2011-4-12 Plasma Process Technology in Se

2.
RF-Plasma Matching
*Basic concepts of R,L and C Circuits
*Characteristic impedance of coaxial cable
*VSWR (voltage standing-wave ratio)
*Reflection coefficient of RF transmision
*Smith Chart
*RF Matching and RF matching Box
*Review Questions
110
Basic Concepts
of
R, L and C
Circuits
111
We know that, by definition, Y = 1/Z and Z = 1/Y. The
admittance is expressed in mhos or
-1
(in earlier times it
was expressed as Siemens or S). And, as Z is complex, Y
must also be complex. Therefore, Y = G + jB (2.20), where
G is called "conductance" and B the "susceptance" of the
element.
Z=R + j X
Y = 1 /Z
Y = G + j B
G = R / (R
2
+ X
2
), i.e., G = 1/R if X =0
B= -X / (R
2
+ X
2
), i.e., B = - 1/X if R=0
Analog Circuit Review
DC Circuits: constant
currents and voltages
AC Circuits: time-
varying currents and
voltages whose time-
average values are zero
112
DC Circuits Principles
Current: Free electrons moving along field lines
in a material due to an external macroscopic
electric field.
dt
dq
I =
dq =quantity of positive charge crossing a specified surface
in a time dt.
Unit of q is the coulomb, unit of t is seconds
Unit of I is the ampere (1 coulomb per second)
113
Electrostatic Potential: the amount of energy available to move charge.
The change in potential across a distance dr in an electric field E is given by
r E d dV =
The change in potential energy U of a charge q is related directly to the change
in its electric potential V by
dV q dU =
Therefor, units of potential must be in energy per unit of charge.
Unit of V is the Volt, V.
E is the field strength,
dr is the distance
114
The change in potential across some macroscopic object
always represents the difference between two potentials
(generally, one of these potentials is ground, 0V by
convention):
= = =
2
1
1 2 21
V
V
dV V V V V
115
Ohms Law:
IR V =
This linear relation holds for most materials (not semiconductors).
R is the resistance of a circuit element; unit is the ohm, . It is a function
of both the material and the shape of the device.
A
L
R

=
, resistivity of the material, ohm-meters
L, length of the material, meters
A, cross-sectional area of the material, meter
2
changes with temperature (

with T in most metals,

with T in carbon,
silicon), as well as with the applied voltage and current (semiconductors).
116
117
Circuit Terminology:
Element: a resistance (more generally, an impedance) or an EMF
Point: anywhere along the ideal conductors connecting elements is the same point
Node: a point where three or more current-carrying elements are connected
Branch: one element or several in series connecting two adjacent nodes
Interior loop: a circuit loop that is not subdivided by a branch
118
EMFs put energy into the electronic system, and resistors remove it by
conversion to heat (random motion of electrons in the material).
All circuit elements have a non-zero resistance (with the exception of
superconductors).
The inverse of resistance is conductance, C = 1/R, with units of mhos
or siemens.
Variable resistors are devices which allow the amount of resistive
material between the device terminals to be varied by rotating or
sliding a contact.
Types of variable resistors:
sliders potentiometers
trimmers
119
Power in DC Circuits:
VI
dt
dq V
P = =
Unit: watts, W
2
I R P =
(Power dissipated by a resistor)
Series Resistance:
( )I R R I R I R V
AB 2 1 2 1
+ = + =
2 1
R R R
eq
+ =
(Resistors are rated according to their power dissipation)
120
Parallel Resistance:
AB AB
V
R R
R R
V
R R
I I I
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
1 1 +
=
+ = + =
2 1
2 1
R R
R R
R
eq
+
=
121
Circuit simplification using series and parallel equivalent circuits:
122
The Voltage / Current Divider:
2 1
R R
V
I
+
=
2 2
R I V =
V
R R
R
V
2 1
2
2
+
=
I
R R
R R
V
2 1
2 1
+
=
I
R R
R
I
2 1
1
2
+
=
123
A two-terminal, linear, DC circuit composed of any combination of
voltage sources, current sources, and resistors can be replaced with an
equivalent circuit composed of (a) an ideal voltage source and a series
resistor (Thevenin equivalent circuit) or (b) an ideal current source
and a parallel resistor (Norton equivalent circuit)
Circuit Simplification Using Equivalent Circuits:
124
Measurement considerations:
125
AC Circuit Principles
With time varying currents, we must consider variations in the energy
stored in
the electric field associated with every potential difference, and
the magnetic field generated by every current.
Capacitance: ability to store energy in an electric field, unit =farad
(resists fast changes in voltage)
Inductance: ability to store energy in a magnetic field, unit =henry
(resists fast changes in current)
These field energies are present in all circuit elements, but can often be
ignored, except, of course, in elements designed to exploit them.
126
Capacitor: a device designed to exhibit capacitance, generally modeled as two
parallel plates separated by a dielectric material.
Regardless of the configuration,
C
Q
V =
Q =magnitude of charge distributed on either surface
V =potential difference between the surfaces
C =capacitance, in farads, F (commonly F or pF)
An ideal capacitance is constant, dependent only on the physical
configuration of the materials, and not a function of V or Q.
d
A
C
0

=
is the dielectric constant of the
dielectric material
0
is the permittivity of free space
A is the area of a plate
d is the plate separation
127
Capacitors serve four principle functions in electronic circuits:
1) Because it can store charge and energy, a capacitor can be used as a non-ideal source of
current or voltage.
2) Since it will pass AC but not DC current, a capacitor can be used to connect parts of a circuit
that must operate at different DC voltages.
3) When used in combination with a resistor that limits the current, a capacitor will smooth the
sharp edges from a voltage signal.
4) When charged or discharged by a constant current, a capacitor will develop a voltage signal
with a constant slope.
128
129
t
RC
t
e V e V t V

= =
0 0
) (
The product RC is called the time constant of
the system, and will have units of seconds if R
is in ohms and C is in farads. It defines the
time required for V(t) to fall to 1/e of its initial
value.
Physical analogs (e.g. flow in a vein):
potential difference - pressure difference between two points
along vein
current - rate of flow of blood
resistance - friction along the walls of the vein, viscosity of blood
capacitance - energy stored as the walls of the vein stretch or the
blood is compressed
130
131
Inductor: a device designed to exhibit inductance, generally modeled as a coil
of wire (solenoid). By Faradays law of self-inductance, a changing current in
a circuit induces a back EMF in the circuit that opposes the change. The
multiple loops of the solenoidal inductor concentrate the effect so that most of
the back EMF appears across its terminals.
l
l
A
N A n
I
L
m
2
0
2
0
= =
=
L =inductance
m
=magnetic flux
I =current
0
=permeability of free space =4

x 10
-7
H/m
n =N/l
A =area of a single loop
l =the total length of the inductor
N =total number of turns
Sensor Application: LVDT
132
In many ways, the inductor is the electronic opposite of the
capacitor:
No voltage drop appears across its terminals when a DC
signal is applied
For a given applied voltage, it acts to limit the rate of
change of the current (a larger inductor produces a smaller
dI/dt)
Ideally, the inductance is determined by the
physical configuration of materials, and is not a
function of either V or I.
Unit: the henry, H.
133
dt
dI
L V
back
=
The inductance defines the
relationship (Faraday law)
between the back EMF and the
change in current through the
inductor.
134
Actual inductors are far from ideal - the coil
is formed from a long length of wire with
adjacent loops separated by a thin layer of
insulating varnish; the resulting inductor will
generally have a significant series resistance
and a troublesome parallel capacitance:
The physical geometry of a circuit
should minimize stray inductance.
135
The LCR circuit:
0
2
2
= + +
C
Q
dt
dQ
R
dt
Q d
L
Solution to the differential equation takes three forms, dependant on the
relationship between the relative values of R, L and C.
(Physical analogs to
resistance, capacitance &
inductance allow second-
order physical systems to
be modeled with electrical
components.)
(From Kirchoffs Laws)
136
R
2
< 4L/C, underdamped
R
2
>4L/C, overdamped
R
2
=4L/C, critically damped
137
138
Wire Coil Or Inductive Coil
Notice that a
carrying-current
coil of wire will
produce a
perpendicular
field
139
Magnetic Field : Coil
A series of coils produces a field similar
to a bar magnet but weaker!
140
141
Magnetic Field B=A
Flux can be
increased by increasing
the current I,
I
From Faradays Law (connect voltage to magnetic field):

142
143
Quantitatively, the magnetic flux through a surface S is defined as the integral of
the magnetic field over the area of the surface (See Figures 1 and 2):
Flux can be increased

by increasing the
number of turns N,
I

N
N
Magnetic Field B=A
144
Flux can be
the cross-section area
of coil A,
I

A
N
A
Magnetic Field B=A
145
Flux can be
the cross-section area
of coil A,
I

A
N
A
Magnetic Field B=A
146
Flux is decreased by
increasing the length of
coil l,
I
N
A
1
l
l
Magnetic Field B=A
147
Therefore we can write

an equation for flux

as,
I
N
A
NIA
l
l
or
=

0
NIA
l
Magnetic Field B=A
148
Where
0
is vacuum or non-magnetic
material permeability=
0
= 4

x 10
-7
H/m
=

0
NIA
l
Magnetic Field B=A
149
Placing a ferrous material
inside the coil increases the
magnetic field
Acts to concentrate the field
also notice field lines are
parallel inside ferrous
element
flux density has increased
150
Magnetic Field
By placing a magnetic
material inside the coil,
I
N
A
l
=
NIA
l
Where is the permeability of
the magnetic material (core).
151
Magnetic Field
By placing a magnetic
material inside the coil,
I
N
A
l
=
NIA
l
Where is the permeability of
the magnetic material (core).
152
N
S
I
153
154
SELF INDUCTANCE, L
i
e
From Faradays Law (connect voltage to

magnetic field):
dt
d
N e

=
By substituting
=
NIA
l
v
N: number of turns of the coil
emf = = V
e
155
156
A corollary of Faraday's Law, together with Ampere's and Ohm's laws is Lenz's law:
The emf induced in an electric circuit always acts in such a direction that the current it
drives around the circuit opposes the change in magnetic flux which produces the emf.
The direction mentioned in Lenz's law can be thought of as the result of the minus sign
in the above equation.
Faraday found that the electromotive force (EMF) produced around a closed path is
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux through any surface bounded by
that path. Faradays law of electromagnetic induction states that:
157
The word "force" in "electromotive force , , is a misnomer:
]
"[Electromotive force] has turned out to be an unfortunate choice of words which is
still with us 160 years later. In all of physics except electromagnetic induction, the
term 'force' is reserved for mechanical action on ponderable matter and is measured in
units called Newtons. In contrast electromotive force is measured in units of Volts
and causes charge separation.]
It is common in some fields, such as circuit theory, to refer to the voltage created by
the emf as the emf.
[13
Some authors do not distinguish between the emf and the voltage
it creates.
[15
Some use emf to refer to the open-circuit voltage and and voltage to the
potential difference when current is drawn.
[
Here is a quotation describing emf as an
open-circuit voltage difference:
Therefore:
emf = = V
e
e
emf = = V
e
SELF INDUCTANCE, L
i
e
Rearrange the equation,

yield
dt
l
NIA
d
N e
dt
di
l
A N
e
2
=
v
158
SELF INDUCTANCE, L
i
e
dt
di
l
A N
e
2
=
dt
di
L e =
Or, by definition,
where
l
A N
L
2
=
v
=
0
*
R
160
Permeability, , is a magnetic property of a material, and is
often expressed as
0
*
R
, where
0
is a physical constant
equal to exactly 4*pi*10
-7
Henries/meter and
R
is the relative
permeability. Materials are divided into four categories,
depending on their permeability.
Diamagnetic :
R
<1
Nonmagnetic:
R
=1 (air is a good example, but most metals
are very close to nonmagnetic, close enough so you can round
off
R
to 1.)
Paramagnetic:
R
>1
Ferromagnetic:
R
>>1
161
R
162
Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and Ferromagnetic Materials
Diamagnetic metals have a very weak and negative susceptibility to magnetic fields.
Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the material does
not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Diamagnetic
materials are solids with all paired electron resulting in no permanent net magnetic
moment per atom. Diamagnetic properties arise from the realignment of the electron
orbits under the influence of an external magnetic field. Most elements in the periodic
table, including copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic.
Paramagnetic metals have a small and positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These
materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the
magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due
to the presence of some unpaired electrons, and from the realignment of the electron
orbits caused by the external magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include
magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.
Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive susceptibility to an external
magnetic field. They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain
their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed. Ferromagnetic
materials have some unpaired electrons so their atoms have a net magnetic moment.
They get their strong magnetic properties due to the presence of magnetic domains. In
these domains, large numbers of atom's moments (10
12
to 10
15
) are aligned parallel so
that the magnetic force within the domain is strong.
The Meissner Effect
T > T
C
Normal State
T < T
C
Superconducting State
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE, M
i
e
1
From Faradays Law:

v
1
v
2
e
2
dt
d
N e

2 2
=
=
N
1
i
1
A
l
substituting
164
i
e
1
v
1
v
2
e
2
rearrange
dt
l
A i N
d
N e
=
1 1
2 2
dt
di
l
A
N N e
1
1 2 2

=
165
i
e
1
v
1
v
2
e
2
or
dt
di
l
A
N N e
1
1 2 2

=
dt
di
M e
1
2
=
where
=
l
A
N N M
1 2
166
=
l
A
N N M
1 2
For M
2
,
2
2
1
2
2
2 2
=
l
A
N N M
=
l
A
N M
2
1
2
l
A
N
2
2
= L
1
x L
2
167
M
2
= L
1
x L
2
M = (L
1
x L
2
)
or
M = k(L
1
x L
2
)
k = coupling coeeficient (0 --- 1)
168
169
Dot Convention
Aiding fluxes are produced by currents
entering like marked terminals.
170
Hysteresis Loss
Hysteresis loop
Uniform distribution
From Faraday's law
Where A is the cross section area
171
Hysteresis Loss
Field energy
Input power :
Input energy from t
1
to t
2
where V
core
is the volume of the
core
172
Hysteresis Loss
One cycle energy loss
where is the closed area of B-
H hysteresis loop
Hysteresis power loss
where f is the operating
frequency and T is the period
173
Hysteresis Loss
Empirical equation
Summary : Hysteresis loss is proportional to f and A
174
Eddy Current Loss
Eddy current
Along the closed path, apply Faraday's law
where A is the closed area
Changes in B

= BA changes
induce emf along the closed path
produce circulating circuit (eddy current) in the core
Eddy current loss
where R is the equivalent resistance along the
closed path
175
Eddy Current Loss
How to reduce Eddy current loss
Use high resistivity core material
e.g. silicon steel, ferrite core (semiconductor)
Use laminated core
To decrease the area closed
by closed path
Lamination thickness
0.5~5mm for machines, transformers at line frequency
0.01~0.5mm for high frequency devices
176
Eddy Current Loss
Calculation of eddy current loss
Finite element analysis
Use software: Ansys, Maxwell, Femlab, etc
Empirical equation
177
Core and ICP chamber loss
loss current eddy P
loss hysteresis P where
P P P
e
h
e h c
=
=
+ =
178
179
Characteristic
impedance
of
coaxial cable
179
180
Types of Transmission Lines
Differential or balanced lines (where neither
conductor is grounded): e.g. twin lead, twisted-
cable pair, and shielded-cable pair.
Single-ended or unbalanced lines (where one
conductor is grounded): e.g. concentric or
coaxial cable.
Transmission lines for microwave use: e.g.
striplines, microstrips, and waveguides.
181
Transmission Line Equivalent
Circuit
R
L
R
L
C
G
C
G
L
L
C
C
Lossy Line
Lossless Line
C j G
L j R
Z
o
+
+
=
C
L
Z
o
=
Z
o Z
o
182
Any RF transmission line, of which all coaxial cables and switches are a subset, has
some characteristic impedance that may or may not be constant over the length of that
line. Characteristic impedance can be defined along any point on that transmission line
as the ratio of a single pair of voltage and current waves at that point in the cable in the
absence of all reflections. Practically speaking, frequency and the per unit resistance,
conductance, capacitance, and inductance of a line will determine the ratio of voltage
and current, and will thus also define characteristic impedance, which is usually denoted
Zo.
Lumped Model of a Very Short Segment of Transmission Line
183
To calculate the characteristic impedance of the coaxial cable shown
above, the following equation can be used:
In the above equationis the relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of
the material between the two conductors. For this particular cable, we
calculate characteristic impedance to be 50.3 .
184
Notes on Transmission Line
Characteristics of a line is determined by
its primary electrical constants or
distributed parameters: R (/m), L (H/m),
C (F/m), and G (S/m).
Characteristic impedance, Z
o
, is defined as
the input impedance of an infinite line or
that of a finite line terminated with a load
impedance, Z
L
= Z
o
.
What is a wave?
A wave is anything that moves.
To displace any function f(x) to the right, just
change its argument from x to x-a, where a is a
positive number.
If we let a = v t, where v is positive and t is
time, then the displacement will increase with
time.
So represents a rightward, or forward,
propagating wave.
Similarly, represents a leftward, or
backward, propagating wave.
v will be the velocity of the wave.
f(x)
f(x-3)
f(x-2)
f(x-1)
x
0 1 2 3
f(x - v t)
f(x + v t)
The one-dimensional wave equation and its solution
2 2
2 2 2
1
0
v
f f
x t

=

Well derive the wave equation from Maxwells equations next class.
Here it is in its one-dimensional form for scalar (i.e., non-vector)
functions, f:
Light waves (actually the electric fields of light waves) will be a
solution to this equation. And v will be the velocity of light.
where f (u) can be any twice-differentiable
function.
( , ) ( v ) f x t f x t =
The wave equation has the simple solution:
The 1D wave equation for light waves
Well use cosine- and sine-wave solutions:
or
where v is the speed of light in vacuum, usually called c, is
3 x 10
10
cm/s.
2 2
2 2
0
E E
x t

=

( , ) cos[ ( v )] sin[ ( v )] E x t B k x t C k x t = +
( , ) cos( ) sin( ) E x t B kx t C kx t = +
1
v
k
= =
( v) kx k t
where E is the
light electric field
Definitions: Amplitude and Absolute phase
E(x,t) = A cos[(k x t ) ]
A = Amplitude
= Absolute phase (or initial phase)
E(x,t) = A cos[(k x w t ) ]
A =Amplitude
=Absolute phase (or initial phase)
E
[(k x w t ) ]
What is the momentum of a wave? I know that for a photon
but what about a classical, mechanical wave? Is it also equal to the
wave's energy divided by its speed, or is it more complicated than that?
Partial transmission and reflection amplitudes of
a wave travelling from a low to high refractive
index medium.
Definitions
Spatial quantities:
Temporal quantities:
The Phase Velocity
How fast is the wave
traveling?
Velocity is a reference
distance
divided by a reference
time.
The phase velocity is the wavelength / period:
Since =1/ :
In terms of the k-vector, k = 2 / , and
the angular frequency, = 2 / , this is:
v = /
v = / k
v = v
196 196
Our signals are sinusoidal waves of frequency f
and wavelength , and f= v, the velocity of
the waves. In free space, v = c = 2.9978 x 108
m/s, approximately. In any material medium, v =
c/n, where n is the index of refraction of the
medium. Velocity on a transmission line is
usually expressed by the velocity factor 1/n
instead. When calculating wavelength on a
transmission line, the velocity factor must be
taken into account. Indeed, = c/nf = velocity
factor x c/f. For theoretical work, the angular
frequency = 2f, and the propagation
constant k = 2/are more convenient.
197 197
For clarity, we shall consider only ideal lines in
this article, those with no series resistance or
shunt conductance. Actual lines approximate
ideal lines rather closely, so this is not a serious
limitation. Energy is conserved on an ideal line;
the power out is the power in. The principal
parameters of a line are its capacitance C and
inductance L per unit length. The wave velocity
is then v = 1/(LC) and the characteristic
impedance is Zo = (L/C). These two
parameters are generally quoted for any
transmission line material.
198 198
Coaxial cable RG-8/U has Zo = 53and 1/n =
0.66. This velocity factor is typical of polyethyene
(PE) insulation. RG-59/U, with Zo = 73, has the
same insulation and velocity factor. RG-141/U, with
polytetrafluoroetylene (PTFE) insulation, has Zo =
50and 1/n = 0.70. PE foam is mainly air, so RG-
8/U(foam) has a velocity factor of 0.80 but about the
same Zo = 50. Coaxial cable has the great
advantage that the fields are totally enclosed. The
molded 300"twin-lead" has a velocity factor of
0.82. Parallel-wire lines in air have even larger
velocity factors, usually about 0.95.
199 199
A parallel-wire line with conductors of
diameter d spaced a distance s betweeen
centerlines has C = /cosh
-1
(s/d) and L =
(/)cosh
-1
(s/d). The product LC = =
1/c
2
, so the ideal velocity factor is 1. The
characteristic impedance is Zo = (cosh
-1
/)(/). (/) = 377, the wave
impedance of free space. For d = 2mm and s =
20mm, Zo = 359. The inverse hyperbolic
cosines are calculated directly by the HP-48G,
but can also be expressed in terms of natural
logarithms.
200 200
On an ideal transmission line, there is generally
a wave moving from source to load V e
-jkz
, and
a wave moving from load to source V e
jkz
. The
coefficients V' and V" are constants
independent of z, since the line is lossless. The
corresponding currents are (V'/Zo) e
-jkz
and -
(V"/Zo) e
jkz
. All quantities are multiplied by the
time factor e
jt
, which is understood. The total
voltage and current at any point are the sums of
the contributions of the two waves.
201 201
If the line is terminated at z = 0 with an
impedance Z
L
, then this must be the ratio of the
total voltage to the total current at that point, or
Z
L
= Z
o
(V' + V")/(V' - V"). This condition
establishes the ratio of V" to V'. Let us define
the reflection coefficient

(z) as the complex
ratio (V"e
jkz
)/(V'e
-jkz
) = (V"/V')e
2jkz
. We then
have z(0) = Z
L
/Z
o
= [1 + (0)]/[1 -

(0)]. This
equation can be inverted to give

(0) = [z(0) -
1]/[z(0) + 1]. The normalized load impedance
determines the reflection coefficient

at the
load.
202 202
At any other point on the line, a similar equation
holds, but the complex reflection coefficient
varies in a simple way. In fact, (z) =

(0) e
2jkz
.
That is, only the phase changes, while the
magnitude remains constant. The magnitude
will be represented by

(0) . In the usual case
when the termination is resistive,

= [r(0) -
1]/[r(0) + 1]. As we move a distance d towards
the source,

=

(0) e
-2jkd
. Therefore, the
complex number , represented as a vector,
rotates clockwise through an angle (4/)d.
When d is /2, a half-wavelength, the vector
has rotated through a complete circle.
203 203
The maximum voltage on the line will be |V'| +
|V"| and the minimum will be |V'| - |V"|. The ratio
of the maximum to the minmum voltage is
called the voltage standing wave ratio, VSWR,
and there is an analogous definition for the
current standing wave ratio. Clearly, maximum
voltage corresponds to minimum current, and
vice versa. The VSWR S = (1 + ||)/(1 - ||) in
terms of the magnitude of the reflection
coefficient. If || is zero, then S = 1 and the
maximum voltage is constant along the line. If
|| = 1, then S is infinite, and there are points of
zero voltage which correspond to points of
maximum current, called nodes.
204
VSWR (or SWR)
(voltage standing-
wave ratio)
204
205
Standing Waves SWR or VSWR
V
min
= E
i
- E
r
With a mismatched line, the incident and reflected
waves set up an interference pattern on the line
known as a standing wave.
The standing wave ratio is :
(

Is the reflection coefficient)

+
= =
1
1
min
max
V
V
SWR
V
max
= E
i
+ E
r
2
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
206
Reflection
coefficient ()
of
RF transmission
Reflection Coefficient
= (Z
L
Z
0
)/ (Z
L
+ Z
0
)
||= |(Z
L
Z
0
)/ (Z
L
+ Z
0
)|
208
VSWR (voltage standing-wave ratio) or SWR
V
p-p, Maximum of Standing wave
=
V
p-p, Minimum of Standing wave
1 + ||
= = Z
L
/ Z
0
1 - ||.
Note: Reflection Coefficient
||=|(Z
L
Z
0
)/ (Z
L
+ Z
0
)|
209
When the load is purely resistive:
(whichever gives an SWR > 1)
L
o
o
L
Z
Z
or
Z
Z
SWR =
Return Loss, RL = Fraction of power reflected
= ||
2
, or -20 log || dB
So, P
r
= ||
2
P
i
Mismatched Loss, ML = Fraction of power
transmitted/absorbed = 1 - ||
2
or -10 log(1-||
2
) dB
So, P
t
= P
i
(1 - ||
2
) = P
i
- P
r
Standing Waves SWR or VSWR- and
210
Return Loss ( dB =decibel )
= RL ( dB =decibel )
= 10*log
10
( P
Reflected
/ P
Incident
) dB
= - 20*log
10
[(VSWR-1) / (VSWR+1) )] dB
= - 20*log
10
| | dB
210
Return Loss = 13.842 dB if VSWR = 1.51
211
212
213
Smith Chart
214
215
Before introducing the Smith chart utilities, it would be prudent to present a short refresher on
wave propagation phenomenon for IC wiring under RF conditions (above 100MHz). This can
be valid for contingencies such as RS- 485 lines, between a PA (Power Amplifier) and an
antenna, between a LNA (Low Noise Amplifier) and a down converter/mixer, and so forth. It
is well known that, to get the maximum power transfer from a source to a load, the source
impedance Z
S
must equal the complex conjugate of the load impedance, Z
L
*
, (Z
L
=R
L
+jX
L
)
or:
Z
S
=R
s
+jX
s
=Z
L
*
=R
L
jX
L
, ( i.e., R
s
=R
L
and X
s
= X
L
)
For this condition, the energy transferred from the source to the load is maximized. In
addition, for efficient power transfer, this condition is required to avoid the reflection of
energy from the load back to the source. This is particularly true for high-frequency
environments like video lines and RF and microwave networks.
Figure 2. Diagram of R
s
+jX
s
=R
L
- jX
L
.
216
217
218
219
Figure 4a. The points situated on a circle are all the impedances characterized by a
same real impedance part value. For example, the circle, r = 1, is centered at the
coordinates (0.5, 0) and has a radius of 0.5. It includes the point (0, 0), which is the
reflection zero point (the load is matched with the characteristic impedance). A
short circuit, as a load, presents a circle centered at the coordinate (0, 0) and has a
radius of 1. For an open circuit load, the circle degenerates to a single point
(centered at 1, 0 and with a radius of 0). This corresponds to a maximum reflection
coefficient of 1, at which the entire incident wave is reflected totally.
220
When developing the Smith chart, there are certain precautions that
should be noted. These are among the most important:
* All the circles have one same, unique intersecting point at the
coordinate (1, 0).
* The zero W circle where there is no resistance (r =0) is the
largest one.
* The infinite resistor circle is reduced to one point at (1, 0).
*There should be no negative resistance. If one (or more) should
occur, we will be faced with the possibility of oscillatory
conditions.
*Another resistance value can be chosen by simply selecting
another circle corresponding to the new value.
221
222
Figure 4b. The points situated on a circle are all the impedances characterized by a
same imaginary impedance part value x. For example, the circle x = 1 is centered at
coordinate (1, 1) and has a radius of 1. All circles (constant x) include the point (1,
0). Differing with the real part circles, x can be positive or negative. This explains
the duplicate mirrored circles at the bottom side of the complex plane. All the circle
centers are placed on the vertical axis, intersecting the point 1.
223
Get the Picture?
To complete our Smith chart, we superimpose the two circles' families. It can then be
seen that all of the circles of one family will intersect all of the circles of the other
family. Knowing the impedance, in the form of r +jx, the corresponding reflection
coefficient can be determined. It is only necessary to find the intersection point of the
two circles corresponding to the values r and x.
224
Serial
Smith Chart
VSWR is measured by the
length of a Z point to origin
(0,0.6) 1.7 :1 VSWR
225
Parallel
Smith Chart
226
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
10
20
4.0
20
10
10
2.0
1.0
0.5
5
0.2
4
3
2
1.2
0.6
1.2
0.6
2
3
4
0.2
5
10
5
0.2
4
3
2
1.2
0.6
1.2
0.6
2
3
4
0.2
5
10
10
x=0.5+j0.8
b=0.5+j0.8
x=4.0-j0.8
b=0.25-j0.05
227
Wavelength =0.07
228
Where do these purely resistive points lie on the transmission line?
From the chart, looking at the line extended from the center dot
through our Z point, find where it crosses the wavelengths toward
generator curve on the outside of the chart as shown in Figure D.
The line crosses at approximately 0.07 wavelengths on the chart,
which will be the starting point. Note that the 80 point (1.6) is at
0.25 and the 31 point (0.62) is at 0.50 on the chart.
Subtracting the starting point of 0.07, the chart is telling us that at
0.18 (0.25 0.07) from the load, the impedance is 80 and at
0.43 away, its 31 . To fi nd the distance in a real piece of
cable, multiply the chart wavelengths by the free space wavelength
by the cable velocity factor. For example, if your frequency is 144
MHz then a full wavelength in air would be 300/144 = 2.08 meters.
Multiplying by the velocity factor of 80% gives 1.67 meters.
Multiplying by the chart wavelengths and then at 30 cm, youd fi nd
80 and at
72 cm its 31 .
229
50 ohm termination :
Z1 =100 +j50
Z2 =75 - j100
Z3 =j200
Z4 =150
Z5 =infinite(an open circuit)
Z6 =0 (a short circuit) Z7 =50
Z8 =184 - j900
Normalize and plot:
z1 =2 +j
z2 =1.5 - j2
z3 =j4
z4 =3
z5 =8
z6 =0
z7 =1
z8 =3.68 - j18
Reflection Coefficient:
1
=0.4 +0.2j
2
=0.51 - 0.4j
3
=0.875 +0.48j
4
=0.5
5
=1
6
=-1
7
=0
8
=0.96 - 0.1j
230
231
Series reactance, x:
inductance: +
Capacitance: -
Parallel susceptance, b:
inductance: 1
Capacitance: +
232
233
( x=1, r=1) AA
b= -0.3
Bx= -1.4
C b= 1.1
DD
x= 0.9Z
(Note: AA= A rotation
about origin
counterclockwise180
o
)
inductance: +
Capacitance: -
inductance: 1
Capacitance: +
Smith chart
clockwise
Positive
value of
reactance or
susceptance
234
At first glance, it appears that it is no more difficult than finding equivalent impedance.
But the problem is that an infinite number of matching network component
combinations can exist that create similar results. And other inputs may need to be
considered as well (such as filter type structure, quality factor, and limited choice of
components). The approach chosen to accomplish this calls for adding series and shunt
elements on the Smith chart until the desired impedance is achieved. Graphically, it
appears as finding a way to link the points on the Smith chart.
Again, the best method to illustrate the approach is to address the requirement as an
example. The objective is to match a source impedance (Z
S
) to a load (Z
L
) at the
working frequency of 60MHz (see Figure 11). The network structure has been fixed as
a low pass, L type (an alternative approach is to view the problem as how to force the
load to appear as an impedance of value =Z
S
*, a complex conjugate of Z
S
). Here is
how the solution is found.
f=60.00 MHz
L=159 nH
C=41.4 pF
f=13.56 MHz
L=704 nH
C=183 pF
One possible matching
235
The first thing to do is to normalize the different impedance values. If this is not given,
choose a value that is in the same range as the load/source values. Assume Z
0
to be
50. Thus Z
S
=0.5 - j0.3, =Z
S
*=0.5 +j0.3, and Z
L
=2 - j0.5.
Next, position the two points on the chart. Mark A for Z
L
and D for Z
S
*, . Then identify
the first element connected to the load (a capacitor in shunt) and convert to admittance.
This gives us point A'.
Determine the arc portion where the next point will appear after the connection of the
capacitor C. As we don't know the value of C, we don't know where to stop. We do,
however, know the direction. A C in shunt means to move in the clockwise direction
on the admittance Smith chart until the value is found. This will be point B (an
admittance). As the next element is a series element, point B has to be converted to the
impedance plane. Point B' can then be obtained. Point B' has to be located on the same
resistor circle as D. Graphically, there is only one solution from A' to D, but the
intermediate point B (and hence B') will need to be verified by a "test-and-try"
setup. After having found points B and B', we can measure the lengths of arc A'
through B and arc B' through D. The first gives the normalized susceptance value of C.
The second gives the normalized reactance value of L. The arc A' through B measures
b =0.78 and thus B =0.78 x Y0 =0.0156mhos(Note:Y
0
=1/ Z
0
=1/ 50).Because wC
=B, then C =B/w =B/(2f) =0.0156/(260
7
) =41.4pF. The arc B through D
measures x =1.2, thus X =1.2 x Z0 =60W. Because wL =X, then L =X/w =X/(2 p f)
=60/(2 p 607) =159nH.
236
( x= -0.5, r=2) AA
b=0.78 B B
x=1.2 Z
S
*
( x=0.3, r=0.5)
(Note: AA= A
rotation about origin
counterclockwise180
o
)
inductance: +
Capacitance: -
inductance: 1
Capacitance: +
Smith chart
clockwise
Positivevalue
of reactance or
susceptance
237
RF Matching
and
RF matching Box
238
For adjustment of the impedance of the plasma reactor to the output
impedance of the power generator a rf matchbox is used. The structure of a
typical so called

matchbox is shown in Figure 4. The length, diameter and
the number of winding of the coil are l = 128 mm, d = 47 mm and N =11
respectively. By minimum reflected power (best impedance matching) the
capacities of the variable tune and load capacitors were determined as
C
T
= 350 pF and C
L
= 200 pF respectively.
Task:
Find the equivalent circuit of the plasma.
Hint: The output impedance of the generator is r =50 .
-matching box by calculation.
f=13.56 MHz
L=2 uH
C
T
=350 pF
C
L
=200 pF
R
P
= 15.1
C
P
= 132 pF
Z
0
= 15.1
C
T
Z
P
C
L
L
Matchbox
r =Z
0
RF
239
Solution:
The inductivity of the coil is:
H 2
m 128 , 0 4
121 m 10 7 . 4
m
H
10 26 . 1
4
2 4 2
6
2 2

=
=
l
N d
L
The parallel connection of the tune capacitor with other circuit
components should be 50

to reach the power matching with rf
generator.
Y C j
r
+ =
T
1
where:
p
L
1 1
Z
C j
L j
Y
+ + =
240
Solution :
Consequently:
= + +
+ +
=
+ +
+ =
L
T
p
T
p
L
p
L
T
p
L
T
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1 1
C j
L j
C j
r
Z
C j
r
Z
C j
L j
Z
C j
L j
C j
r
Z
C j
L j
C j
r
+
+ +
+
= +
+
+
+
=
T
T
T
T
T
C r
C r
L
C
j
C r
r
jX R
L
C
j
C r
C r j r
Z
2 2 2
2
L
2 2 2
p p
L
2 2 2
2
p
1
1
1
1
1
241
Solution (continuation):
The plasma resistance will be calculated from the comparizon
between real and imaginary parts. The real component is:
( )
=
+

=
+

=
+
=

5 . 15
23 . 2 1
50

F 10 350 50 MHz 56 . 13 2 1
50
1
2
12
2 2 2
p
T C r
r
R
The imaginary component is:
( )
( )
-88.6 170.4 - 58.7 23.13
H 2 MHz 56 . 13 2
F 10 200 MHz 56 . 13 2
1

F 10 350 50 MHz 56 . 13 2 1
F 10 200 50 MHz 56 . 13 2

1
12
2
12
12
2
p
= + =

=
+
+

=
=
L
C
X
L
242
Solution (continuation):
At given excitation frequency this gives the plasma capacity:
Answer:
The plasma equivalent circuit is given as:
pF 132
-88.6 MHz 56 . 13 2
1 1
p
p
=

= =
X
C
R
P
= 15.1
C
P
= 132 pF
f=13.56 MHz
L=2 uH x=3.41
C
T
=350 pF b =1.49
C
L
=200 pF x= -1.17
R
P
= 15.1 r = 0.3
C
P
= 132 pF x = -1.78
Z
0
= 15.1 r = 1
L+C
L
+C
P
x = 0.46
R
P
= 15.1
C
P
= 132 pF
f=13.56 MHz
(r=0.3, x=0.46)=A A
b=1.49 B=(r=1, x=0)
-matching box by Smith Chart.
243
f=13.56 MHz
(r=0.3, x=0.46)=A
A
b=1.49
D=(r=1, x=0)
*A
*A
*D
inductance: +
Capacitance: -
Parallel
susceptance, b:
inductance: 1
Capacitance: +
Smith chart
clockwise
Positive
value of
reactance or
susceptance
244
245
246
247
248
Review questions:
1. Please explain VSWR , RF reflection coefficient and their relationship .
2. Please explain RF Matching

2011-4-12 Plasma Process Technology in Se

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2.

From Faradays Law (connect voltage to magnetic field):

Flux can be increased

Therefore we can write

From Faradays Law (connect voltage to

Rearrange the equation,

From Faradays Law:

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