
100
conditions in the cell vary with users movements

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

Data rates

x 10

CIR

n times voice datarate corresponds to n users

7.5 transmitting from that location. (high
nonuniformity)
7

6.5

Soft Capacity

surrounding cells lightly loaded

less interference to the heavily loaded cell
capacity to heavily loaded cell can be
increased

6
0

100

200

300

400
500
600
Distance from BS [m]

1 .2

700

0 .3

800

900

1000

Conditions for planning

Conditions

Objective parameters

capacity not constant

separate analysis for UL/DL
joint coverage/capacity analysis
HO areas and levels affect directly system
capacity
basic shared resource is power

coverage
capacity (blocking)
good link quality (BER, FER)
throughput delay, for packet services

Methods

preplanned during network planning process

real time radio resource management
real time power control

Network planning
Resource reservation for handling expected traffic without congestion.
load per cell/sector, handover areas

power

Sets allowable power budget available for services

load higher than expected
load badly distributed
implements statistical multiplexing

Estimates average power/load, variations

of it are taken care in run time by RRM
maximal allowed load versus average load

load

Planning methods

Preparation phase.
Defining coverage and capacity objectives.
Selection of network planning strategies.
Initial design and operation parameters.

Initial dimensioning.
First and most rapid evaluation of the network elements count and capacity of these elements.
Offered traffic estimation.
Joint capacity coverage estimation.

Detailed planning.
Detailed coverage capacity estimation.
Iterative coverage analysis.
Planning for codes and powers.

Optimisation.
Setting the parameters
Soft handover.
Power control.

Verification of the static simulator with the dynamic simulator.

Test of the static simulator with simulator where the users actual movements are modelled.

A strategy for dimensioning

Plan for adequate load and number of sites.
Enable optimised site selection.
Avoid adding new sites too soon.
Allow better utilisation of spectrum.
Recommended load factor 30- 70 %
1. Initial phase:

2. Initial phase:

Acquire only part of sites and use coverage

extension techniques to fill the gap.

Acquire sites but install part of BSS equipment.

Allow traffic concentration at RNC level.
Install less sectors and and less BS.

Network expansion:
Add more sites.
Add more sectors / carriers to existing sites.

Network expansion:

2G operator:
Re-using the infrastructure (Lover cost):

Green-field operator:
Radio network implementation from
scratch.
Renting infrastructure from other operators.

+ Transmission network.
+ Sites (masts, buildings, power supplies,).

Add more BS/HW/sectors/carriers.

+ Less limitations easier implementations

Challenges
- Sufficient coverage for all services.
- Intersystem handover not seamless.

- Higher Cost.

Dimensioning

Initial planning
first rapid evaluation of the network element count as well as associated
capacity of those elements.

Radio access
Estimate the sites density.
Site configuration.

Activities
Link budget and coverage analysis.
Capacity estimation.
Estimation of the BS hardware and sites, RNCs and equipments at
different interfaces. Estimation of Iur,Iub,Iu transmission capacities.
Cell size estimation.

Needed

Service distribution.
Traffic density.
Traffic growth estimation.
QoS estimation.

Dimensioning process
Radio link specific input:
Link Budget calculation
- Data rate
max. allowed path loss
- Eb/Io
...
Interference
margin

Load Factor
calculation

Cell range calclation

max. cell range in each area

max. traffic per

computing unit

Capacity estimation
nr. sites, total traffic

Equipment
requirement
nr BS, equipments

Equipment specific input

- ms power class
- ms sensitivity
...

Environment specific input

- propagation environment
- Antennae higth
...
Service specific input
- blocking rate
- traffic peak
...

WCDMA cell range

Estimation of the maximum allowed propagation loss in a cell.

Radio Link budget calculation.

Summing together gains and degradations in radio path.

Interference margin.
Slow fading margin.
Power control headroom.

After choosing the cell range the coverage area can be calculated using
propagation models
Okumura-Hata, Walfisch-Ikegami, .

The coverage area for one cell is a hexagonal configuration estimated from:
S = K r2
S coverage area.
r maximum cell range, accounting the fact that sectored cells are not hexagonal.
K Constant accounting for the sectors.

Site configuration
Value of K

Omni
2.6

2-sectored
1.3

3-sectored
1.95

6-sectored
2.6

Example of a
WCDMA RLB

12.2 kbps voice service (120 km/h, in car)

Transmitter (mobile)
Max. mobile transmission power [W]
As above in [dBm]
Mobile antenna gain [dBi]
Cable/Body loss [dB]
Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power

0.125
21
0
3
18

Receiver BS
Thermal noise density [dBm/Hz]
Base station recever noise figure [dB
Receiver noise density [dBm/Hz]
Receiver noise power [dBm]
Interference margin [dB]
Receiver interference power [dBm]
Total effective noise + interference [d
Processing gain [dB]
Required Eb/No [dB]
Receiver sensitivity [dBm]

-174
5
-169
-103.2
3
-103.2
-100.2
25
5
-120.2

Base station antenna gain [dBi]

Cable loss in the base station [dB]
Fast fading margin [dB]
Max. path loss [dB]
Coverage probability [%]
Log normal fading constant [dB]
Propagation model exponent
Log normal fading margin [dB]
Soft handover gain [dB], multi-cell
In-car loss [dB]
Allowed propagation loss for cell ran

18
2
0
154.2

a
b
c
d=a+b-c

e
f
g=e+f
h=g+10*log10(3840000)
i
j=10*log10(10^((h+1)/10)-10^(h/10
k=10*log10(10^(h/10)+10^(j/10))
l=10*log10(3840/12.2)
m
n=m-l+k
o
p
q
r=d-n+o-p-q

95
7
3.52
7.3 s
3t
8u
141.9 v=r-s+t-u

Load factor uplink

Interference degradation margin: describes the amount of increase of the interference
due to the multiple access. It is reserved in the link budget.
Can be calculated as the noise rise: the ratio of the total received power to the noise
power:
I
1
Where UL is load factor.
Noise _ rise = total =
1 UL
PN
Assume that MS k use s bit rate Rk , target
W
Rk

Pk

I own Pk + I oth + N

W
=
Rk

Eb
I0

is k and WCDMA chip rate is W .

Pk

I own Pk + i I own + N

k , k = 1,K, K n

The inequality must be hold for all the users and ca be solved for minimum received
signal power (sensitivity) for all the users.

R R
R

Pk 1 + k k = k k (1 + i ) I own + k k N
W
W
W

1
1
1 + i ) I own +
Pk =
N , k = 1,K, K
(
W
W
1+
1+
k Rk
k Rk

Load factor uplink (2)

Interference in the own cell is calculated by summing over all the users signal powers in
Kn
the cell.
I own = Pk
k =1

Kn
Kn
N
Kn
1
1
=
+

+
1
P
i
P

(
)

k
k
W
=
1
=
1
k =1
k
k
1+

k =1 1 + W

k Rk
k Rk

Kn

1
N
(1 + i )
W
k =1 1 +

Kn
k Rk

Pk (1 + i ) =

k =1
Kn

1
1
(1 + i )
W
k =1 1 +

k Rk

Load factor uplink (3)

Kn

1
(1 + i )
W
k =1
1+
k Rk
By including also effect of sectorisation (sectorisation gain , number of sectors N s),
and voice activity .
Uplink loading is defined as: UL =

N
1

k 1 + i s
W

k =1

1+
k Rk
Kn

UL =

20
i=0
i=0.65

18
16

Noise rise [ dB ]

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

100

200

300
400
load [ kbit/s]

500

Noise rise in uplink

600

700

Load Factor Downlink

The interference degradation margin in downlink to be taken into account in the link
budget due to a certain loading is
L = 10log10 (1 )

I
N

LP
The downlink loading is estimated based on DL = i i i (1 i ) + mi
W

i =1
n =1, LPni
n m

LPmi is a link loss from the serving BS M to MS I,
LPni is the link loss from another BS N, to MS I,
i is the transmit EI0b requirement for MS I, including soft HO combining gain an
the average power rise due to the fast power control,
N number of BS,
I
number of connections in a sector,
i orthogonality factor.
N
LPmi
i
=
The other to own cell interference in downlink DL
n =1, LPni
n m

The total BS transmit power estimation considers multiple communication links with
average LPmi from the serving BS.

Receiver sensitivity estimation

In RLB the receiver noise level over WCDMA carrier is calculated.

The required 3)2 contains the processing gain and the loss due to the loading.
The required signal power: Pr = SNR N 0 W

signal power,
Pr
N 0 W background noise.
SNR =

R
W (1 )

In some cases the noise/interference level is further corrected by applying a

term that accounts for man made noise.

Spectrum efficiency
Uplink
rx_Eb/Io is a function of required BER target and multipath channel model.
Macro diversity combining gain can be seen as having lower rx_Eb/Io when
the MS is having links with multiple cells.
Inter cell interference i is a function of antennae pattern, sector configuration
and path loss index.
Downlink
tx_Eb/Io is function of required BER target and multipath channel model.
Macro diversity combining gain can be seen as having lover tx_Eb/Io when
MS is having radio links with multiple cells.
Orthogonality factor is a function of the multipath channel model at the given
location.
Planners have to select the sites so that the other to own cell interference i is
minimised.
Cell should cover only what is suppose to cover.

Coverage improvement

Coverage limited by UL due to the lower transmit power of MS.

Adding more sites.
Higher gain antennas.
RX diversity methods.
Better RX -sensitivity.
Antennae bearing and tilting.
Multi-user detection.

Capacity improvement

DL capacity is considered more important than UL, asymmetric traffic.

Due to the less multipath microcell capacity better than macrocell.

Adding frequencies.
Adding cells.
Sectorisation.
Transmit diversity.
Lower bit rate codecs.
Multibeam antennas.

RNC Dimensioning

The whole network area divided into regions each handled by a single RNC.
RNC dimensioning: provide the number of RNCs needed to support the estimated traffic.
For uniform load distribution the amount of RNCs:

RNC limited by:

Maximum number of cells:

numRNCs =

numCells
cellsRNC fillrate1

NUM#ELLS number of cells in the area to be dimensioned, CELLS2.#maximum number of cells, FILLRATE
margin used to back off from the maximum capacity.

numBTSs
btsRNC fillrate2
NUM"43S number of BS in the area to be dimensioned, BTS2.#maximum number of BSs that can be
connected to one RNC, FILLRATE margin used to back off from the maximum capacity.

Maximum Iub throughput:

Maximum number of BS:

numRNCs =

numRNCs =

voiceTP + CSdataTP + PSdataTP

tpRNC fillrate3

TP2.#maximum Iub capacity, FILLRATE margin used to back off from it, NUM3UBS the expected number
simultaneously active subscribers.

voiceTP = voiceErl bitrtevoice (1 + SHOvoice )

CSdataTP = CSdataErl bitrateCSdata (1 + SHOCSdata )

PSdtaTP = avePSdata / PSoverhead (1 + SHOPSdata )

Amount of type of interfaces (STm-1, E1).

RNC dimensioning (2)

Supported traffic (upper limit of RNC processing).

Planned equipment capacity of the network, upper limit.
For data services each cell should be planned for maximum capacity
too much capacity across the network. RNC is able to offer maximum capacity in every
cell but that is highly un-probable demand.

Required traffic (lower limit of RNC processing).

Actual traffic need in the network, base on the operator prediction.
RNC can support mean traffic demand.
No room for dynamic variations.

RNC transmission interface Iub.

For N sites the total capacity for the Iub transmission must be greater than N times
the capacity of a site.

RNC blocking principle.

RNC dimensioned based on assumed blocking.
Peak traffic never seen by the RNC: Erlangs per BS can be converted into physical
channels per BS.
NRT traffic can be divided with ( BACKOFF?FROM?MAX?DATA?THROUGHPUT).

Dimensioning RNC based on the actual subscribers traffic in area.

Soft blocking

Soft capacity only for real time services.

Hard Blocking
The capacity limited by the amount of hardware.
Call admission based on number of channel elements.

If all BS channel elements are busy, the next call comes to the cell is blocked.
The cell capacity can be obtained from the Erlang B model.

Soft blocking
The capacity limited by the amount of interference in the air interference.
Call admission based on QoS control
There is always more than enough BS channel elements.

A new call is admitted by slightly degrading QoS of all existing calls.

The capacity can be calculated from Erlang B formula. (too pessimistic).
The total channel pool larger than the average number of channels.

The assumptions of 2% of blocking. In average 2% of users experience bad quality

during the call. (Bad quality for voice 2%, bad quality for data 10%).

Soft capacity

Soft capacity is given by the interference sharing.

The less interference coming from neighbouring cells the more channels are available in
the middle cells.
The capacity can be borrowed from the adjacent cells.
With a low number of channels per cell
A low blocking probability for high bit rate real time users is achieved by dimensioning average load in
the cell to be low.

Extra capacity available in the neighbouring cells.

At any given moment it is unlikely that all the neighbouring cells are fully loaded at the same time.

Soft capacity: the increase of Erlang capacity with soft blocking compared to that with
hard blocking with the same maximum number of channels per cell.
Erlang capacity with soft blocking
SoftCapacity =
1
Erlang capacity with hard blocking

Algorithm for estimation:

Calculate the number of channels per cell, N, in the equally loaded case, based on the
uplink load factor.
Multiply total number of channels by I to obtain the total pool in the soft blocking case.

Calculate the maximum offered traffic from the Erlang B formula.

Divide the Erlang capacity by I

Dimensioning for Voice and Data

Cell load factor

Mixing different traffic types creates better statistical multiplexing:
Dimensioning for the worst case load is normally not needed if resource pool is large enough.
Delay intensive traffic can be used to fill the gaps in loading, using dynamic scheduling and
buffering.

Minimum cell throughput for NRT data should be planned for busy hour loading in
order to maintain some QoS.
By filling the capacity not used by RT traffic we increase loading and in effect go after
the free capacity used for soft capacity, cell dimensioning becomes more complex.

Load
max. planned load

Admission control

Extra capacity

Prediction of the interference increase

nominal capacity
(demand)
Time of day

Admission control methods

admit if possible
threshold based systems

average bit rate of traffic source

behaviour of traffic source
environmental parameters

expected average CIR

spatial variability

Estimates power increase for UL/DL when new

connection is admitted

Detailed planning Workflow of a RNP tool

initialisation
phase

initialise
iteration

combined UL/DL
iteration

Creating a plan,
Loading maps

global
initialisation

uplink
iteration step
downlink
iteration step

Defining service
requirements

Importing/creating and
editing sites adn cells

Importing
measurements

Importing/generating
and refining traffic
lauyers

Link loss calculation

Model tuning

WCDMA calculations

Analyses

post
processing
post processing
phase

graphical
outputs

Quality of Service

Neighbour cell
generation

coverage
analyses
Reporting

END

Input data preparation

Digital map.
for coverage prediction.
totpoligical data (terrain), morphological data (terrain type), building location and height.
Resolution: urban areas M, rural areas  M.

Plan.
logical concept combining various items.
digital map, map properties, target plan area, selected radio access technology, input parameters, antenna
models.

Antenna editor.
logical concept containing antenna radiation pattern, antenna gain, frequency band.

Propagation model editor.

Different planning areas with different characteristics.
For each area type many propagation models can be prepared.
tuning based on field measurements.

BTS types and site/cell templates

Defaults for the network element parameters and ability to change it.
Example BTS parameter template:

maximum number of wideband signal processors.

maximum number of channel units.
noise figure.
Tx/Rx diversity types.

Planning

Importing sites.
Utilisation of 2G networks.

Bearer service
definition

Traffic
modeling

mobile list
generation

WCDMA
calculation

Editing sites and cells.

Adding and modifying sites manually.

Defining service requirements and traffic modelling.

Bit rate and bearer service type assigned to each service.
For NRT need for average call size retransmission rate.
Traffic forecast.

Propagation model tuning.

Matching the default propagation models to the measurements.
Tuning functions per cell basis.

Link loss calculation.

The signal level at each location in the service area is evaluated, it depends on
Network configuration (sites, cells, antennas). Propagation model. Calculation area. Link loss
parameters. Cable and indoor loss. Line-of-sigth settings. Clutter type correction. Topgraphic
corrections. Diffractions.

Optimising dominance.
Interference and capacity analysis.
Locating best servers in each location in the service area.
Target to have clear dominance areas.

Iterative traffic planning process

Verification of the initial dimensioning.

Because of the reuse 1, in the interference calculations also interference from
other cells should be taken into account.
Analysis of one snapshot.
For quickly finding the interference map of the service area.
Locate users randomly into network.
Assume power control and evaluate the 3)2for all the users.
Simple analysis with few iterations.
Exhaustive study with all the parameters.

Monte-Carlo simulation.
Finding average over many snapshots: average, minimum, maximum, std.
Averages over mobile locations.
Iterations are described by:

Number of iterations.
Maximum calculation time.
Mobile list generation.
General calculation settings.

Example of WCDMA analysis

UL RX
levels

Outage
after UL

UL
Iteration

Traffic after
UL

Throughput
UL

Best Server
UL

Cell loading

DL
Iteration

SHO area

Coverage
UL

Best Server
DL

Ec/Io

Cell TX
powers
per link

Traffic After
DL

Throughput
DL

Covergae
pilot Ec/Io

Reporting:

Raster plots from the selected area.

Network element configuration and parameter setting.
Various graphs and trends.
Customised operator specific trends.

Outage
After DL

Covrage
pilot Ec/Io

Active set
sizes

Uplink iteration step

Initialisation

set oldThreshold to the default/new

coverage threshold
Calculate new coverage threshold

no convergence

check UL loading and possibly move

MSs to new other carrier of outage

check hard blocking and possibly

take links out if too few HW
resources
Evaluate UL break criterion
Connect MSs to best server,
calculate neede MS TxPower and
SHO gains

calculate adjusted MS TX powers,

check MSs for outage
calculate new i=ioth/Iown

Allocate MS transmit powers so that

the interference levels and BS
sensitivities converge.
Transmit power of MS should fulfil
required receiver Eb/Io in BS.

Min Rx level in BS.

Required Eb/Io in uplink.
Interference situation.
Antennae gain cable and other losses.

The power calculation loop is

repeated until powers converge.
Mobiles exceeding the limit power
Attempt inter-frequency handover.
Are put into outage.

DL iteration step
convergence
post processing

END

Best server in UL and DL is selected.

Downlink iteration step

Global Initialisation
Initialise iterations

UL iteration step

Initialise deltaCIold
allocate the CPICH powers
calculate the received Perch levels
and determine the best server in DL
calculate the MS senisitivities
determine the SHO connections

check CPICH ec/Io

calciulate the C/I for each connection
calculate C/I for each MS
update deltaCIold
calculate the SHO diversity
combining gains; adjust the required
change to C/I

calculate initial TX powers for all

links

Adjust TX powers of each remaining

link accordingly to deltaCI

check UL and DL break criteria

fulfilled

calculate target C/Is

post processing

END

Allocation of P-CPICH powers.

Transmit power of BS should fulfil
required receiver Eb/Io in MS.
The initial Tx powers are assigned
iteratively.

E N
The target CIR CIRt arg et = b 0
W R
The actual CIR
N
Pnk LPnk
C
=

I k n =1 (1 k ) Pn LPnk + I oth ,n + N k
The planning tool evaluates the actual
CIR and compares it to the Target CIR

Coverage analysis
UL DCH Coverage

Whether an additional mobile having certain bit rate could be served.

The transmit power need for the MS is calculated and compared to the maximum
allowed:
N 0 LP
PTX , MS =

W
(1 ) 1 +
R

DL DCH Coverage

Pixel by pixel is checked whether an additional mobile having certain bit rate could be
served. Concentration on the power limits per radio link.
The transmit power need for supporting the link is calculated and compared to the
R W
maximum allowed:
Ptx N
n

k AS LPk ( I tot I k + N ms )

DL CPICH Coverage

Pixel by pixel is checked whether the P-CPICH channel can be listened.

PCPICH LP
CPICH = numBSs
PTX ,i LPi + I adjacent _ channel _ CI + N 0
i =1

Dynamic simulation

Complexity prohibit the usage in actual network planning.

Is used to verify the planning made by other tools.
Can consider:
power control.
soft handover.
packet scheduling.

Good for benchmarking Radio Resource Management.

Statistic can coverage:
Bad quality calls: Calls with average frame error rate exceeding the threshold.
Dropped calls: Consecutive frame errors exceed the threshold.
Power outage: Power requirement exceeds the available Tx power.

Conclusions

Cell level results are in good agreement with both, dynamic and static results.
The outage areas are in the same locations if investigated with different
simulations.

Radio Resource Management

Content of the lecture

Changing capacity.
Admission control.
Packet scheduling.
Load Control.
Resource management.
Power control.
Handover control.

Changing Capacity
RRM purpose.

Link Quality

Optimisation
and tailoring

Cell coverage

Cell Capacity

Uplink interference power

Overload area

Prx_threshold

Marginal load area

Prx_target
Planned load area
%Prx
%Load

Max planned load

Ensure planned coverage for each

service.
Ensure required connection quality.
Ensure planned (low) blocking.
Optimise the system usage in run time.

Real time RRM and

Optimisation functions.

Interference measurements.
Soft capacity utilisation.
Scheduling in radio interface.
Actions to load change.
Real time interference minimisation:

Handover control.
Service prioritisation.
Connection parameter settings.
Admission control.

WCDMA radio network control

In WCDMA QoS will be controlled by:
Radio Network Planning. (Network Parameters.)
Real time RRM (Radio Resource Management) operations in RNC BS.
Real time power control.
MS

BS

Radio Resource Management.

SRNC

Admission Control
Packet Scheduler
Load Control
Resource Manager
Power Control
Handover Control

Power Control
Power Control
Load Control

DRNC

RRM functionality is a
set of algorithms used
for optimal utilisation of
air interface and HW
resources.

Admission Control
Load Control
Resource Manager
Power Control
Load Control

RRM is operating on connection and cell

bases.
System load is measured in run time.

RRM methods
Network based functions.
Admission control (AC).
Handles all new incoming traffic. Check whether new connection can be admitted to the system
and generates parameters for it.
Occurs when new connection is set up as well during handovers and bearer modification.

Load control (LC).

Manages situation when system load exceeds the threshold and some counter measures have to be
taken to get system back to a feasible load.

Packet scheduler (PS).

Handles all non real time traffic, (packet data users). It decides when a packet transmission is
initiated and the bit rate to be used.

Resource Manager (RM).

Controller over logical resources in BTS and RNC and reserves resources in terrestrial network.

Connection based functions.

Handover Control (HC).
Handles and makes the handover decisions.
Controls the active set of BS of MS.

Power Control (PC).

Maintains radio link quality.
Minimise and control the power used in radio interface.

Interworking actions of AC, PS, and LC

AC
overload
state

no new
RAB
Drop RT bearers

LC

PS
decrease bit rates

overload
actions

NRT bearers
to FACH
drop NRT bearers

PrxTarget+PrxOffset or
PtxTarget+PtxOffset

perventive
state

only bew RT
bearers if RT load
below PrxTarget/
Prxtarget

preventive load
control actions

no new capacity
request scheduled
bit rate not
increased

PrxTarget or
PtxTarget

normal
state

AC admits
RABs normally

no action

PS schedules
packet traffic
normally

In uplink.
m
m

0RX4ARGETthe optimal average0RX4OTAL

0RX/FFSETthe maximum margin by which 0RX4ARGET can be exceeded.

In downlink.
m
m

0TX4ARGET, the optimal average for 0TX4OTAL.

0TX/FFSET, the maximum margin by which 0TX4ARGET can be exceeded.

Air Interface Load: Uplink

Wideband power based uplink loading.

The BS measures the total received power

The Uplink loading can be described by
Load factor

5, 

) OWN + I oth
PrxTotal

.
PrxTotal = I own + I oth + Pn
Noise Rise=PrxTotal/PrxNoise
Overload area

Prx_threshold

Marginal load area

Prx_target

Noise rise

Noise _ RiseUL

P
1
= rxTotal =
1 UL
PN

Planned load area

NoiseRiseTarget=
Prx_target/PrxNoise

%NR=?
%Load

Prx_Noise
Max planned load

Throughput based uplink loading

The UL loading is calculated based on the individual load factor of each individual
user.
1
UL =
W
k 1+
(1 + i )
k Rk k

Air Interface Load: Downlink

Wideband power-based downlink loading.

The load can be estimated by dividing the total currently allocated transmit
power at the BS by the maximum transmitted power capability of the cell:
P
DL = txTotal
PtxMAX

Throughput based downlink loading.

The loading is the sum of the bit rates of all currently active connections
divided by the maximum throughput of the cell:
N

DL =

R
k =1

2MAX

Alternatively. Loading is calculated by using concepts of orthogonality otherto-own cell interference:

W
DL = (1 ) + iDL

k =1 k Rk k
N

Admission control

Decides whether new RAB is admitted or not.

Real-Time traffic admission to the network is decided.
Non-Real-Time traffic after RAB has been admitted the optimum scheduling is determined.
Co-operation with PC.

Used when the bearer is

Set up.
Modified
During the handover.
Only downlink is considered in UL the BS is already measuring a MS as and other to own cell
interferecnce.

In new branch the AC is needed for initial power allocation.

In inter-frequency handovers the UL is also considered.

Estimates the load and fills the system up to the limit.

Used to guarantee the stability of the network and to achieve high network capacity.
Separate admission for UL and DL.
Load change estimation is done in the own and neighbouring cells.
RAB admitted if the resources in both links can be guaranteed.
In decision procedure AC will use thresholds set during radio network planning.

The functionality located in the RRM of the RNC.

Power based admission control

Uplink

The bearer is admitted if RT load fulfils: 0RX.# + I 0RX4RAGET and total

received wideband power fulfils 0RX4OTAL 0RX4ARGET + 0RX/FFSET .
For NRT only the latter condition is applied.
The increase of wideband power is estimated as

0RX4OTAL
L
1
0
I RX4OTAL L .
1 L
I

The fractional load for the new user can be calculated L =

1
.
W
1+
R

Downlink

RT bearer will be admitted if non-controllable downlink load fulfils equation

PtxNC + P 0TX4ARGET and total transmitted power fulfils PtxTotal 0TX4ARGET + PtxOffset .

Throughput based admission control

A new bearer is admitted only if the load after admittance stays below the
threshold defined by RNP.

Uplink
oldUL + L thresholdUL

Downlink
oldDL + L thresholdDL

Admission control

In the decision procedure AC will use threshold form network planning and from
interference measurements.
The new connection should not impact the planned coverage and quality of existing
connections. (During the whole connection time.)
AC estimates the UL and DL load increase which new connection would produce.
AC uses load information from LC and PC.
Load change depends on attributes of RAB: traffic and quality parameters.
If UL or DL limit threshold is exceeded the RAB is not admitted.
AC derives the transmitted bit rate, processing gain, Radio link initial quality
parameters, target BER, BLER, Eb/No, SIR target.
AC manages the bearer mapping
The L1 parameters to be used during the call.

AC initiates the forced call release, forced inter-frequency or intersystem handover.

Logical dependencies of AC
Iub
Bearer set up request

RM
Radio Resource Info
- Codes
- Transport resources

RB info
Resource request

Resource info

PS

AC
Load change estimation
RAB admission
L2 parameters
Transport Format Combination
DL Power allocation

Load Info
Load Change
Info
Load Info

Target BER/BLER/SIR
Active set info

PC

HC

LC

Packet scheduling

To determine the available radio interface resources for non real time radio bearer.
To share the available radio interface resources between non real time radio bearers.
to monitor the allocations for non real time radio bearers.
To initiate transport channel type switching between common, shared and dedicated
channels when necessary.
To monitor the system loading.
To perform load control actions for the non-real-time radio bearers when necessary.

AC handles

NRT RAB allocated, packet service session

RACH/FACH, CPCH,
DSCH, DCH allocation

Load

bit rate

max. planned load

Packet call

Possible NRT load

time
PS handles

non controllable load

time

Properties of WCDMA transport channels

applicable for packet data transfer
TrCh

DCH

RACH

TrCH type
Applicable UE
state
Direction
Code Usage

Dedicated
CELL_DCH

Common
Common
Common
Shared
CELL_FACH CELL_FACH CELL_FACH CELL_FACH

Both
Accordingly to
maximum bit
rate
Power control Fast closedloop
SHO support Yes
Target data
Medium or
traffic volume high
Suitability for Poor
bursty data
Setup time
High
Relative radio High
performance

FACH

Uplink
Fixed code
allocations in a
cell
Open-loop

Downlink
Fixed code
allocations in a
cell
Open-loop

No
Small

No
Small

Good
Low
Low

CPCH

DSCH

Good

Uplink
Fixed code
allocations in a
cell
Fast closedloop
No
Small or
medium
Good

Downlink
Fixed code
allocations in a
cell
Fast closedloop
No
Medium or
high
Good

Low
Low

Low
Medium

Low
Medium or
high

Configurations for transport channel

AC determines the Transport Channel parameters (RNC,
BS, MS).
Transport format (RNC, BS, MS).
AC/PS determine a Transport Format Combination in
DCN multiplexing (RNC, BS, MS).
Service multiplexing and rate matching are controlled
(RNC)
AC/PS determine a Gain factor for the uplink
DPCCH/DPDCH power difference. (MS RNC)

Load Control
Purpose: optimise the capacity of a cell and prevent overload
The interference main resource criteria.
LC measures continuously UL and DL interference.
RRM acts based on the measurements and parameters from planning

Preventive load control.

In normal conditions LC takes care that the network is not overloaded and remains
stable.

Overload condition.
LC is responsible for reducing the load and bringing the network back into operating area.

Fast LC actions in BTS:

deny (DL) or overwrite (uplink) TPC up commands.
Lower SIR target for the uplink inner-loop PC.

LC actions located in the RNC.

Interact with PS and throttle back packet data traffic.

Lower bit rates of RT users.(speech service or CS data).
WCDMA interfrequency or GSM intersystem handover.
Drop single calls in a controlled manner.

Traffic types and load

Non controllable traffic

Real-time (RT) users (traffic).

Users in other cells.
Noise.
NRT users with minimum bit rate.

Uplink received power.

0RX4OTAL = 0RX/WN + 0RX/TH + 0N = 0RX.C + 0RX.24
Downlink received power.
PtxTotal = PtxNc + PtxNRT

Controllable traffic.
Non-real-time users (traffic).

Overlaod Area

Power

Load Target

Overload margin

Some slice of capacity must be

allocated to the non controllable
traffic for mobility purposes all the
time. The proportion between
controllable and non-controllable
traffic varies all the time.

Estimated Capacity
for NRT load

non controllable load

time

Description of LC

LC consists of AC, PS algorithms and LC, updating load status based on the
measurements and estimations from AC and PS.

LC algorithm

BTS measures the total received power.

BTS reports measurements to the Controlling-RNC. (periodically).
RRM in RNC updates cell load status for each controlled cell.
AC and PS work based on the current load status in the cell.

The load is estimated based on received noise power. PrxNoise.

Overestimation -> under estimation of cell load, can lead to overload situation.
Underestiamtion -> overestimation of the cell load, causes low system utilisation
(unnecessary call blocking).

Resource management

Purpose: to allocate physical radio resources when requested by the RRC

layer.
Knows radio network configuration and state data.
Sees only logical radio resources.
Allocation is a reservation of proportion of the available radio resources according
to the channel request from RRC layer for each radio connection.

Input comes from AC/PS.

RM informs PS about network conditions.
Allocates scrambling codes in UL.
Allocates the spreading codes in downlink direction.
Able to switch codes and code types
During soft handover.
defragmentation of code tree.

Power control

Uplink open loop power control.

Downlink open loop power control.
Power in downlink common channels.
Uplink inner (closed) loop power control.
Downlink inner (closed) loop power control.
Outer loop power control.
Power control in compressed mode.

Uplink open loop PC

Setting the initial transmission power.

The terminal sets the initial power for the first PRACH preamble and for the DPCCH
before starting inner loop PC.
0REAMBLE?)NITIAL?0OWER = CPICH _ Tx _ Power
#0)#(?23#0 +5,?INTERFERENCE
+5,?REQUIRED?#)
5,?INTERFERENCE is measured at the BS and broadcast on the BCH.

First DPCCH power level for the uplink inner-loop PC is started as.
$0##(?)NITIAL?0OWER = DPCCH _ Power _ Offset #0)#(?23#0

#0)#(?23#0 is measured bye the terminal.

$0##(?0OWER?/FFSET is calculated by AC in the RNC and provided to MS during a
radio bearer or physical channel reconfiguration.
$0##(?0OWER?/FFSET = CPICH _ Tx _ Power +5,?INTERFERENCE
+ SIRDPCCH 10 log10 ( SFDPDCH )

SIRDPCCH is the initial target SIR produced by the AC for the particular connection.
SFDPDCH is the spreading factor of the corresponding DPDCH.

Downlink Open loop PC

The open loop PC is used to the the initial power of the downlink
channelsbased on downlink measurement reports.
The function is in UTRAN and MS.
A possible algorithm for initial power calculations is
Initial
Tx

P
R
( Eb N 0 ) DL

W
( Eb N 0 )CPICH

PtxTotal

R ( Eb N 0 ) DL CPICH _ Tx _ power
=
PtxTotal

W
E
N
(
)
b
0 CPICH

user bit rate

dwonlink planned Eb/No set by RNP for particular bearer service.
the chip rate.
reported by MS.
the downlink orthogonality factor.
carrier power measured at the BS an reported to the RNC.

PC in downlink common channels

Determined by the network.

The ratio of the transmit powers between different downlink common channels not
specified in recommendations.

DL common
channels
P-CPICH
P-SCH S-SCH
P-CCPCH
PICH
AICH
S-CCPCH

PDSCH

Typical power
Note
level
30-33 dBm
5-10% of maximum cell Tx power (20 W). Set during
Network planning.
-3 dB
Relative to P-CPICH power.
-5 dB
Relative to P-CPICH power.
-8 dB
Relative to P-CPICH power and Number of paging
indicators per frame Np = 72.
-8 dB
Power of one Aquisation Indicator (AI) compared to PCPICH power.
-5 dB
Relative to P-CPICH and SF=256 (15 ksps). The
configuration covers FACH power, max FACH power,
PCH power.
FACH slow PC can be applied.
Inner loop PC TPC commands from user. A proprietary protocol for
slow PC can be used.

UL/DL inner and Outer loop PC

Inner loop PC relies on the feedback information at Layer 1.

The fast PC is used in UMTS for the dedicated channels in
uplink and downlink.
,
ues
l
a
v
PC commands update rate1500 Hz
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CC
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SIR estiamte vs. target SIR
on
C
P
UL TPC commands
MS
DL outer loop PC
%SIR = f(BLER (BER)
SIR target measurements
SIR estiamte vs target SIR
DL TPC commands

Uplink closed loop PC

Received signal power is compared to the CIRtarget and depending on the result
transmission power is asked to increase to decrease.
CIRtarget is got from uplink outer loop PC.

Performance depends on users speed

v < 30 km/h step size 1 dB. (Algorithm 1).
30< v <80 km/h step size 2 dB. (Algorithm 1).
80 < v PC can not follow the channel changes and generates only noise (Algorithm 2).

Before starting the communication a DPCCH PC preamble could be send.

For convergence of the uplink Tr power. 0-7 frames (the number set during RNP).

Fast PC algorithm: 1

The PC command is received and that can be +1 or -1 dB

PC during handover
Commands know to be same are combined into one command that is combined further with other
TPC commands
commands not known to be the same
soft symbol decision on each of the PC commands TPCi where i=1N
to each symbol is assigned a realiability figure Wi
The TPC commands are combined as function of of all N power control commands TPCi
and reliability estimates Wi:
TPC_cmd= (W1,W2,..,WN,TPC1,TPC2,,TPCN), where TPC_cmd -1,1

Allows:

Fast PC algorithm: 2

To emulate smaller step sizes for PC.

To turn off uplink PC.

PC commands processed in non overlap 5 slot cycle.

TPC_cmd
for the first 4 slots of a set TPC_cmd = 0
for the fifth slot is used hard decision
all hard decisions 1 TPC_cmd = 1.
all hard decisions 0 TPC_cmd = 0.
Otherwise TPC_cmd = 0.

Algorithm 2 during handover.

Combining TPC_cmd known to be same. The commands are combined into one command
Combining TPC_cmd not known to be same
MS makes PC decision over 3 slots
sums all the decisions that are not known to be same in a slot
the TPC_cmd for two first slots is 0 and for the third slot it is either - 1, 0, + 1 depending on the
value of the normalised sum of PC bits

Example: TPC_cmd set accordingly

+1 if 1/Ni TPC_cmdi > 0.5

-1 if 1/Ni TPC_cmdi < 0.5
otherwise 0

DL fast closed loop PC

MS estimates the received SIR and compares it with required SIR target.
SIR is estimated from the pilot symbols of the DL-DPCH

MS transmits the TPC command in first available TPC field.

Two downlink PC modes:
DPC_MODE = 0: power command in every slot.
DPC_MODE = 0: power command once in every third slot.

Power difference for different channels is estimated from given power offset
values.
Changes of power are multiplies of the minimum step size
it is mandatory for BS to support 0.5 and 1 dB step size
Tslot=2560 chips
TL Tx
power
PO2

DL DPCH

Data

DPDCH

PO1

TPC

TPCI

DPCCH

PO3

Data

DPDCH

Pilot

DPCCH

DL power during handover

Softer handover (diversity transmission).
Only one TPC is send.
Signals from different antennas are combined in the symbol level.

Soft handover.
The signals are combined in MS.
Power drifting?

In Soft handover mode only one single TPC is send in uplink.

Each cell detects TPC command independently.
Possible errors. Some BS may lower the Tx power when others increase -> the Tx powers
are drifting apart.

The transmission code power levels of athe connecions from the cell in SHO are
forwarded, after averaging, to RNC.
Averaging for example 750 TPC commands (500 ms).

RNC derives a reference power values and send to the cells.

Outer loop PC

Outer loop power control produces an adequate target CIR for inner loop PC.
Done for each DCH belonging to the same RRC connection.
Frequency typically 10-100 Hz.
During Soft HO.
The UL quality is observed after the MDC. The SIR target is generated for all cells in SHO.
The reliability of the blocks is provided to RNC. The quality is estimated based on CRC codes.

LC

UL Outer Loop
PC Controller

SIR Target
modification
command

Quality info
BLER/BER

In CPCH a quality target is

DPCCH BER.
DPCCH BLER quality taret
otherwise.

UL Outer loop PC
Entry #

New SIR target

computation
New SIR
target
PC parameters
at RAB setup/radio link
reconfiguration

Calculation of SIR
target change

MDC
MDC
MDC

New SIR
Target
Transmission of
the new SIR target
value ot BTS

AC
Inital SIR target

RNC

DL the outer loop PC

implemented in MS.

Node B

The value of the DL otuer loop PC

is controlled by the AC in RNC.
The value of the target is send to
MS in a RRC message.

PC in compressed mode

Aim to recover a SIR close to the target SIR after each transmission gap
In downlink compressed mode no PC is applied during transmission gap
In simultaneous DL/UL compressed mode transmission is stopped
The initial tr power of each UL after the tr gap is equal to the power before the gap,
but with an offset resume
resume may be
0
resume = Int[last / TPCmin] TPCmin

last =09375 last-1 -096875 TPCcmdlast TPC

PC modes are fixed and signalled with the other parameters during the downlink
compressed mode
ordinary PC is applied
ordinary PC is applied with step size RP-TPC during RPL slots after transmission gap.

RP-TPC is recovery PC step size in dB

if algorithm 1 used is is equal to the minimum value of 3 dB and 2 TPC
if algorithm 2 is used RP-TPC is equal to 1 dB

RPL is recovery period length and is expressed in number of slots

Handovers

Intrasystem HO.
Intrafrequency HO.
Interfrequency HO.

Intersystem HO.

Hard HO (HHO).
All the old radio links of an MS are released before the new radio links are established.
Real time bearers: short disconnection in transmission.
Non real time bearers HHO is lossless.

Soft HO (SHO).
MS always keeps at least one radio link to UTRAN.
Soft HO: MS is simultaneously controlled by two or more cells belonging to diffetrent BTS of
the same RNC or to different RNC.
Softer HO. MS is controlled by at least two cells under one BTS.

Mobile evaluated handover (MEHO).

The UE mainly prepares the handover decision. The final decision is made by SRNC.

Network evaluated handover (NEHO).

The SRNC makes the handover decision.

Intrasystem intra-frequency HO
Objectives of soft/softer HO.
Optimum fast closed loop PC as the terminal is always linked with the strongest cells.
Seamless handover with no disconnection of the radio access bearer.
Diversity gain by combining the received signals from different cells. Better coverage. Less
transmission power.
MEHO: MS continuously measures serving and neighbouring cells on the current carrier.
The RAN can perform soft and softer HO simultaneously.
General HO activities.
Reporting of the MS measurements.
Compares measurement results with the HO threshold.
MS sends reports to BTS when the criteria is met.
Threshold is provided by the RNC.
Comparison result is transmitted to RNC.

HO decision.
SRNC orders MS to add or remove cells from/to Active set.

Measurement reporting criteria.

Definition of event that triggers the measurement report.
Parameters are defined on cell bases.

RRM functions in HO process

RRM functions
HC: processes the measurements made by terminal and makes decisions. Updates
reference transmission powers.
AC: DL admission decision: acceptance and queuing. DL power allocation. May initiate a
forced call release of IF-HO IS-HO.
RM: Activates/deactivates HO brances. Allocates/releases DL spreading codes.
LC: Updates DL load information when new HO link is admitted.
PS: Releases codes for HO brances of NRT. Schedules HO additions requests for NRT

DL channelisation codes are allocated separately for each soft(er) HO branch.

UL channelisation code is the same for each soft(er) HO branch.

Measurements reporting

The measurements based on Eb/Io.

The MS constantly monitors the CPICH Eb/Io of the cells defined by the
neighbouring list.
If the reporting criteria is fulfilled MS sends a event triggered measurement
report
The CPICH Eb/Io is the received energy per chip divided by the power density
in the band.
The accuracy of pilot Eb/Io important for HO performance.
The accuracy depends on the filtering length and mobile speed.

HO measurements reporting can be divided as:

Neighbouring cell definitions.

Measurement reporting criteria.
Reporting of measurement results.

Neighbouring cells
For each cell in the radio network configuration database are defined a list of neighbouring
cells.
Intrafrequency neighbouring list. The UE must be able to monitor at least 32 cells on
the same WCDMA carrier frequency as the serving cell.
Interfrequency neighbouring list. The UE must be able to monitor at least 32 cells on
the two other WCDMA carrier frequencies compared to the serving cell.
Intersystem neighbouring list. For each neighbouring PLMN a separate list is
maintained.

Measurement reporting criteria

Depending on the hondover type (MEHO, NEHO) different measurement reporting criteria can
be used.
Intrafrequency measurements.(MEHO).
HO measurements. The RAN broadcast the measurements reporting criteria (measuremetns
parameters on the BCCH.

Interfrequency and Intersystem measurements.

Made only when requested by RNC.
When once initiated MS periodically reports the measurement results to RNC

UE internal measurements.
Controlled cell by cell bases. Info transmitted to MS in DCCH.

Reporting Intrafrequency measurments

Can be either event-triggered or periodic.
Reporting criteria for intrafrequency measurements are:
Event 1a: A p-CPICH enters the reporting range.
Event 1b: A P-CPICH leaves the reporting range.
Event 1c: A non-active P-CPICH becomes better than an active one.
Event 1d: Change of best cell. Reporting event is triggered when any P-CPICH in the
reporting range becomes better than thet current best one plus an optional hysteresis
value.

P-CPICH 1
P-CPICH
Ec/Io

P-CPICH 2

Addition
window

Drop
window

Replacement
window
P-CPICH 3

P-CPICH 4

Reporting of:

Event 1a Event 1e

Event 1C

Event 1d Event 1b Event 1c

Event 1e: A P-CPICH becomes

better than an absolute threshold
plus an optional hysteresis value.
Event 1f: A P-CPICH becomes
worse than an absolute minus an
optional hysteresis value.

Intrafrequency measurements (2)

NA

10
log
M
W
10
log
M

Event 1a.
new )
i + (1 W ) M Best ( R1a H 1a 2 )
10 (
10
i =1

NA
Event 1b. 10 log10 ( M Old ) W 10 log10 M i + (1 W ) M Best ( R1b + H 1b 2 )

i =1

M new the measurement result of the cell entering

R1a

Mi

H 1a
R1b

NA
M Best
W

the reporting range.

a measurement result of a cell in the active
set.
the number of cells in the current active set.
the measurement result of the strongest cell
in the active set.
a weighting parameter sent from RNC to UE.

M Old

H1b

the reporting range for Event 1a sent

from RNC to UE.
the hysteresis parameter for Event 1a.
the reporting range constant for Event
1b sent from RNC.
the measurement result of the cell
leaving the reporting range.
the hysteresis parameter for Event 1B.

Time to trigger mechanism.

To protect the network from excessive signalling in case of frequent reports.

The reporting events could have a timer.
If the measuring criteria is fulfilled during the whole period the event is reported.

Periodic Reporting.

If the operation (AS update) can not occur because lack of HW the MS continues to send
periodic reports.