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F (40
F (51
8,600
1
2
1
T
r
1
(2)
where is available from Edwards et al. (1983) and T
r
is the reduced tem-
perature.
2.1.1. Temperature Dependency of Viscosity of Liquids
Generally the viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature. Andrades
equation presented in Edwards et al. (1983), good for organic and inorganic
liquids, is
= 10
6
A
1
3
e
c/T
(3)
where A and c are constants listed in Edwards et al. (1983).
2.1.2. Viscosity of Oil
From the work of Amin and Maddox presented by Edwards et al. (1983), the
viscosity-temperature behavior for crude oil fractions is
= Aexp
B
T
(4)
where = kinematic viscosity in centistokes, A = (223T
0.568
b
4.038)
K/B, K = Watson characterization factor, B = exp(4.924+0.00454T
b
), and
T
b
= 50% boiling point in K and T in K.
2.1.3. Pressure Dependency of the Viscosity of Liquids
The viscosity of all liquids generally increases with pressure. Andrades re-
lationship is
o
=
1/6
o
k
1/2
e
c(
p
o
)/T
(5)
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
B
y
:
[
P
D
V
S
A
I
n
t
e
v
e
p
]
A
t
:
1
8
:
2
8
2
1
M
a
r
c
h
2
0
1
1
418 D. K. Das et al.
where subscripts p and o denote high pressure and low pressure condi-
tions, k
F.
A
3
= 1.17126 + (0.023722 + 0.024907SG)K +
(1.14982 0.046535K)
SG
A
2
= 10
4
(1.0 + 0.82463K)
1.12172
0.27634
SG
A
1
= 10
8
(1.0 + 0.82463K)
2.9027
0.70958
SG
where T = temperature in
R, K = described earlier, and SG = specic
gravity = density of oil at 60
F/density of water at 60
F. Over a temperature
range 293 < T < 423 K, specic heat is calculated by Cragoe cited in
Edwards et al. (1983):
c
p
= 4,200A(
+
)
1/2
+ 3.78(T 288) J/kg K. (7)
Fortsh and Whitmans equation from Edwards et al. (1983) is
c
p
= [1,450 + 3.72(T 273)](2.1
+
) J/kg K (8)
where
+
is the dimensionless density with respect to water at T = 288 K,
A for parafn oils = 0.425, for mixed oils = 0.415, and for nephtenic oils =
0.405.
2.3. Thermal Conductivity of Oil
Empirical formulas for thermal conductivity for the temperature range 273 <
T < 423 K, are presented by Cragoe:
k = 0.118
1
[1 0.00054(T 273)] 10
3
W/m K (9)
and Smith in Edwards et al. (1983):
k = 0.137
1
[1 0.00054(T 273)] 10
3
W/m K (10)
where is in kg/m
3
at 288 K.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
B
y
:
[
P
D
V
S
A
I
n
t
e
v
e
p
]
A
t
:
1
8
:
2
8
2
1
M
a
r
c
h
2
0
1
1
Thermal Properties 419
2.4. Prandtl Numbers of Liquids
The Prandtl number of any liquid can be determined by knowing c
p
, ,
and k. When exact values of these properties are not available, the Gambill
equation presented in Edwards et al. (1983) can be used, which is claimed
to be valid for all practical purposes:
log Pr = 0.0270
H
v
T
1.80 (11)
where H
v
is change in total enthalpy (at T ) in kJ/kmol, and T in K. For
GTL, Prandtl number data is generally not available.
2.5. Properties of GTL and Mixture
Currently, researchers are also asked to evaluate the viability of transporting
a mixture of crude oil and GTL called a commingled mixture. Therefore, to
explore different scenarios, we must determine the property variation of pure
oil, pure GTL, and the commingled mixture.
Thermal properties of various types of oils have been adequately reported
in the literature. For example, Thomas (1993) presents the following equa-
tions for 30
C < T < 80
C. (15)
= 0.1 exp(0.243 0.0478T + 9.72 10
5
T
2
)
kg/(m s) 80
C. (16)
For Alaskan crude oil, actual measurements of oil properties and tting
the measured data to empirical relations have resulted in the following thermal
properties equations presented by Chrisman (2001):
= exp(exp(31.52 4.9 ln(T + 460))) centipoises, T in
F. (17)
SG = 0.8997 0.000458 T, T in
F. (18)
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
B
y
:
[
P
D
V
S
A
I
n
t
e
v
e
p
]
A
t
:
1
8
:
2
8
2
1
M
a
r
c
h
2
0
1
1
420 D. K. Das et al.
The curve-t Eqs. (17) and (18) were based on test results obtained from
samples taken at Pump Station 1 on the Trans-Alaska Pipeline in September
2000. The equations were curve-tted from measurements between 20
F
to 140
F at 10
mix
=
m
g
g
+
m
o
0
. (22)
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
B
y
:
[
P
D
V
S
A
I
n
t
e
v
e
p
]
A
t
:
1
8
:
2
8
2
1
M
a
r
c
h
2
0
1
1
Thermal Properties 421
Figure 1. Variation of density of three uids with temperature.
Using the 3-to-1 volumetric mix and densities of oil and GTL evaluated
at an average temperature between Pump Station 1 (117
o
+
g
(25)
where subscript g is for GTL, subscript o is for oil, and is the specic
volume.
The variation of thermal conductivity of crude oil, GTL, and the com-
mingled mixture (3:1) with temperature is shown in Figure 2.
2.5.3. Viscosity of a Mixture
Experimental data of viscosity variation with temperature for GTL is pre-
sented by Ramakrishnan (2000). This data was curve-tted to the following
equation:
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
B
y
:
[
P
D
V
S
A
I
n
t
e
v
e
p
]
A
t
:
1
8
:
2
8
2
1
M
a
r
c
h
2
0
1
1
Thermal Properties 423
= [0.00009286T
2
0.02273T + 1.712]
10
3
kg/ms, T in
C.
(26)
The viscosity of the commingled mixture is determined by the volume
average method:
mix
=
g
g
+
o
o
+
g
. (27)
The variation of viscosity of crude oil, GTL, and the commingled mixture
(3:1) with temperature is shown graphically in Figure 3. Any other mixture
proportion of crude oil and GTL can easily be determined following the
procedure just illustrated for a case of 3:1 mixture.
Figure 3. Viscosity variation of three uids with temperature. Note different scale
for GTL.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
B
y
:
[
P
D
V
S
A
I
n
t
e
v
e
p
]
A
t
:
1
8
:
2
8
2
1
M
a
r
c
h
2
0
1
1
424 D. K. Das et al.
White (1991) presents the general rule: (a) for liquids, viscosity decreases
rapidly with temperature; (b) for gases at low pressure, viscosity increases
with temperature; and (c) viscosity always increases with pressure.
2.6. Temperature Dependencies
Numerous data analyses presented in Edwards et al. (1983) show that the
thermal conductivity k and density decrease with increase in temperature,
whereas the specic heat c
p
increases with temperature for oils. This depen-
dency for GTL is not thoroughly investigated thus far.
2.7. Polymer Additives
In order to reduce drag, additives are added to oil during transportation
through TAPS, which affect thermal properties. Very little published data
is available on the properties of such mixtures. We recommend that research
be undertaken in this area for GTL and its mixtures.
3. CONCLUSIONS
Thermal properties of crude oil are well researched and understood. Many
equations are available to determine them, and some of these have been sum-
marized in this article. However, for new uids like GTL and its mixture with
oil, variation of properties with temperature is not found in the literature. We
have presented a few equations in this article. It is recommended that broad
experimental programs be undertaken to determine the thermal properties of
GTL and the commingled mixture of GTL and oil. Although the thermal
properties are strong functions of temperature and weak functions of pres-
sure, experiments must still be conducted to ascertain that this general rule
is applicable for GTL.
REFERENCES
Chrisman, K. (2001). Systems Engineering Oil Property Data Sheet; Alyeska
Pipeline Service Company. Fairbanks, Alaska.
Edwards, D. K., Liley, P. E., Maddox, R. N., Matavosian, R., Pugh, S. F.,
Schunck, M., Schwier, K., and Shulman, Z. P. (1983). Heat Exchanger
Design Handbook, Vol. 5. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing Cor-
poration.
Nerella, S., Das, D. K., Chukwu, G. A., Dandekar, A. Y., Khataniar, S., and
Patil, S. L. (2003). Heat transfer analysis for gas-to-liquids transportation
through Trans Alaska Pipeline. Petrol. Sci. Tech. 21:12751294.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
B
y
:
[
P
D
V
S
A
I
n
t
e
v
e
p
]
A
t
:
1
8
:
2
8
2
1
M
a
r
c
h
2
0
1
1
Thermal Properties 425
Ramakrishnan, H. (2000). Experimental and Economic Evaluation of GTL
Fluid Flow Properties and Effect on TAPS. M.S. Thesis, University of
Alaska, Fairbanks.
Ramakrishnan, H., Khataniar, S., Dandekar, A. Y., Patil, S. L., Chukwu,
G. A., Kamath, V. A., Haslebacher, W. F., and Hackworth, J. H. (2003).
Characterization of gas-to-liquids (GTL) and Alaska North Slope Crude
(ANSC) oil blend properties for ow through the Trans Alaska Pipeline
System (TAPS) by density and viscosity measurements. J. Petrol. Sci.
Eng. 21:301314.
Thomas, L. C. (1993). Heat Transfer. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
White, F. M. (1991). Viscous Fluid Flow, 2nd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
B
y
:
[
P
D
V
S
A
I
n
t
e
v
e
p
]
A
t
:
1
8
:
2
8
2
1
M
a
r
c
h
2
0
1
1