Electrical System Building Blocks

Electrical System Building Blocks K.
Craig 1
Electrical System Building Blocks
Dr. Kevin Craig
Greenheck Chair
in Engineering Design
&
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Marquette University
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Electrical System Building Blocks K. Craig 2
The Three Basic Element Input-Output Relationships
Resistor K = R
Capacitor K = C
Inductor K = L
q
in
= current
q
out
= voltage
Electrical Building Blocks
Why do we start with electrical building blocks?
All engineering systems built today have electronics and
controls (either analog or digital with a microcontroller)
integrated into the design from the very beginning of the
design process after-thought add-ons are not permitted as
they lead to less-than-optimum designs.
Many modeling and analysis concepts and techniques are
easier to explain and easier to grasp using electrical
elements.
Numerous tools and methods for analyzing electrical circuits
have been developed over the years and all these can be
applied to the modeling and analyzing of mechanical,
magnetic, fluid, and thermal systems as well.
Voltage and Current
The concepts of voltage and current are used in
electrical and electronics engineering to describe the
behavior of engineering systems that use electricity.
Voltage
Voltage, V or e (volts), also called potential difference
or electromotive force (emf), is the amount of work
done or the energy (joules) required in moving a unit
of positive charge (one coulomb) from a negative
point (lower potential) to a more positive point (higher
potential).
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb. The unit for voltage is
volts and the units for electrical charge are coulombs.
One coulomb of electrical charge is equal in
magnitude to 6.22 x 10
18
electrons.
A voltage is the measure of the difference in potential
across a component; you need two points to measure
a voltage.
Often we use a common standard reference point
with a potential of 0 volts called an earth point or
ground.
Shown is a definition sketch of an electrical element:
If V
2
is not equal to V
1
, then electrical charge flows
from one side of the element to the other. This flow of
electrical charge per unit time is called current
(symbol i) and is measured in amperes or amps.
Current
Current, i (amperes), is the amount of electric charge
(coulombs) flowing past a specific point in a
conductor over an interval of one second.
1 ampere = 1 coulomb per second
Electric current is created by the flow of negatively
charged electrons. By convention, we choose
positive current to be in the opposite direction to the
flow of electrons.
Current is a flow of electrons into, out of, or through a
component.
We use the symbol V
21
to represent V
2
V
1
.
Shown is a definition sketch of an electrical element
with different voltage / current values.
V
2
> V
1
V
2
< V
1
V
2
= V
1
Concepts of Work, Power, and Energy in Electrical
Elements
Voltage is defined as the work that must be done to
move a unit of electrical charge from one point to
another:
The unit of measure for work is the joule. Volts (V)
are then joules (J) per coulomb (C), i.e., one volt is
equal to one joule of work per coulomb of charge.
One joule of work is equivalent to one watt-sec or
0.737 ft-lbs.
Current is the flow of electrical charge per unit time.
21
21
dW
V
dq
dq
i
dt
Power, P, is defined as the rate at which work is
performed.
Power, P, measured in watts (W), is the rate at which
energy is used by an element.
The product of voltage differential across an electrical
element and the current flowing through the element
is equal to power.
Power = Voltage x Current = V x I
dW
P
dt
J C J
W
C s s
W VA
21 21
21
dW dW dq
V i P
dq dt dt
Since work is a form of energy E, we can write:
This equation can be integrated to obtain the energy
stored in, or dissipated by, an electrical element over
a time interval from t = t
1
to t = t
2
:
dE
P
dt
2 2
1 1
t t
2 1 21
t t
E Pdt
E E Pdt V i dt
Resistance Element or Resistor
This is the most common of all electrical elements.
It is intentionally or unintentionally present in every
real electrical system.
Pure and ideal resistance element has a
mathematical model:
Value of R is given in ohms ().
Strict linearity between e and i
Instantaneous response of i to e or e to i
All electrical energy supplied is dissipated into heat.
Real Resistors
Non-ideal (not exactly linear)
e
i
R
Impure they exhibit some capacitance and inductance
effects which make themselves known only when
current and voltage are changing with time.
A steady-state experiment will reveal departures from
ideal behavior, but will not reveal impurity of a resistor.
When measuring the resistance of a resistor with an
ohmmeter, the R value obtained is good for the one
value of current that the ohmmeter is using to measure
the resistance.
A crude check of linearity can quickly be made by
measuring the resistance of a resistor on several
ranges of an ohmmeter. If the indicated value is
significantly different when measured on different
ranges, the resistor is nonlinear.
Definition of Resistance R (ohms) and Conductance
G (siemens)
The energy delivered to a resistor during a time
interval is given by:
e
R
i
i
G
e
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
1 1 1
t t t
2
21
2 1 21 21 21
t t t
t t t
2
21
t t t
V 1
E E V i dt V dt V dt
R R
V i dt Ri i dt R i dt
A resistor always dissipates power, regardless of
the direction of the current or the sign of the
voltage. Energy cannot be retrieved from a
resistor. This element only dissipates energy.
Instantaneous electric power P
Power is always positive; the resistor always takes
power from the source supplying it.
Since the resistor cannot return power to the
source, all the power supplied is dissipated into
heat.
Electric power (watts) is the heating rate for the
resistor.
2
2 2
e e
P ei i iR i R e e G
R R

Internal heat generation causes the resistor
temperature to rise.
When the resistor temperature is higher than that
of its surroundings, heat transfer by conduction,
convection, and radiation causes heat to flow
away from the resistor.
When the resistor gets hot enough, this heat
transfer rate just balances the e
2
/R heat
generation rate and the resistor achieves an
equilibrium temperature somewhere above room
temperature.
In a real resistor this temperature cannot be
allowed to get too high, or else the R value
changes excessively or the resistor may actually
burn out.
Instantaneous dynamic response is characteristic of
a pure resistance element.
Real resistors are always impure and this prevents
this instantaneous dynamic response.
Since practical systems always deal with a limited
range of operation, if a real resistor behaves nearly
like a pure/ideal model over its necessary range, the
fact that it deviates elsewhere is of little
consequence.
Note that resistance elements can be pure without
being ideal. For example a very useful nonlinear
resistor is the semiconductor diode.
Resistance Element
e Ri
Resistors in series and parallel
If the same current passes through two or more
resistors, those resistors are said to be in series, and
they are equivalent to a single resistor whose
resistance is the sum of the individual resistances.
If the same voltage difference exists across two or
more resistors, those resistors are said to be in
parallel and they are equivalent to a single resistance
whose reciprocal is equal to the sum of the reciprocals
of the individual resistances.
For resistances in parallel, the total parallel
resistance is always dominated by, and is less
than, the smallest resistance value in the circuit.
Resistance of a Conductor
The resistance R of a conducting wire of length L,
cross-sectional area A, and material resistivity is
given by:
Uses of Resistance in Circuits
Resistances are used in circuits to control or limit
the amount of current flow in a circuit.
Resistances are used to convert a flow of current
into a voltage. The resistor is the cheapest and
simplest form of current-to-voltage converter
available.
Resistances are used to reduce the size of a
voltage from one circuit to another.
L
R
A
Voltage Divider and Current Divider
e
out
e
in
R
2
R
1
R
2
R
1
I
in
I
out
I
1 I
2
2
out in
1 2
R
e e
R R
2
1 in
1 2
1
2 in
1 2
R
I I
R R
R
I I
R R
in 1 2 out
I I I I
Resistor Specifications
Resistance Value
Tolerance
Resistors are manufactured with well-defined
tolerances, typically ranging from 10% to 0.1%; e.g.,
a 5% 47 resistor will have a value that departs by
no more than 5% from 47.
It is the mark of a good design not to use precision
components except in key locations.
The normal, wide variations in resistor values set a
limit on the accuracy needed for most calculations.
To achieve precision, the normal process is to
combine a fixed resistor in series with a variable
resistor and adjust the variable resistor to obtain the
desired operating point.
Power Rating
All resistors have power dissipation ratings, which
tell how much power they can dissipate before
their values change by more than their rated
tolerance or before they fail.
Power-handling capability of commercially
available resistors range from W to hundreds of
watts. Low-power resistors are generally
satisfactory for op-amp, transistor, and logic
circuits; high-power resistors are needed in power
supplies.
Check the power dissipation in designing a circuit
and use resistors well below their rated power
limits.
Stability
The value of a resistor will change because of the
passage of time and changes in temperature and
humidity.
Resistor values also change slowly when subject
to very high voltage (kV range).
In general, these changes are small and can be
ignored, except in precision circuits.
Resistor Imperfections
Inductive and capacitive components of a resistor are
called parasitic components. These parasitic
components depend on the construction techniques
used in making the resistor, as well as on the
frequency of operation.
A real resistor may be represented by pure and ideal
elements: a resistor in series with an inductor with a
capacitor in parallel with the series combination.
Current flowing through a resistor causes electronic
noise. The amount and nature of this noise depend
on the current, the resistance, and the type of resistor.
Resistor Marking Schemes
Most resistors are small, colored cylinders with wires
sticking out of each end of the cylinder. The value (two
digits of the resistance value plus a power-of-ten
multiplier) and tolerance can be determined from the
colored bands on the resistor.
The digits 0 through 9 are represented by the following
colors:
Similarly, the multiplier power of ten (0 through 8) is
given by the same color code.
Gold represents a 0.1 multiplier and a 5% tolerance.
Silver represents a 0.01 multiplier and a 10% tolerance.
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Gray 8
White 9
Fixed Resistor Types and Characteristics
Carbon Composition
Low in cost and readily available
Available in low-accuracy values 20%, 10%, and 5%, resistance
values 10 to 22M, and power ratings to 5 W
Relatively poor thermal stability and sensitive to humidity
Carbon Film
Workhorses of modern equipment
Compared to carbon composition resistors: better performance,
more stable, better noise characteristics, insensitive to humidity
Good stability under high voltage; fair thermal stability
Available in same resistance and power ranges as carbon
composition resistors; 5% is normal tolerance
Preferred resistor for non-critical applications
Metal Film or Metal Oxide
Preferred resistor for critical circuitry
Much better characteristics than previous two types; better
thermal stability and lower noise characteristics
Available only in low-power values ( W or less) and semi-
precision (1% or 2%) or high-precision (0.5% to 0.01%)
tolerances
More expensive than previous two types
Wire Wound
Generally used in high-power equipment; power ratings run
from 1 to 1500 W
Available in resistance range of 0.1 to 100 k
Generally available in 5% to 10% tolerance range
Good noise and stability characteristics
Generally quite expensive and large
Capacitance Element or Capacitor
This is another fundamental electrical element. Like a
resistor, it is intentionally or unintentionally present in
every real electrical system.
Two conductors separated by a nonconducting
medium (insulator or dielectric), that allows an
electrostatic field to be established without allowing
charge to flow between the two pieces of conducting
material, form a capacitor.
A capacitor stores electrical energy in its electrostatic
field. In a pure and ideal capacitor, all of the energy
stored in a capacitor can be retrieved and used.
q coulombs
C farads
e volts

Charging a Capacitor
Process of removing charge from one conductor and
placing an equal amount on the other.
The net charge of a capacitor is always zero and the
charge on a capacitor refers to the magnitude of
the charge on either conductor.
In a pure and ideal capacitance element, the numerical
value of C is absolutely constant for all values of q or e.
Real capacitors exhibit some nonlinearity and are
contaminated by the presence of resistance and/or
inductance.
Mathematical Model
1 de 1 dq 1 de
e q i i C
C dt C dt C dt
0
e t t
0
e 0 0
1 1 1
de i dt de i dt e e i dt
C C C
i
D CD
e
e 1
D
i CD
Operational Transfer Functions
d
D
dt
de
De
dt

Energy Stored
The pure and ideal capacitance stores in its electric field
all the electrical energy supplied to it during the charging
process and will give up all of this energy if completely
discharged, say by connecting it to a resistor.
The work done to transfer a charge dq through a potential
difference e is (e)dq. The total energy stored by a
charged capacitor is:
This is true irrespective of how the final voltage or charge
was built up.
There is no current through a capacitor; an equal
amount of charge is taken from one plate and supplied to
the other by way of the circuit external to the capacitor.
q q
2 2
0 0
q q Ce
e dq dq
C 2C 2
Capacitance Element
de
i C
dt
Capacitors in Series and Parallel
The total capacitance of capacitors connected in
parallel is the sum of the individual capacitances.
The total capacitance of capacitors connected in
series is the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitors.
total 1 2 n
C C C C
total 1 2 n
1 1 1 1
C C C C

Capacitor Usage
Large capacitors are used in power supply circuits to
store charge, or energy, for delivery at a later time
They are used to filter out a 60 Hz ripple
The function of a bypass capacitor is to unsure that the
dc component of a signal appears on some circuit
element but that the ac component is shorted out or
bypassed around the element. They are used to
prevent high-frequency noise on the dc power line in
modern digital electronics from entering into the logic
via the power leads.
A blocking or coupling capacitor blocks the dc
component of a signal from propagating to another
section of a circuit while allowing ac signals to get
through.
Capacitors are used in frequency discrimination, or
timing, circuits. RC and LC networks are used to
create shaped frequency responses.
Capacitors are used in integrating circuits for
measuring charge or in analog-to-digital converters.
Capacitor Properties
In a capacitor consisting of two flat conductors
separated by an insulator, capacitance is proportional
to the area of the conductors and the dielectric
constant, and inversely proportional to the spacing
between the two conductors. Therefore to get large
capacitance one needs large area, large dielectric
constant, or small gap spacing. All three are used in
real capacitors.
Dielectric strength is an important parameter of the
dielectric in a capacitor, i.e., how much voltage can
be applied across it before it breaks down in some
way and starts to conduct. Some dielectrics are
healing, i.e., after they break down and the discharge
is terminated, the dielectric reforms and is essentially
unchanged.
One of the two conductors in any rolled or multilayer
capacitor is the outer conductor while the other
conductor is shielded by the outer one. The outer
conductor can pick up or transmit signals as an
antenna and should be connected to ground.
Some leakage current will flow through the dielectric
in any capacitor and this is expressed in terms of an
equivalent resistance (10
6
to 10
12
ohms).
Some of the energy put into charging a capacitor is
lost; it appears as heat in the dielectric. There is
dielectric loss of the capacitor and the amount
increases with frequency and depends on the type of
insulator.
There are two time constants in a capacitive circuit.
The energy stored in the electric field between the
two plates and most of the energy stored in the
polarization of the dielectric can be removed as
fast as the RC time constant of the circuit will allow
the capacitor to discharge.
Some of the polarization energy is released on a
time scale determined by atomic processes in the
material; this can have time constants measured in
milliseconds to days. Thus a large capacitor that
has a highly polarized dielectric can be discharged
and then left with its leads open; some time later, it
is found that there is some voltage between the
two terminals, as some of the energy stored in the
polarization has been slowly returned to the
electric field.
Any real capacitor will have some parasitic
inductance. Any capacitor will look inductive at a
high enough frequency. To have a capacitor to
that will operate from low to extremely high
frequencies, use several capacitors in parallel.
Capacitor Specification
Value
Tolerance which gives the possible error in the nominal
value of the capacitor. In general, the tolerances on
capacitors are large and frequently asymmetrical.
Voltage Rating (short-term and working) is the
maximum voltage that can be applied to a capacitor
without breakdown. It depends on the dielectric
thickness and material.
Insulation resistance is a measure of the ohmic
resistance of the dielectric layer of the capacitor.
Dissipation or power factor is a measure of the energy
loss in the capacitor due to resistive leakage and
dielectric loss.
The quality factor, dependent on the measurement
frequency, indicates the energy loss in a capacitor. A
near-perfect capacitor, with no losses, has a quality
factor approaching infinity.
The properties of the dielectric, and hence the
capacitance of a capacitor, will change as a function
of temperature. The temperature coefficient will
indicate this dependence.
The voltage coefficient indicates how the capacitance
of a capacitor decreases as the voltage increases.
Aging specification indicates the changes in the
capacitor as a function of time.
Capacitor Markings
Measure It!
Fixed Capacitor Types and Properties
Two main classes of fixed capacitors: electrolytic and
non-electrolytic.
Most electrolytic capacitors are polarized and will
have some markings to indicate which lead must be
the positive one.
The two main types of electrolytic capacitors are:
Aluminum and Tantalum
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are the most
common electrolytic capacitors in use. They have
capacitances ranging from 1 to 10
6
F and in
voltage ranges from 100 to 700 V.
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors are smaller than
aluminum for equivalent ratings. They have better
characteristics in all respects, cost more, and have
longer life expectancy. They have a capacitance
range of 0.1 to 1000 F and a voltage range of 3 to
150 V.
Non-electrolytic capacitors are made of a variety of
new materials, e.g., polypropylene, polyimide,
polystyrene, polycarbonate, polyester, paper, mica,
glass, and ceramic.
Inductance Element or Inductor
This is another fundamental electrical element. Like a
resistor and capacitor, it is intentionally or
unintentionally present in every real electrical system.
An electric current always creates an associated
magnetic field (Amperes Law). If a coil or other
circuit lies within this field, and if the field changes
with time, an electromotive force (voltage) is induced
in the circuit. (Faradays Law of Induction)
The magnitude of the induced voltage is proportional to
the rate of change of flux d / dt linking the circuit, and
its polarity is such as to oppose the cause producing it.
(Lenzs Law)
If no ferromagnetic materials ( e.g., iron) are present,
the rate of change of flux is proportional to the rate of
change of current which is producing the magnetic field.
The proportionality factor relating the induced emf
(voltage) to the rate of change of current is called the
inductance L.
The presence of ferromagnetic materials greatly
increases the strength of the effects, but also makes
them significantly nonlinear, since now the flux
produced by the current is not proportional to the
current.
Thus, iron can be used to get a large value of
inductance, but the value will be different for
different current levels.
The pure inductance element has induced voltage
e instantaneously related to di/dt, but the relation
can be nonlinear.
The pure and ideal element has e directly
proportional to di/dt (e = L di/dt), i.e., it is linear
and free from resistance and capacitance.
di
e L
dt
e volts
L henry H
di amps
dt sec
A real inductor always has considerable
resistance. At DC and low frequencies, all real
inductors behave like resistors, not inductors.
At high frequencies, all real devices (R, C, L)
exhibit complex behavior involving some
combination of all three pure elements.
Thus, real inductors deviate from the pure/ideal
model at both low and high frequencies, whereas
R and C deviate mainly at high frequencies.
One can expect real inductors to nearly follow the
pure model only for some intermediate range of
frequencies and, if the inductance value is small
enough to be achieved without the use of
magnetic material, the behavior may also
approximate the ideal (linear).
Self-Inductance and Mutual-Inductance
Self-inductance is a property of a single coil, due to
the fact that the magnetic field set up by the coil
current links the coil itself.
Mutual inductance causes a changing current in one
circuit to induce a voltage in another circuit.
Mutual inductance is symmetrical, i.e., a current
changing with a certain di/dt in coil 1 induces the
same voltage in coil 2 as would be induced in coil 1
by the same di/dt current change in coil 2. This hold
for coils in the same circuit or in separate circuits.
The induced voltage in circuit A due to current change
in B can either add or subtract from the self-induced
voltage in A. This depends on actual geometry.
A A1 A2
A B A
1 B/ A1 A2/ A1
A B A
2 B/ A2 A1/ A2
A
1 2 A2/ A1 A1/ A2
B
B/ A1 B/ A2
e e e
di di di
L M M
dt dt dt
di di di
L M M
dt dt dt
di
L L M M
dt
di
M M
dt
A2/ A1 A1/ A2
1
2
B/A1 1
B/ A2 2
M M mutual inductance of coils 1 and 2
L self-inductance of coil 1
L self-inductance of coil 2
M mutual inductance of coils B and A
M mutual inductance of coils B and A
Energy Stored
The pure and ideal inductance stores energy in its
magnetic field. The energy stored, irrespective of
how the current i is achieved, is:
If we connect a current-carrying inductor to an
energy-using device (e.g., resistor) the inductor will
supply energy in an amount i
2
L/2 as its current
decays from i to 0. During this decay process, i if
originally positive stays positive, but di/dt (and thus e)
becomes negative, making power negative.
t i
2
0 0
di
Power ei L i
dt
di i L
Energy iL dt Li di
dt 2
Inductance Element
di
e L LDi
dt
i 1
D
e LD
At very low frequencies, a small voltage amplitude can
produce a very large current and thus an inductance is
said to approach a short circuit in this case.
At high frequencies, the current produced by any finite
voltage approaches zero, and thus an inductance is said
to approach an open circuit at high frequencies.
For a capacitance, the reverse frequency behavior is
observed: the capacitance approaches a short circuit at
high frequencies and an open circuit at low frequencies.
One can often use these simple rules to quickly estimate
the behavior of complex circuits at low and high
frequency. Just replace Ls and Cs by open and short
circuits, depending on the frequency you are interested in.
Remember for real circuits that real Ls always become
Rs for low frequency.
Use of Inductors
The use of inductors is rapidly disappearing from
electronics.
There are two main types of inductors: large, massive
inductors to be used in power supplies and small
inductors used in low-power frequency-discriminating
circuitry.
For the large inductors, the main parameters are:
inductance (usually a few mH to 50 H), the nominal
resistance of the winding, the maximum current ( a
few mA to several A, set by heating limits), the size
(often large), and the cost.
The small inductors often look like low-powered
resistors, with inductances in the 0.1 H to 100 mH
range, and have color-code bands to indicate the
value of the inductance. The low-value inductors are
air-core coils, whereas the larger-value inductors are
made with ferrite cores.
Other small inductors in the 10 to 1000 H range look
like small tire-shaped windings typically of the order of
an inch or less in diameter usually mounted on some
sort of a cylindrical core. These coils can come
shielded for situations where noise radiation or noise
pickup may be a problem.
For small inductors the interesting facts are the
inductance (usually in H), the resistance of the coil,
the current-carrying limits (usually in the mA range),
the energy loss as a function of frequency, some
indication of the maximum (or minimum) frequency at
which the coil is intended to be used, the size, and a
short description of the type of coil.
Summary of the Basic Electrical Building Blocks
V iR
dV
i C
dt
di
V L
dt
Electrical Impedance
A variable that flows through an element is impeded
by the element.
Electrical impedance is a generalization of the simple
voltage/current relation called resistance for resistors.
It can be applied to capacitors, inductors, and to
entire circuits.
It assumes ideal (linear) behavior of the device.
Electrical impedance is defined as the transfer
function relating voltage and current:
e
Z D D
i

The impedances for the pure/ideal electrical elements
are:
Impedance is most useful in characterizing the
dynamic behavior of components and systems.
It is also useful in the solution of routine circuit
problems.
R
C
L
Z D R
1
Z D
CD
Z D LD
The rules for combining series or parallel impedances
are extensions to the dynamic case of the rules
governing series and parallel static resistance
elements.
If the same flow passes through two or more
impedances, those impedances are said to be in
series, and they are equivalent to a single
impedance whose impedance is the sum of the
individual impedances.
If the same effort difference exists across two or
more impedances, those impedances are said to
be in parallel and they are equivalent to a single
impedance whose reciprocal is equal to the sum
of the reciprocals of the individual impedances.
C
q
e
L
i
R
General Model Structure for Electrical Systems
e dt
q i dt
Li
q
e
C
e iR
Operational Block Diagram Basic Elements
summer
constant
multiplier
integrator
differentiator
Summary
Current and Voltage Sources & Meters:
Ideal and Real
Ideal Voltage Source
Supplies the intended voltage to the circuit no matter
how much current (and thus power) this might require
Can supply infinite current
Zero output impedance
Ideal Current Source
Supplies the intended current to the circuit no matter
how much voltage (and thus power) this might require
Can supply infinite voltage
Infinite output impedance
Real sources have terminal characteristics that are
somewhat different from the ideal cases.
However, the terminal characteristics of the real
sources can be modeled using ideal sources with
their associated input and output resistances.
Real Voltage Source
Modeled as an ideal voltage source in series with
a resistance called the output impedance of the
device.
When a load is attached to the source and current
flows, the output voltage V
out
will be different from
the ideal voltage source V
s
due to voltage division.
The output impedance of most voltage sources is
usually very small (fraction of an ohm).
For most applications, the output impedance is
small enough to be neglected. However, the
output impedance can be important when driving a
circuit with small resistance because the
impedance adds to the resistance of the circuit.
Real Current Source
Modeled as an ideal current source in parallel with
an output impedance.
When a load is attached to the source, the source
current I
s
divides between the output impedance
and the load.
The output impedance of most current sources is
usually very large, minimizing the current division
effect.
However, the impedance can be important when
driving a circuit with a large resistance.
Ideal Voltmeter
Infinite input impedance
Draws no current
Real Voltmeter
Can be modeled as an ideal voltmeter in parallel with
an input impedance.
The input impedance is usually very large (1 to 10
M).
However, this resistance must be considered when
making a voltage measurement across a circuit branch
with large resistance since the parallel combination of
the meter input impedance and the circuit branch
would result in significant error in the measured value.
Ideal Ammeter
Zero input impedance
No voltage drop across it
Real Ammeter
Can be modeled as an ideal ammeter in series
with a resistance called the input impedance of the
device.
The input impedance is usually very small,
minimizing the voltage drop V
R
added in the
circuit.
However, this resistance can be important when
making a current measurement through a circuit
branch with small resistance because the output
impedance adds to the resistance of the branch.
R
out
+
+
-
-
Ideal Voltage
Source
Output
Impedance
V
s
Real Voltage
Source
V
out
Ideal Current
Source
Output
Impedance
I
s
R
out
Real Current
Source
I
out
Ideal
Voltmeter
Input
Impedance
R
in
Real
Voltmeter
+
-
V
in
+
-
Ideal Ammeter
Input
Impedance
V
R
R
in
Real
Ammeter
I
in

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