Wein Bridge Oscillator

1.
Wein bridge oscillator R-C phase shift oscillator Hartley oscillator Collpitt and clap oscillator Tuned
collector oscillators Classification of oscillators Criterion for oscillations IntroductionCONTENTS
2. Others (Negative resistance osc. etc.) Blocking oscillator Crystal oscillatorCONTENTS
3. An oscillator is an amplifier, which uses a positive feedback and without any external input signal,
generates an output waveform of a desired frequency. It basically converts the dc signal to a required
ac signal. An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a repetitive electronic signal,
often a sine wave or a square wave.-:OSCILLATORS:- INTRODUCTION
4. An oscillator is basically a waveform generator
which generates an output waveform, which oscillates with constant amplitude &
Oscillators are generally required to generate carrier frequency
signal needed in modulation of audio and video waves broadcasting.
It is basic element of all the ac signal sources and generates
sinusoidal signal of required frequency and for electrical and electronic measurement. constant
desired frequency.
5. OSCILLATORS V/S AMPLIFIER Amplifier oscillator1. Negative feedback is
1. Positive feedback is applied. applied.2. It strengthens the 2. It strengthen the input signal without
causing charge as any change in well waveform. frequency.3. Require an external 3.
It just require a dc wave signal to be signal. applied.
6. An oscillator is a nonrotating device. Consequently, there is no wear
Portable and cheap in cost.MERITS OF OSCILLATOR& tear &
It operates at a very high efficiency since there is no wastage of energy due to friction.
Frequency once set remain constant for a considerable period of time.
Frequency of oscillation may be conveniently varied. hence longer life.
7. OSCILLATORThe factors responsible for the stability of frequency 1. Variation in power supply. 2.
Variation in intermediate capacitance.BARKHAUSAIN Criterion 1. The loop gain A >= 1. 2. The
phase shift around the circuit must be 2 or multiple of 2.As the feedback in this case is +ve, if loop
gain increases than gain increases.
8. Undamped or sustained oscillation The electrical oscillation whose amplitude goes on decreasing with
time are known as damped oscillation. The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains constant with
time are known as undamped oscillations. Damped oscillation TYPES OF OSCILLATION
9. BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OFTRANSISTORIZED OSCILLATOR Automatic Amplifier Frequency
OUTPUT Amplitude (gain=A) Selector Control Feedback network()
10. Electronic amplifier : receive dc power from battery Oscillation circuit :-
it is basic tank circuit (LC circuit) which is used to produce frequency of oscillation f = 1/2(LC)1/2 &
Feedback network : it is supplied o/p part to tank
circuit to the electronic amplifier. convert into the ac power for supply to the tank circuit.
11. Automatic Amplitude Control:- If for any reason, the amplitude of oscillations in the output increases,it
may continue to increase on account of feedback. Therefore to overcome this problem an automatic
amplitude control unit is provided. Frequency Selector:- Oscillator must be able to provide oscillation
of any desired frequency , therefore frequency selector is provided.
12. TUNED COLLECTOR OSCILLATOR1. Circuit Diagram:-
13. 2. INTRODUCTION:- It is first oscillator come into the external & clear from the its name that tuned
circuit connected to the collector of transistor thus is called tuned collector oscillator. The tuned circuit
is formed by capacitor C and transformer primary coil L. Frequency of oscillation : f = 1/2(LC)1/2
14. Transistor amplifier provides sufficient gain for oscillator action to place. Capacitors C1 and Ce
bypass capacitors for R2 and Re respectively so that the ac operation of the circuit is not affected. The
resistor R1, R2 and Re form the dc biasing circuit of the transistor. The tuned circuit, constituted by
the capacitor C and transformer primary coil L, forms the load impedance and determine the frequency
of oscillation.2. CONSTRUCTION:-
15. As the transistor is connected in CE configuration, it produces a phase shift of 180 between the input
and output circuit. Another 180 phase shift is provided by the transformer. Feedback voltage
provided by secondary coil L appears across base-emitter junction of transistor.
16. This transient current initiates natural oscillation in the tank circuit. These natural oscillations induce
some voltage into L1 by mutual induction which cause corresponding variation in base current. These
variation in base current are amplified times appear in the collector circuit. When give the Vcc
supply, a transient current is flows through the tuned L-C circuit. It is due to increase of collector
current to its quiescent value.3. WORKING:-
17. The frequency of oscillation i.e. at which Barkhausen criterion is satisfied differs from the resonant
frequency of the tuned circuit. The turn ratio of L1 and L is determined by total losses. A part of this
amplified energy is used to meet the losses that occur in the tank circuit and the rest is radiated out in
the form of elector- magnetic waves.
18. TUNED BASE OSCILLATOR1. Circuit Diagram:-
19. When parallel tuned LC circuit is placed in the base-to-ground circuit, the oscillator is known as the
tuned base oscillator. Frequency of oscillation f = 1/2(LC)1/22.INRODUCTION:-
20. L1 Cc is the dc blocking capacitor. The parallel Re-Ce network in the emitter circuit is a stabilizing
circuit and prevents degeneration of the signal. The dc bias is determined by the resistors R1,R2 and
Re. 3. CONSTRUCTION:- & L2 are the primary & secondary mutually coupled coils of an RF
transformer and provides the required feedback b/w the collector & base circuit. The primary coil L1 is
21. This varying magnetic field links with the coil L and therefore, induces a voltage in the tuned circuit.
Because of correct phasing of the coils, and sufficient gain of amplifier, the oscillations start building
up. The rising collector current, which also flows through the tickler coil L1, create a varying magnetic
field around L1. When the Vcc is switched on, the collector current start increasing.4. WORKING:
22. TYPES OF OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR HARMONIC RELAXATION BLOCKING
R-C L-C OTHER HARTLEY WEINS CRYSTAL BRIDGE COLPITTS NEGATIVE RC-PHASE
RESISTANCE CLAP SHIFT
23. The basic form of an harmonic oscillator is an electronic amplifier with the output attached to a
narrow-band electronic filter, and the output of the filter attached to the input of the amplifier. The
harmonic oscillator produces a sinusoidal output and energy in this unidirectional. It means energy is
transformed from active to passive components and consume by them.HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
Introduction:-
24. 1. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: Vcc
25. Two series capacitors C1 It consists of basically a L-C phase shift network, known as tank circuit and
a single stage invaries capacitating amplifier. 2. CONSTRUCTION:- & The resistors R1 ,R2 , and Re
provides the necessary d.c. bias to keep the transistor in active region. The voltage across C1 is
feedback positively. C2 form potential divider network.
26. The potential divider network is formed by Re and Ce along with resistance R1& The junction of C1
and C2 is grounded. The output is taken out of this inductor by transformer coupling. The radio freq.
coil RFC at which Vcc is applied helps in easy flow of current as it allows the dc current to flow easily
and blocks the high frequency current.R2 to provide stability to the circuit.
27. Thus,the tank circuit produces a 180 phase shift between output collector voltage and feedback
voltage. The current produces an AC voltage acrossC1 and another a.c. voltage across C2. When
collector supply voltage Vcc switched on then a transient current flows through the tank circuit. 3.
OPERATION:-
28. The coil again discharges through the capacitors and the oscillations starts up. These capacitors
discharged through the coil L. The transistor produces a further 180 phase shift.
29. 4. HEQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: B C hie 1k hfeIb E Ib 3 1 Z1 2 Z2 Z3
30. hoe is small so 1/hoe can be neglected. hre is too small so the source hreVout is neglected.
5. FREQUENCY OSCILLATION: General Assumptions:-
31. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- Av = Vo/Vi = -hfe Ib ZL/hie Ib = -hfe ZL/hie ZL = Z2 || [Z1Z3 +
hieZ3+ Z1hie] / [Z1+ hie] = Z1 Z2 Z3+ hieZ2Z3+Z1Z2hie Z1Z2 + hie(Z1+Z2+Z3)+Z1Z3
32. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- = Vf / Vout Vf = I1 * [Z1.hie / (Z1+hie)] Vout = I1 * [Z3+ Z1hie /
(Z1+hie)] = Z1.hie / (Z1Z3+(Z1+Z3)hie) According to Barkhausen criterion for sustained oscillations
:- A >= 1 or A = 1.
33. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:-1 = - hfeZ1Z2 / {Z1(Z2+Z3)+(Z1+Z2+Z3)hie}
Z1(Z2+Z3)+(Z1+Z2+Z3)hie = - hfeZ1Z2hie(Z1+Z2+Z3)+(1+hfe)Z1.Z2+Z1.Z3 = 0 -- (1)Above equation
is the general equation of LC oscillators.
34. FREQUENCY OFOSCILLATION:-Using the Key equation from hartley oscillator-
(1+hfe)Z1Z2+hie(Z1+Z2+Z3)+Z1Z3 = 0so on substituting the values of Z1 = 1/jwC1 , Z2 = 1/jwC2, Z3 =
jwLputting the value in the equation hie(1/jwC1+1/jwC2+jwL)-1/w(1+hfe) +jwL(1/jwC1) = 0
35. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- => jhie(1/jwC1+1/jwC2+wL) = (1+hfe)/wC1C2L/C1
=> jhie(C2+C1+jw2LC1C2/jwC1C2) = 1+hfe/w2C1C2L/C1 => jhie(C1+C2-
wLC1C2/jwC1C2) = 1+hfe/w2C1C2l/C1
36. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:-Equating imaginary term to be zero- hie(C1+C2-
w2LC2C1/jwC1C2) = 0 hie(-1/wC1-1/wC2+wL) = 0 1/wC1+1/wC2 = wL 1/C1+1/C2 = w2L C1+C2/C1C2
= w2L
37. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- w2 = 1/l(C1+C2/C1C2) w2 = 1/LCeq (2f)2 = 1/LCeq f2 =
1/42LCeq f=1/2 (LCeq)1/2 Here 1/Ceq=1/C1+1/C2 => Ceq = C1 .C2 / (C1 +C2 )
38. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:-Equating real terms to be zero - L/C1 = 1/w2C1C2(1+hfe) 1+hfe =
Lw2C2 1+hfe = (L/LCeq)*C2 (w2 = 1/LCeq) 1+hfe = C2/Ceqneglecting 1 as compared to hfe hfe =
C2/C1 This is the condition for sustained oscillation.
40. The extension of capacitors with series in C1 and C2 , remove frequency distortion. Here one more
capacitor is joined in series with the other two. Clapp oscillator is just an extension of that of the
colpitts oscillator. 2. CONSTRUCTION:
41. 3. OPERATION: The operation of the clapp oscillator is just same as that of colpitts oscillator.
42. The frequency of operation of the clapp oscillator is f=1/2 (LCeq)1/2 Where Ceq =(1/C1 +1/C2 +1/C3)-
14. FREQUENCY OFOSCILLATION:-
43. A Hartley oscillator is essentially any configuration that uses a pair of series- connected coils and a
single capacitor. The tapping is done at the quarter length so it is not central tapped inductor. The
Hartley oscillator is an LC electronic oscillator that derives its feedback from a tapped coil in parallel
with a capacitor (tank circuit).1. INTRODUCTION:-
44. C1 1u R1 1k R2 1k R3 1k L1 1m C3 1u C2 1u T1 !NPN C4 1u VccC5 1u 2. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-L2
1m L1 1m NI1 Vout
45. Capacitor C1 The construction is similar to that of colpitt oscillator the change is- 3.
CONSTRUCTION:- & The coil L is replaced by the coils L1C2 are replaced by a single capacitor C. &
Ce is a bypass capacitor used for stabilization of operating point (Q).L2.
46. RFC serves two functions first it prevents radio frequency current from reaching the The tank circuit
consists of inductors L1 and L2 and a variable capacitor C. The tank circuit determines the frequency of
oscillations. Capacitors Cb and Ce are coupling capacitors. d.c. power supply. Second, it prevents the
d.c. supply from short circuiting the a.c. output voltage.
47. This capacitor dischargs through the coils L1 When collector supply voltage Vcc switched on the
capacitor C is charged. 4. OPERATION:- & The total phase shift is 360 . The voltage across L1 is
feedback in to the circuit and voltage across L2 is output. The coils again discharges through the
capacitor and the oscillations starts up. L2.
48. 5. H-EQUIVALENT DIAGRAM:- B C hie 1k H fe Ib E Ib Z2 Z1 Z3
49. hoe is small so 1/hoe can be neglected. hre is to small so the source hreVout is neglected. 6.
FREQUENCY OFOSCILLATIONS:- General Assumptions:-
50. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- hie(Z1+Z2+Z3)+(1+hfe)Z1Z2+Z1Z3 = 0Here Z1 = jw(L1+M), Z2
= jw(L2+M) Z3 = 1/jwCPutting these values in above equation and equating imaginary term
51. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- w(L1+L2+2M) = 1/wC w2C = 1/(L1+L2+2M) w2 =
1/C(L1+L2+2M) Here neglecting the mutual inductance and putting w = 2f (2f)2 = 1/C(L1+L2+2M) f
= 1/2(C(L1+L2+2M))1/2
52. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- 2M+L1+L2 = Leq So f = 1/2(LeqC)1/2
53. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- Equating real term equal to zero w2(1+hfe)(L1+M)(L2+M) =
(L1+M)/C Putting the value of w2 (1+hfe) (L2+M) / LeqC = 1/C So that Gain hfe = (L1+M)/(L2+M)
54. 7. ADVANTAGES:- 1.The frequency is varied using a variable capacitor . 2. The output amplitude
remains constant over the frequency range . 3. The feedback ratio of the tapped inductor remains
constant .
55. 8. DISADVANTAGES:- 1. Harmonic-rich content of the output . 2. It is not suitable for a pure sine
wave.
56. The Hartley oscillator is extensively used on broadcasting bands.9. APPLICATIONS:-
57. Feed back signal is coupled through the feedback resistor R should be such that when added amplifier
stage input resistance hie it is equal to i.e., R+ hie = R Voltage shunt feedback is used for a
transistor phase shift oscillator .1. CONSTRUCTION :-
58. 2. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
59. The RC network produces a phase shift of 1800 between output and input voltages. The output of the
amplifier is supplied to an RC feedback network . This variation in base current is amplified in
collector circuit . The circuit is set into oscillation by any random or variation caused in the base
current . 3. OPERATION :-
60. The circuit arrangement of a phase shift oscillator using NPN transistor in CE configuration. RC
phase shift network is the frequency determining network. Thus sustained variation in collector
current between saturation and cut-off values are obtained . So CE amplifier produces a phase
reversal of the input signal ,total phase shift becomes 3600 or 00 which is essential for regeneration or
for sustained oscillation.
61. 4. H-EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT :- R4 1k C3 1u C1 1u C2 1u + VG1 R1 1k R2 1k R3 1k
62. Making above assumption and replacing current source by equivalent voltage source . hoe of the
transistor is very small 1/hoe is much larger than Rc so the effect of hoe can be neglected. hre of the
transistor is negligibly small so hre Vout omitted from the circuit 5. FREQUENCY
OFOSCILLATION :- Following assumption are made-
63. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- Applying KVL to the three loops, we have (R+Rc+1/jwC)I1 -RI2
+hfeIbRC=0...(1) -RI1 +(2R+1/jwC) I2 -RIb=0 .(2) 0-RI2 +(2R+1/jwC) Ib=0
(3)
64. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- Substituting 1/wC= Xc (R+Rc-jXc) (-R) (hfeRc) (-R) (2R-jwC) (-
R) =0 0 (-R) (2R-jwC)(R+Rc-jXc) [(2R-jXc)2-R2] +R[(-R) (2R-jXc)- hfeRc(-R)] = 0
65. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- R3+R2Rc(3+hfe)-(5R)Xc2-RcXc2-6jR2Xc-j4RRcXc+jX3c =
0Equating the imaginary components of the above equation to zero we have or 6R2Xc+4RRcXc-X3c = 0
or Xc = (6R2+4RRc)1/2 XC=1/wC=1/jwfC
66. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION :- 2fc = 1/(6R2+4RRc)1/2 f = 1/2RC (6+4Rc/R)1/2 (if Rc=R) f =
1/2RC(10)1/2 f is frequency of oscillation
67. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION :- Now equating the real components of equation to zero we have
R3+R2Rc(3+hfe)-X2c(5R+Rc) = 0 R3+R2Rc(3+hfe)-(6R2+4RRc)(5R+Rc) = 0 29R3-
23R2Rc+hfeR2Rc4RR2c = 0 -29R/Rc-23+hfe-4R/Rc = 0 hfe = 23+ 29R/Rc +4 Rc/R
68. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION :- For the loop gain to be greater than unity, the requirement of the
current gain of the transistor is found to be hfe > 23+ 29R/Rc + 4R/Rc If R = Rc, then hfe > (23+29+4)
hfe > 56
69. Rs 1k Rd 1k T1 2N3369 VccCs 1u R 1k C 1u R 1k C 1u 1.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:- R 1k C 1u
70. The circuit uses voltage series feedback. The output of the last section is fed back to the gate of the
FET. The circuit consists of a conventional FET common source amplifier followed by a three section
RC phase shift network. 2. CONSTRUCTION:-
71. Hence the total phase shift from the gate around the entire circuit At some particular frequency the
phase shift is 180 . The phase shift network produces additional phase shift which is a function of
frequency . The basic amplifier shift the input voltage at the gate by 180 .3. FREQUENCY OF
OSCILLATOR:- &back to the gate will be exactly zero.
72. 4. H-EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:- C 1u C 1u C 1u Vi=Vf Rd 1k Vf=Vf rd 1k R 1k R 1k gmVi R 1k
73. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATOR :-From figure I1R = Vf (i) I2R = I1{R+1/jwC} I2R =
Vf{1+1/jwC}. (ii) I3R = (I1+I2)/jwC + I2R = [Vf/R +Vf/R{1+1/jwC}]/jwC+Vf{1+1/jwC} =
Vf/R[R+ (3+1/jwC)/jwC] .(iii)
74. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- Vo = (I1+I2+I3)/jwC +I3R .. (iv) On substituting the values of
I1,I2&I3 using (i), (ii), (iii) in (iv) :- Vo/Vf = 1 6j/wCR -5/w2C2R2 + j/w3C3R3 (V)We know -
1/ = Vo/Vf = 1-5A2-j(6A A3) (vi)
75. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- where A= 1/wCR For sustained oscillation A =1 Hence 1-5A2-
j(6A A3) = A = A+j0 . (vii) Equating real & imaginary part to 0. 6A - A3 = 0;
76. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATOR :- A2 = 6 A = (6)1/2Hence w = 1/(6)1/2 CR 2f= 1/(6)1/2 CR
f=1/2RC(6)1/2Real part 1-5A2 = A 1-(5*6) = A29 = AA =1Thus=1/29 = hfe
77. It is not suitable for higher frequency operations. For generating different audio-frequencies It is
well suited to the range of frequencies from several hertz to several kilohertz(20Hz to 200KHz)5.
APPLICATION :-
78. They are much simpler than the wein bridge oscillators because it does not need negative feedback and
the stabilization arrangement. They are particularly suitable for low frequencies. It provides good
frequency stability. They have wide frequency range. The output is sinusoidal that is quite distortion
free. It is cheap and simple circuit as it contains resistor and capacitor. 6. ADVANTAGE :-
79. It is essentially a two stage amplifier with an RC bridge circuit . It needs high voltages (12V) battery so
as to develop sufficiently large feedback voltage. It is difficult for the circuit to start oscillation as the
feedback is usually small. The frequency stability is not as good as that of wein,s bridge oscillator. The
output is small,it is due to smaller feedback.7.DISADVANTAGES :-
80. The phaseshift across the network lags with increasing frequency and leads with decreasing
frequency. Itis a lead -lag network .
81. 1. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :-
82. 2. CONSTRUCTION :- o It is one of the popular type of oscillator used in audio and sub-audio
frequency ranges (20Hz-20KHz) o Its output is free from distortion and its frequency can be varied
easily. However the maximum frequency output of a typical wein bridge oscillator is only about 1MHz. o
At all other frequency the bridge is off balance (the voltage feedback and output voltage do not have
the correct phase relationship for sustained oscillation).
83. So bridge circuit can be used as feedback network for an oscillator provided that the phase shift
through the amplifier is zero .
84. 3. OPERATION :- The circuit is set in oscillation by any random change of in base current of
transistor Q1. Base current is amplified in collector circuit of transistor with the phase shift of 1800 the
output of transistor Q1 is fed to the base of second transistor Q1 through capacitor C4 . The output
signal will be in phase with the signal input of the base of transistor Q1. A part of the output signal at
transistor Q2 is feedback to the input point (AC) of the bridge
85. Feedback signal is applied to emitter resistor R4 where it produces degenerative effect (-ve
feedback).A part of feedback signal is applied across thebase bias resistance R2 where it
producesregenerative effect (or +ve feedback)At the rated frequency,effect of regenerative ismade
slightly more than that of generation so asto obtain sustained oscillation. The continuous frequency
variation in theoscillator can be held by varying the twocapacitors C1&C2 simultaneously .This
capacitor are called variable Air Gang
86. 4. FREQUENCY OFOSCILLATION:-For bridge to be balanced :- Z2Z3 = Z1Z4Putting value in
standard :- R3[R2/1+jwC2R2] = R4(R1-j/wC1) R2*R3=R4 (1+jwC2R2)(R1-jwC1) R2*R3 -R4*R1-
(C2/C1 )R2R4 + jwC2R2R1R4 =0Separating real and imaginary terms we have R2R3-R4R1- (C2/C1
)R2R4 = 0 C2/C1 = R3/R4-R1/R2 R /wC -wC R R R = 0
87. Thus we see that in a bridge circuit the output will be in phase with the input only when the bridge is
balanced (at resonant frequency).FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATOR :- w = 1/C1C2R1R2 w =
1/(C1C2R1R2)1/2 F = 1/2(R1C1R2C2)1/2 If C1=C2=C and R1=R2=R , then f = 1/2CR and R3 = 2R4
88. 5. APPLICATION :-1. The wein bridge oscillator is a standarddevice used for generating a low
frequencyin the range of 10Hz to 1MHz.2. All commercial audio generators makeuse of wein bridge
oscillator.
89. 6. ADVANTAGE :- 1. It provides a stable low distortion sinusoidal output over a wide range of
frequency. 2. The frequency range can be selected simply by using decade resistance boxes. 3.The
overall gain is high because of two transistor.
90. Thisis a particular class of oscillator which uses negative resistance element such as tuned diode,
unijunction transistor etc.NEGATIVE RESISTANCEOSCILLATOR
91. 1. INTRODUCTION:- A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of
a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material (ex. quartz,rochellesalt) to create an electrical signal with a
very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz
wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies
for radio transmitters.
92. 2. CIRCUITDIAGRAM(BASIC):- U1 HC49S_CY11BS C1 1u R1 1k L1 1m
93. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (VOLTAGESERIES)
94. The voltage feedback signal form the collector to the base in maximum when the crystal impedance is
minimum. Radio frequency coil (RFC) provides for dc bias while decoupling any ac signal on power
lines form affecting the output signal. Capacitor Ce provides ac bypass of emitter resistor Re .
Resistor R1,R2 and Re provide a voltage- divider stabilized dc bias circuit. (VOLTAGE
SERIES)CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
95. The circuit frequency stability is set by the crystal frequency stability, which is good. Variation in
power supply voltage, transistor parameter, etc. have no effect on the circuit operating frequency which
is held stabilized by the crystal The resulting circuit frequency of oscillation is set by the series resonant
frequency of the crystal. The coupling capacitor Cc has negligible impedance at the circuit operation
frequency but block any dc between collector to base .CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
(VOLTAGESERIES)CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
96. CRYSTAL OSCILLATORCIRCUIT DIAGRAM ( VOLTAGESHUNT)
97. Capacitor C3 provides an ac short circuit R2 to ensure that the transistor base Transistor NPN
combined with R1, R2, RFC and Re constitutes a common base emitter. C1 and C2 form a capacitor
voltage divider which returns a portion of the output voltage to the transistor emitter. Parallel resonant
impedance is of a crystal of a maximum value, it is connected in parallel.CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
(VOLTAGESHUNT)CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING remain at
98. As the voltage increase positively, the emitter voltage also increases,(VOLTAGE
SHUNT)CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING & The reduction in VBE causes collector current Ic to
diminish,since the base voltage is fixed, the base-emitter voltage is reduce. & this in turn causes the
collector voltage Vc to increase positively. Thus, the circuit is applying its own input, & a state of
oscillation exists.
99. The crystal in parallel with C1CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR (VOLTAGESHUNT)CONSTRUCTION
AND WORKING & The oscillation frequency is stabilized at the parallel resonant frequency of the
crystal. At other frequencies, the crystal impedance is low, and so the resultant feedback voltage is too
small to sustain oscillation. C2 permit max. voltage feedback form the collector to emitter when its
impedance is maximum, i.e., at its parallel resonant frequency.
100. There is no effect of temperature on crystal oscillator. Ct=Cs * Cm/(Cs+Cm) fShunt = 1/2
(LCt)1/2 fseries= 1/2 (LsCs)1/2 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORFREQUENCY OF OSCILLATOR
101. Different oscillation frequencies can be had by simply replacing one crystal with an-other. The
Q factor , which is measure of the quality of a resonant circuit of a crystal is very high. The crystal
oscillator provides excellent frequency stability. It is very simple circuit as it does need any tank circuit
other than crystal itself.CRYSTAL OSCILLATORADVANTAGE
102. The crystal oscillator are fragile and, therefore, can only be used in low power circuit. The
crystal oscillators have a very limited turning range (or not all). They used for frequencies exceeding
100KHz. CRYSTAL OSCILLATORDISADVANTAGE
103. Example :- Blocking oscillators.A Relaxation Oscillator is an oscillator in which a capacitor is
charged gradually and then discharged rapidly. Its usually implemented with a resistor, a capacitor, and
some sort of "threshold" device such as a neon lamp, diac, uni junction transistor, or Gunn diode
.RELAXATION OSCILLATOR
104. BLOCKING OSCILLATOR A Blocking Oscillator is the minimal configuration of discrete
electronic components which can produce a free-running signal, requiring only a capacitor,
transformer, and one amplifying component. The name is derived from the fact that the transistor (or
tube) is cut-off or "blocked" for most of the duty-cycle, producing periodic pulses.
105. BLOCKING OSCILLATORCIRCUIT DIAGRAM
106. Schmitt Trigger Bistable Multivibrators Monostable Multivibrators Astable
Multivibrators Types of Multivibrators Devices used in Multivibrators IntroductionCONTENTS
107. INTRODUCTION A Multivibrators is an electronic circuit which generates square wave or
other non-sinusoidal waveforms(i.e. square waves, rectangular waves, triangular or saw tooth waves,
etc.).
108. BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM
109. A MV has two-stage amplifier with positivefeedback between two stages. It can be seenthat
output of one amplifier stage is input tothe second stage. So in Multivibrators, each amplifiersupplies
feedback to the other stage in such away that one transistor is driven intosaturation and the other in to
cut-off, i.e. whenone transistor is ON the other is in OFF stateor vice versa.
110. MULTIVIBRATORS:The two possible states of Multivibrators are :-First state : Q1 ON and
Q2 OFFSecond state: Q2 ON and Q1 OFF
111. A Multivibrator switches between these twostates. The condition in which a
Multivibratorremains in one state only indefinitely and doesnot changes its state until it is triggered by
someexternal signal is known as stable state.Otherwise known as quasi-state.
112. (iii) OP Amps.(ii) Negative resistance devices such as UJT, tunnel diode. (i) Active devices such
as electron tubes, BJTs or FETs. DEVICES USED IN MULTIVIBRATORS Multivibrators use
113. TYPES OF MULTIVIBRATORS
114. BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR The Bistable MV also known as Two ShotMV, requires
application of two trigger pulses toreturn the circuit to its original state. The first trigger pulse causes
the conductingtransistor to be cut-off and the second triggerpulse causes a transition back to the
conductingstate. Because two trigger pulses are required,therefore Bistable circuit are sometimes
calledflip-flop.
115. BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORIn this circuit , both coupling networks provide dccoupling and
no energy storage element is used.USES(a) Storage of binary information.(b) Counting pulses.(c)
Generating of pulse waveform of square waveform.(d) For frequency division.
116. BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
117. COLLECTOR COUPLED BISTABLEMULTIVIBRATOR Construction:- The circuit consist
of two identical NPN transistor Q1 and Q2 with equal collector resistance RC1 and RC2 and with
output of one supplied to the input of other. The forward bias is coupled through each resistor R1 and
R3.R2, R4 and VBB provides fix bias for the base junction.
118. WORKING The multivibrator can be driven from first stable state to another stable state by
applying either a negative trigger pulse to the base of Q1or positive trigger pulse to the base of Q2
119. WORKING This increase in potential will forward bias the emitter base junction of Q2, as it is
connected to the collector terminal C1 by R3. as a result collector current (IC2) of a transistor Q2
increases and therefore its collector voltage falls.
120. WORKING The decreases in the collector voltage appears across the emitter base junction of
Q1 where it further reverse biases the emitter base junction of transistor Q1 to make the collector
current (IC1) to fall. After few cycle, Q2 is driven into saturation state and Q1 is in cut-off state. This is
the second stable state to the multivibrator . The circuit will remain now in second stable state until any
trigger pulse is given.
121. Stable state 1:- Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON:-IC2 (sat) =(VCC-VCE (sat))/RC2= VCC/RC2IB2
(sat)>=IC2 (sat)/bonI3=(VCC-VB2 (ON))/(Rc1+R3)I4=(VB2 (ON)-(-VBB))/R4IB2 (sat)= (VCC-VB2
(ON))/(RC1+R3)-(VB2 (ON)-(-VBB))/R4VB1(OFF)=-[|VBE (CUTOFF)|-VBE (sat)]VB1(OFF) = (VCE
(sat)R2)/(R1+R2)-VBBR1/(R1+R2)
122. Stable state 2 :-Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF:-IC1(sat)=(VCC-VCE (sat))/RC1= VCC/RC1IB1
(sat)>=IC1 (sat)/bonI1=(VCC-VB1 (ON))/(R1+RC2)I2=(VB1(sat)-(-VBB))/R2IB1 (sat)=I1-I2IB1 (sat)=
(VCC-VB1 (ON))/(R1+RC2)-(VB1(sat)-(VBB))/R2VB2 (off)=[|VBE(cutoff)|-VBE (sat)]VB2 (off) = (VCE
(sat)R4)/(R3+R4)-VBBR3/(R3+R4)
123. COMMUTATING CAPACITORS Transition Time:- It is define as the time interval during
whichconduction transfer from ON transistor to the OFFtransistor. Usually, it is desirable that the
transitionshould be small and the transition should require afinite amount of trigger energy.
124. COMMUTATING CAPACITORS Transition time may be reduced byintroducing the binary
capacitances Cm1 andCm2in shunt with the coupling resistor R1 and R2respectively. These capacitors
speed up thetransition from OFF state to ON state. Hencethese capacitor are known as speed
upcapacitor or commutating capacitor ortranspose capacitor. The main purpose of these capacitors is
toimprove the switching characteristics of thecircuit by passing high frequency component ofsquare
wave.
125. RESOLVING TIME:- The minimum time interval between twoconsecutive trigger pulse is
known as resolvingtime.Delay time, D=0.693RC where, R=>Resistance C=>Capacitance
126. TYPES OF MULTIVIBRATOR:-(c)Self Biased Transistor MV(d)JFET Bistable MV
127. NUMERICAL:Question:-Design a BMV who has two o/p as 0 and 10v;givenIcMAX = 25mA,
= 100, VCE(ON) = VBE(ON) = 0 &voltage of -1v is required to reverse bias thetransistor & VBE(OFF)
= -10v ?
128. Solution:-Given that:VCC = 10vVBE(ON)=VCE(ON) = 0 = 100VBB = -1VVBE(OFF) = -
10VTo Find :-All the parameters which are required forthe circuiti.e. R1,R2,R3,R4,Rc1,Rc2 .
129. Calculation:Q1 is off and Q2 is on:-IB2 sat>=IC2 sat/on =25/100 mA =0.25 mAIC2 sat =(VCC-
VCE sat)/RC2= VCC/RC2 RC2 =(10*1000)/25 =400
130. VB2 off = (VCE satR4)/(R3+R4)-VBBR3/(R3+R4)VB2 off = R3/(R3+R4)-10 = R1/(R1+R2)R2 = -
11R1/10R1=35.9 KR2 = -11*35.9/10 =39.4 K
131. Designed Multivibrator
132. BLOCKING OSCILLATORWORKING This voltage applied to base of transistor. Thus Ic
isfurther increased due to increase in FB to base-emitterjunction. The transistor is quickly driven
intosaturation. Now capacitor is charged and ive chargeon the base of transistor which RB the base-
emitterjunction. Thus the transistor is driven cut-off. The transistorremains at cut-off, as capacitor now
commencesdischarge.
133. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORIt is also called a single swing, or delay MV.In this circuit,
one coupling network provides accoupling while the other provides dc coupling. It has only one stable
(stand by) state and onequasi stable state.
134. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS The circuit remains in its stable state until a triggering
signal causes a transition to the quasi stable state. Then after a time T, the circuits return to its stable
state.
135. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS As only one triggering signal is required to induces a
transition from a stable state to quasi- stable and the circuit returns to its initial stable automatically
after a definite period, it is called single-shot MV.
136. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORApplication(1)This MV is employed for generating clean
andsharp pulses from distorted, old pulses.(2) The falling part of the monostable multivibratoroutput is
often used for triggering another pulsegenerator circuit thus producing a pulse delayedby a time T with
respect to the input pulse.
137. CONSTRUCTION:- It consists of two identical transistor Q1 and Q2 of N-P-N type. Output of
Q1 is coupled to base of Q2 by capacitor C. Q1 is reversed biased due to power supply VBB. While Q2
will be in ON state, because base potential required for Q2 is supplied through VCC by R continuously.
So initially in stable state Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON .
138. COLLECTOR-COUPLED MMVCIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
139. CONSTRUCTION:-Capacitor C charges to VCC through RC1 and basecurrent of Q2 , then
this current stops flowing. Socapacitor C is completely charged to VCC with leftplate positive. Cm is a
commutating capacitor orspeed up capacitor which provided to improve theswitching characteristics of
the circuit.
140. WORKINGWhen the positive trigger is applied to the base ofQ1 transistor through the
capacitor C2 the basevoltage of Q1 increases and it starts conducting .Thus Q1 starts conducting and
the potential ofcollector of Q1 comes down to ground.Since charge on capacitor C cannot
disappearinstantly, the voltage across the capacitor plates ismaintained.
141. WORKINGAs the capacitor discharges the negative bias isapplied to the base of Q2 and Q2 is
cutoff. Thecollector of Q2 rises towards VCC and is nowcapable of supplying base current of Q1
through itsbase resistance R1. thus transistor Q1 remainstuned On after the positive spike from
thetransistor Q1 is removed.
142. WORKINGStage 1:- stable state:- In stable state Q1 is off and Q2 is on.(A) when Q2 is ON:-
VC2 sat = vCE satIC2 sat = (VCC VCE2 sat )/ RC2 = VCC/ RC2 (VCE2sat = 0)IB2on >= IC2 sat /bon
= (VCC-VBE sat)/RVB2ON = VBEON = VBE sat
143. WORKING(A) when Q1 is OFF:-VC1 OFF = VCCVB1OFF = (-VBBR1+VCE
satR2)/(R1+R2)VB1off <= -0.5to -1V neglecting VCE satVB1OFF = -VBBR1/(R1+R2)
144. Q1 IS ON Q2 IS OFF:-
145. STAGE 2(A):- Q1 IS ON:-VC1sat = VCE sat = 0IC1sat = (VCC-VCE sat)/ RC1 =
VCC/RC1IB1sat >= IC1sat/bonVB1sat = VBE satI1 = (VCC-VBE sat)/(RC2+R1)I2 = (VBE sat-(-
VBB))/R2IB1sat = I1-I2
146. WORKING:-V(t) = Vin+(Vf-Vin)e-t/t(V (t)-Vin)/(Vf-V in) = e-t/t(V f-V in)/(V (t)-Vin) = et/tAt t
= TV(t) = Vl (cut in voltage)V f= VCC and Vin= (VBE sat-VCC+VCE sat)
147. WORKING:-(VCC-(VBE sat-VCC+VCE sat))/ (Vl- (VBE sat -VCC+VCEsat))= e-t/tAt VBE
sat=0.7V VCE sat =0.3VVCC-(0.7-VCC+0.3) / Vl-(0.7-VCC+0.3)=e-t/tSolving the equation (V l=0.5)2=
et/t t=t ln2 T=0.693RC
148. NumericalQuestion:-Design a monostable multivibrator which gives apulse duration of 10ms &
a height of 10v when ittriggered for transistor to be used ;=125,vce(on)=vbe(on)=0,reverse bias of 1v
isrequired to turn off the transistor vbe(off)=10vicmax =20mA
149. Solution:-Given that:=125vce(on)=vbe(on)=0Vbe(off)=1v vbb=10v icmax =20mAt=10msLet us
assume that T1 OFF T2-ON
150. IC2 sat=(VCC VCE2 sat )/ RC2 = VCC/ RC2 =10/20mA=1000/2=500IB2on>= IC2 sat /bon
=20/125=16mA(VCC-VBE sat)/R=16mA R=10/16=62.5kVB1OFF= -VBBR1/(R1+R2) 1= -10/(R1+R2)
R2=-11R1
151. In Next Clock Pulse WhenT1-ONT2-OFFI1=(VCC-VBE sat)/(RC2+R1)I2=(VBE sat-(-
VBB))/R2IB1sat=I1-I2 = (VCC-VBE sat)/(RC2+R1) -(VBE sat-(-VBB))/R2
152. 0.6mA=10/500+R1-1/r2R1=33.7KR2=11*33.7KT=0.693RC10ms =.693*62.5*C C=0.23F
154. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR In an astable MV , both coupling network provide ac coupling
through coupling capacitors. It has no stable state. The two states had by the astable MV are quasi-
states The astable MV , therefore, makes successive transition from one quasi-state to the other one after
a predetermined time interval, without the aid of an external triggering signal.
155. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
156. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR Since its output oscillates in between off and on states freely, it
is called a free-running MV. Frequency of oscillation; f=0.7/RC
157. TYPES OF AMV:-2) Asymmetrical astable Multivibrator3) Symmetrical Astable
Multivibrator4) Saturating Astable Multivibrator5) Non Saturating Astable Multivibrator:-6) Voltage
Controlled Astable Multivibrator:-
158. COLLECTOR COUPLED SATURATING ASTABLEMULTIVIBRATOR:-
159. Capacitor Cb1 connects the output of transistor Q1 to the base terminal of the transistor Q2.
Capacitors Cb1 and Cb2 are the coupling capacitors. Resistors Rc1 and Rc2 are the collector circuit
resistors.COLLECTOR COUPLED SATURATING ASTABLEMULTIVIBRATOR:-
160. COLLECTOR COUPLED SATURATING ASTABLEMULTIVIBRATOR:-Resistor RB1 and
RB2 provides the ON state basecurrents to the transistors Q1 and Q2 respectivelyduring the saturation
region. For a symmetricalastable MV, we should have RB1= RB2, Cb1= Cb2and Rc1= Rc2.
161. WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:-Let at time instant t=0, the power supply voltageVcc get
applied abruptly. Then in a symmetricalastable multi, due to slight mismatch, let thecurrent Ic1 flowing
in transistor Q1 be slightly morethan the current Ic2 in transistor Q2. Hence the rateof Vc1 at collector
Cb1 of Q1 is greater than of Vc2 atcollector of Q2.
162. WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:- For the transients, the capacitor act as short- circuit and the
voltage across them cannot change instantaneously. Hence the drop in collector voltage of Q1 from the
initial value Vcc to Vc1 (Vc1< Vcc) makes the voltage of transistor Q2 to reduce by the same amount.
163. WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:- This negative increment in the voltage at the base of
transistor Q2 reduce the conduction current and cause increase in the collector voltage Vc2 thereby
making it move towards Vcc.
164. WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:- This increase in Vc2 gets transferred through capacitor Cb1
to the base of the transistor Q1 making its voltage more positive thereby increasing the conduction in
Q1. Increased conduction in Q1 further reduces the collector voltage Vc1 which in turn causes further
reduction in voltage of base of transistor Q2.
165. WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:- Thus a regenerative or positive feedback action with loop gain
greater than unity sets in. As a result, the above mentioned sequence of operation occur instantaneously
causing the transistor Q1 to go into saturation and transistor Q2 to go into OFF region.
166. WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:-Thus when astable MV is switched, we have the following
condition:(i) Transistor Q1 is in saturation region.(ii) Transistor Q2 is in OFF region.
167. LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WITH Q1 IN SATURATIONAND Q2 OFF
168. CIRCUIT CONDITION FOR TRANSISTOR Q1 INSATURATION REGION VC1(0) =VCE
sat IC1 sat=(VCC-VCE sat)/RC1 = vcc /RC1 (vCEsat=0) VB1ON >=VBEON =VBESat IB1ON=(Vcc
VBE Sat )/RB1 IB1ON >=IC1Sat / bON VB20ff=-VCC+VBEon VCEoff = VCC-VCEsat
169. CIRCUIT CONDITION FOR TRANSISTOR Q1 INSATURATION REGION For silicon
transistor Q1, the base voltage should be about 0.7v. With collector to-emitter saturation voltage
VCE=0.2v,this base voltage of 0.7v will forward bias both the emitter and the collector junctions.
170. CIRCUIT CONDITION FOR TRANSISTOR Q1 INSATURATION REGIONOn making the
simplifying assumption that thetransistor Q1 is ideal .For large Vcc,Vc1(0)=0v IC1sat=VCC /RC1For
large VBB ,VB1ON=0v IB1ON= Vcc /RB1
171. CIRCUIT CONDITION FOR TRANSISTOR Q 2 INOFF REGION:- VB2OFF (0+)=-
VCC+VB2on IC2(0)=0 VC2 (OFF)=VCC-VCE (sat)=VCC
172. CIRCUIT BEHAVIOUR IN QUASI STABLE STATE:CHARGING OF CAPACITOR CB2
(0<T<T1 ):- The time interval 0<t<t1 , the voltage across capacitor Cb2 rises fromVB2 OFF(0) towards
Vcc. The charging path of capacitor Cb2 is shown figure.
173. LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WITH Q2 INSATURATION AND Q1 OFF
174. LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WITH Q2 IN SATURATIONAND Q1 OFF VCE sat of
transistor Q1 to be negligible .At any time t, the expression for voltage on capacitor Cb2 or VB2 OFF(t)
may be written:- VB2 OFF (t) = Vcc +[VB2 OFF(0)- Vcc ]e-t/Rc2CB2
175. LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WITH Q2 INSATURATION AND Q1 OFF During the
quasi stable state ,capacitor Cb2 charges towards VBB through resistor RB2.At the time instant t=t1,
the instantaneous base voltage of Q2 equals VB2on and Q2 enters conduction . Figure shows the
variations of voltageVB2.Thus we have:-
176. LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WITH Q2 INSATURATION AND Q1 OFF VB2
ON=VB2()+[VB2 OFF(0)-VB2()]e-t1/RB2CB2 But VB2off(0)=-VCC+VB2 ON And VB2()= Vcc
Hence on solving for time interval t1 we get :- t1=RB2CB2In[(Vcc +(VCC-VB2 ON))/ Vcc -VB2 ON]
177. LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WITH Q2 IN SATURATIONAND Q1 OFF We assume
that VCE sat<<VCC and VB2on<<VBB. hence voltage VCE sat and VB2on may be neglected.so above
equation gets reduces as given below:- t1=0.693RB2Cb2.
178. BEHAVIOUR AT TIME INSTANT T=T1At time instant t=t1 transistor Q2 enters
intoconduction. The collector voltage of Q2 begins tofall. This falling collector voltage of Q2
getscommunicated to the base of transistor Q1 by acapacitor Cb2 consequently the conduction of
Q1reduces resulting in the increase of collectorvoltage of Q1
179. BEHAVIOUR AT TIME INSTANT T=T1This increase in collector voltage of Q1
iscommunicated to the base of Q2 via capacitor Cb2increasing the conduction of Q2 .This
processcontinuous and Q2 goes into saturation while Q1goes OFF instantaneously.
180. CIRCUIT BEHAVIOUR DURING QUASI ASTABLESTATE(T1<T<T2):-During this time
period capacitor Cb1 charges fromVB1 OFF(0) towards Vcc analogously. At the timeinstant t=t2 the
instantaneous base voltage is VB1ONwhich brings Q1 into conduction.
181. CIRCUIT BEHAVIOUR DURING QUASI ASTABLESTATE(T1<T< Assuming that VCE sat
(t2-t1)=RB1Cb1In[((VCC +(VCC-VB1ON))/(Vcc -VB1ON)] The time interval (t2-t1) may then be
expressed as:-T2):-<<VCC and VB1ON<< (t2-t1)=0.693RB1Cb1 equation reduces to the following
simple form:-Vcc the
182. TIME PERIOD:-The time periods T is the sum of periods t1 and (t2-t1).thus:- T =
0.693[RB1Cb1+RB2Cb2]For symmetrical multivibrator, we have RB1=RB2=RB say Cb1=Cb2=C
sayThen eq. reduces to the following form:- T=1.38RbCb f=1/T f=0.72/RC
183. from above eqn. we see that the time period ofastable multivibrator is independent of the
supplyvoltage, temperature and junction voltages. Duty cycle: =t1/T=t2/T = TIME IN WHICH
CAPACITORCHARGES/ TOTAL TIME PERIOD
184. NUMERICAL:-Q. Design a astable multivibrator whichgenerates a waveform of
prf(pulserepetition frequency) 50khz & duty cycle of60% of height 10v icmax=20mA,=100.
185. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORSolution:- Given that f=50KHZ Duty cycle =60% Vcc=10V
=100 Icmax=20mA
186. Formula to be usedRc=Vcc(max) / Ic(max)IB(sat)=Ic(sat) / RB1=Vcc-VBE/IonDuty
cycle=t1/T=t2/tT=1/fT=t1+t2t1=0.693R1C1t2=0.693R2C2
187. Rc=Vcc(max)/Ic(max) = 10/20mA Rc=500 IB(sat)=IC(sat)/ IB(sat)=20mA/100 IB(sat)=0.2mA
RB1=Vcc-VBE/Ion RB1= 10V-0/.2mA=50K Duty cycle=t1/T
188. T=1/50Kt1=12 sT=t1+t21/50K-0.12s=t2t2=8st1=0.693R1C1C1=12
/0.693*50KC1=346pFC2=8 /0.693*50KC2=230pF
189. Robotics FM Demodulation Signal Regeneration Squaring circuit Flip flop circuit.
Amplitude comparator APPLICATION:- & Frequency SynthesizerRadio control
190. SCHMITT TRIGGER CIRCUIT
191. It is a device that generates squareSCHMITT TRIGGER & (II) Feedback from output of
transistor Q2 to transistor Q1 is achieved through Re. (I) In schmitt trriger base of transistor is kept
open. It has two stable state (one high, other low) It is bistable multivibrator.rectangular waveforms.
192. OPERATION OF SCHMITT TRIGGER As input voltage Vin increases from zero(Q1 off, Q2
on) output voltage V0=Vcc-Ic2Rc2, and when input voltage reachesV1,output suddenly rises to Vcc as
Q2 become off and Q1 remains on,if Vin is increased beyond V1 circuit remains in stable state(i.e. Q1 on
and Q2 off) but if Vin decreases,during negative half cycle then when it reaches to V2 the circuit makes
as abrupt change i.e. Q1 off and Q2 on. V0=Vin-Ic2Rc2 again.
193. Forward biases. Slightly the transistor Q2 and , therefore Q2 starts conducting . The transistor
Q1 is now reverse biased due to flow of current in emitter resistor RE from Q2. When the power supply
is switched on for the first time, R3, R1 and R2 forming a potential divider across VCC and
VBB.SCHMITT TRIGGER AS A FLIP FLOP
194. SCHMITT TRIGGER AS A FLIP FLOP Thus the Q1 goes to cut off. As a result the potential of
Q1 collector rises to VCC. This positive going signal appears across the emitter base junction of
transistor Q2, as it is connected to terminal C1 by R1, and drives transistor Q2 into saturation and holds
there . Thus in the initial static condition of the Schmitt trigger circuit; transistor Q1, is in cut off and
Q2 is in saturation
195. SCHMITT TRIGGER AS A FLIP FLOP Now when the input ac signal (say positive going) is
applied to the base of transistor Q1 ,if it is to sufficient strength to overcome the reverse bias placed on
the base of Q1, due to voltage drop across emitter resistor RE, the Q1 is forward biased.
196. Withreduced emitter current voltage drop across emitter resistor RE falls and therefore reverse
bias placed on the Q1 due to it decreases and Now Q1 start conducting , its collector terminal C1
potential drops, this negative going signal coupled to the base of transistor Q2 via resistor R1 reduces its
forward bias and consequently emitter current.SCHMITT TRIGGER AS A FLIP FLOP
197. SCHMITT TRIGGER AS A FLIP FLOP Q1 starts conducting more. As a result collector
Voltage of Q1 drops further and therefore Q2 is further driven to cutoff at the end Q1 goes into
saturation and Q2 goes into cutoff. After half a cycle of the input signal, when the input signal to the
base of transistor Q1 is negative going Q1 becomes reverse biased, its collector current drops and
therefore its collector terminal potential rises
198. SCHMITT TRIGGER AS A FLIP FLOP As a result the transistor Q2 is forward biased, it
starts conducting again, emitter current increase voltage drop resistor RE increases and therefore the
Q1 in further reversed biased, at the end Q2 comes into saturation and Q1 come into cutoff.
199. Flip flop circuit. Amplitude comparator Squaring circuitAPPLICATION:-
200. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCHMITTTRIGGER AND BI STABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:-
SCHMITT TRIGGER BISTABLE MULTI VIBRATOR 1.It is a square wave 1.It is a square wave or
any generator. non sinusoidal wave 2.V(in) is applied in it. generator. 3.We do not apply 2.V(in) is not
applied in it. external triggering pulse 3.We have to apply external in it. triggering pulse in it. 4.Re
resistance is there 4.There is no Re resistance. in Schmitt trigger.
201. SCHMITT TRIGGER BI STABLE MULTIVIBRATOR5.Feedback from Q2 is 5. In bi stable it
is not likeobtained through that.resistance R2 6. In bi stable both are connected.6.In it output of 1 is
stconnected to base of2nd transistor butOutput of 2nd is notconnected to base of1st .
202. HYSTERESIS IN SCHMITT TRIGGER:-In the non-inverting configuration, when the input
ishigher than a certain chosen threshold, the output ishigh; when the input is below a different
(lower)chosen threshold, the output is low; when the input isbetween the two, the output retains its
value. Thetrigger is so named because the output retains itsvalue until the input changes sufficiently to
trigger achange. This dual threshold action is calledhysteresis, and implies that the Schmitt trigger
hassome memory
203. Fig.:-Schmitt trigger using OP-AMP
204. Hysteresis H=UTP-LTP= 2b Vsat The upper trip point has a value: UTP= b Vsat = R2/(R2 + R
1) VsatThe lower trip point has a value: LTP= - b Vsat = - b R2/(R2 +R1 ) Vsat The feedback fraction,
b =R2 /(R2 + R1)The trip point are defined as the two input voltages where the output changes its
states.FORMULAE:-
205. NUMERICALQuestion:-Derive a Schmitt trigger given that VUTP=5v and VLTP= -5v What is
hysteresis voltage?
206. Solution:-Given that:-VUTP = 5vV LTP = -5vAssume thatVsat =10vnow by solving equations
for VUTP and VLTP we get10R1/ R1+ R 2 =5 hysteresis voltage =VUTP-VLTP=5+5= 10v
207. Gopal Kumar Roy Deepak Kumar Maru Bhawna Kaushik Bhawani Singh Kanawat
Jogendra AjmeraMULTIVIBRATOR:- Hemant Bhawariya Dilip Kumawat Diggujawal KumarS
UBM TTED BY- IOSCILLATOR-
208. Wein bridge oscillator R-C phase shift oscillator Hartley oscillator Collpitt and clap
oscillator Tuned collector oscillators Classification of oscillators Criterion for oscillations
IntroductionCONTENTS
209. Others (Negative resistance osc. etc.) Blocking oscillator Crystal
oscillatorCONTENTS
210. An oscillator is an amplifier, which uses a positive feedback and without any external
input signal, generates an output waveform of a desired frequency. It basically converts the dc
signal to a required ac signal. An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a
repetitive electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave.-:OSCILLATORS:-
INTRODUCTION
211. An oscillator is basically a waveform generator
which generates an output waveform, which oscillates with constant amplitude &
Oscillators are generally required to generate carrier frequency
signal needed in modulation of audio and video waves broadcasting.
It is basic element of all the ac signal sources and generates
sinusoidal signal of required frequency and for electrical and
electronic measurement. constant desired frequency.
212. OSCILLATORS V/S AMPLIFIER Amplifier oscillator1. Negative feedback is
1. Positive feedback is applied. applied.2. It strengthens the 2. It strengthen the input signal
without causing charge as any change in well waveform. frequency.3. Require an external
3. It just require a dc wave signal to be signal. applied.
213. An oscillator is a nonrotating device. Consequently, there is no wear
Portable and cheap in cost.MERITS OF OSCILLATOR& tear &
It operates at a very high efficiency since there is no wastage of energy due to friction.
Frequency once set remain constant for a considerable period of time.
Frequency of oscillation may be conveniently varied. hence longer life.
214. OSCILLATORThe factors responsible for the stability of frequency 1. Variation in
power supply. 2. Variation in intermediate capacitance.BARKHAUSAIN Criterion 1. The loop
gain A >= 1. 2. The phase shift around the circuit must be 2 or multiple of 2.As the feedback
in this case is +ve, if loop gain increases than gain increases.
215. Undamped or sustained oscillation The electrical oscillation whose amplitude goes on
decreasing with time are known as damped oscillation. The electrical oscillations whose
amplitude remains constant with time are known as undamped oscillations.
Damped oscillation TYPES OF OSCILLATION
216. BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OFTRANSISTORIZED OSCILLATOR Automatic
Amplifier Frequency OUTPUT Amplitude (gain=A) Selector Control Feedback network()
217. Electronic amplifier : receive dc power from battery Oscillation circuit :-
it is basic tank circuit (LC circuit) which is used to produce frequency of oscillation
f = 1/2(LC)1/2 & Feedback network : it is supplied o/p part to tank
circuit to the electronic amplifier. convert into the ac power for supply to the tank circuit.
218. Automatic Amplitude Control:- If for any reason, the amplitude of oscillations in the
output increases,it may continue to increase on account of feedback. Therefore to overcome this
problem an automatic amplitude control unit is provided. Frequency Selector:- Oscillator
must be able to provide oscillation of any desired frequency , therefore frequency selector is
provided.
219. TUNED COLLECTOR OSCILLATOR1. Circuit Diagram:-
220. 2. INTRODUCTION:- It is first oscillator come into the external & clear from the its
name that tuned circuit connected to the collector of transistor thus is called tuned collector
oscillator. The tuned circuit is formed by capacitor C and transformer primary coil L.
Frequency of oscillation : f = 1/2(LC)1/2
221. Transistor amplifier provides sufficient gain for oscillator action to place. Capacitors
C1 and Ce bypass capacitors for R2 and Re respectively so that the ac operation of the circuit is
not affected. The resistor R1, R2 and Re form the dc biasing circuit of the transistor. The
tuned circuit, constituted by the capacitor C and transformer primary coil L, forms the load
impedance and determine the frequency of oscillation.2. CONSTRUCTION:-
222. As the transistor is connected in CE configuration, it produces a phase shift of 180
between the input and output circuit. Another 180 phase shift is provided by the transformer.
Feedback voltage provided by secondary coil L appears across base-emitter junction of
transistor.
223. This transient current initiates natural oscillation in the tank circuit. These natural
oscillations induce some voltage into L1 by mutual induction which cause corresponding
variation in base current. These variation in base current are amplified times appear in the
collector circuit. When give the Vcc supply, a transient current is flows through the tuned L-C
circuit. It is due to increase of collector current to its quiescent value.3. WORKING:-
224. The frequency of oscillation i.e. at which Barkhausen criterion is satisfied differs from
the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit. The turn ratio of L1 and L is determined by total
losses. A part of this amplified energy is used to meet the losses that occur in the tank circuit
and the rest is radiated out in the form of elector- magnetic waves.
225. TUNED BASE OSCILLATOR1. Circuit Diagram:-
226. When parallel tuned LC circuit is placed in the base-to-ground circuit, the oscillator is
known as the tuned base oscillator. Frequency of oscillation
f = 1/2(LC)1/22.INRODUCTION:-
227. L1 Cc is the dc blocking capacitor. The parallel Re-Ce network in the emitter circuit
is a stabilizing circuit and prevents degeneration of the signal. The dc bias is determined by
the resistors R1,R2 and Re. 3. CONSTRUCTION:- & L2 are the primary & secondary
mutually coupled coils of an RF transformer and provides the required feedback b/w the
collector & base circuit. The primary coil L1 is
228. This varying magnetic field links with the coil L and therefore, induces a voltage in the
tuned circuit. Because of correct phasing of the coils, and sufficient gain of amplifier, the
oscillations start building up. The rising collector current, which also flows through the tickler
coil L1, create a varying magnetic field around L1. When the Vcc is switched on, the collector
current start increasing.4. WORKING:
229. TYPES OF OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR HARMONIC
RELAXATION BLOCKING R-C L-C OTHER HARTLEY WEINS CRYSTAL BRIDGE
COLPITTS NEGATIVE RC-PHASE RESISTANCE CLAP SHIFT
230. The basic form of an harmonic oscillator is an electronic amplifier with the output
attached to a narrow-band electronic filter, and the output of the filter attached to the input of
the amplifier. The harmonic oscillator produces a sinusoidal output and energy in this
unidirectional. It means energy is transformed from active to passive components and consume
by them.HARMONIC OSCILLATOR Introduction:-
232. Two series capacitors C1 It consists of basically a L-C phase shift network, known as
tank circuit and a single stage invaries capacitating amplifier. 2. CONSTRUCTION:- & The
resistors R1 ,R2 , and Re provides the necessary d.c. bias to keep the transistor in active
region. The voltage across C1 is feedback positively. C2 form potential divider network.
233. The potential divider network is formed by Re and Ce along with resistance R1& The
junction of C1 and C2 is grounded. The output is taken out of this inductor by transformer
coupling. The radio freq. coil RFC at which Vcc is applied helps in easy flow of current as it
allows the dc current to flow easily and blocks the high frequency current.R2 to provide
stability to the circuit.
234. Thus,the tank circuit produces a 180 phase shift between output collector voltage and
feedback voltage. The current produces an AC voltage acrossC1 and another a.c. voltage
across C2. When collector supply voltage Vcc switched on then a transient current flows
through the tank circuit. 3. OPERATION:-
235. The coil again discharges through the capacitors and the oscillations starts up. These
capacitors discharged through the coil L. The transistor produces a further 180 phase shift.
236. 4. HEQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: B C hie 1k hfeIb E Ib 3 1 Z1 2 Z2 Z3
237. hoe is small so 1/hoe can be neglected. hre is too small so the source hreVout is
neglected. 5. FREQUENCY OSCILLATION: General Assumptions:-
238. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- Av = Vo/Vi = -hfe Ib ZL/hie Ib = -hfe ZL/hie ZL =
Z2 || [Z1Z3 + hieZ3+ Z1hie] / [Z1+ hie] = Z1 Z2 Z3+ hieZ2Z3+Z1Z2hie Z1Z2 +
hie(Z1+Z2+Z3)+Z1Z3
239. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- = Vf / Vout Vf = I1 * [Z1.hie / (Z1+hie)] Vout =
I1 * [Z3+ Z1hie / (Z1+hie)] = Z1.hie / (Z1Z3+(Z1+Z3)hie) According to Barkhausen criterion
for sustained oscillations :- A >= 1 or A = 1.
240. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:-1 = - hfeZ1Z2 / {Z1(Z2+Z3)+(Z1+Z2+Z3)hie}
Z1(Z2+Z3)+(Z1+Z2+Z3)hie = - hfeZ1Z2hie(Z1+Z2+Z3)+(1+hfe)Z1.Z2+Z1.Z3 = 0 -- (1)Above
equation is the general equation of LC oscillators.
241. FREQUENCY OFOSCILLATION:-Using the Key equation from hartley oscillator-
(1+hfe)Z1Z2+hie(Z1+Z2+Z3)+Z1Z3 = 0so on substituting the values of Z1 = 1/jwC1 , Z2 =
1/jwC2, Z3 = jwLputting the value in the equation hie(1/jwC1+1/jwC2+jwL)-1/w(1+hfe)
+jwL(1/jwC1) = 0
242. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- => jhie(1/jwC1+1/jwC2+wL)
= (1+hfe)/wC1C2L/C1 => jhie(C2+C1+jw2LC1C2/jwC1C2) = 1+hfe/w2C1C2-
L/C1 => jhie(C1+C2wLC1C2/jwC1C2) = 1+hfe/w2C1C2l/C1
243. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:-Equating imaginary term to be zero- hie(C1+C2-
w2LC2C1/jwC1C2) = 0 hie(-1/wC1-1/wC2+wL) = 0 1/wC1+1/wC2 = wL 1/C1+1/C2 = w2L
C1+C2/C1C2 = w2L
244. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- w2 = 1/l(C1+C2/C1C2) w2 = 1/LCeq (2f)2 =
1/LCeq f2 = 1/42LCeq f=1/2 (LCeq)1/2 Here 1/Ceq=1/C1+1/C2 => Ceq = C1 .C2 / (C1 +C2 )
245. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:-Equating real terms to be zero - L/C1 =
1/w2C1C2(1+hfe) 1+hfe = Lw2C2 1+hfe = (L/LCeq)*C2 (w2 = 1/LCeq) 1+hfe =
C2/Ceqneglecting 1 as compared to hfe hfe = C2/C1 This is the condition for sustained
oscillation.
247. The extension of capacitors with series in C1 and C2 , remove frequency distortion.
Here one more capacitor is joined in series with the other two. Clapp oscillator is just an
extension of that of the colpitts oscillator. 2. CONSTRUCTION:
248. 3. OPERATION: The operation of the clapp oscillator is just same as that of colpitts
oscillator.
249. The frequency of operation of the clapp oscillator is f=1/2 (LCeq)1/2 Where Ceq
=(1/C1 +1/C2 +1/C3)-14. FREQUENCY OFOSCILLATION:-
250. A Hartley oscillator is essentially any configuration that uses a pair of series- connected
coils and a single capacitor. The tapping is done at the quarter length so it is not central tapped
inductor. The Hartley oscillator is an LC electronic oscillator that derives its feedback from a
tapped coil in parallel with a capacitor (tank circuit).1. INTRODUCTION:-
251. C1 1u R1 1k R2 1k R3 1k L1 1m C3 1u C2 1u T1 !NPN C4 1u VccC5 1u 2. CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM:-L2 1m L1 1m NI1 Vout
252. Capacitor C1 The construction is similar to that of colpitt oscillator the change is- 3.
CONSTRUCTION:- & The coil L is replaced by the coils L1C2 are replaced by a single
capacitor C. & Ce is a bypass capacitor used for stabilization of operating point (Q).L2.
253. RFC serves two functions first it prevents radio frequency current from reaching the
The tank circuit consists of inductors L1 and L2 and a variable capacitor C. The tank circuit
determines the frequency of oscillations. Capacitors Cb and Ce are coupling capacitors. d.c.
power supply. Second, it prevents the d.c. supply from short circuiting the a.c. output voltage.
254. This capacitor dischargs through the coils L1 When collector supply voltage Vcc
switched on the capacitor C is charged. 4. OPERATION:- & The total phase shift is 360 . The
voltage across L1 is feedback in to the circuit and voltage across L2 is output. The coils again
discharges through the capacitor and the oscillations starts up. L2.
255. 5. H-EQUIVALENT DIAGRAM:- B C hie 1k H fe Ib E Ib Z2 Z1 Z3
256. hoe is small so 1/hoe can be neglected. hre is to small so the source hreVout is
neglected. 6. FREQUENCY OFOSCILLATIONS:- General Assumptions:-
257. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- hie(Z1+Z2+Z3)+(1+hfe)Z1Z2+Z1Z3 = 0Here Z1 =
jw(L1+M), Z2 = jw(L2+M) Z3 = 1/jwCPutting these values in above equation and equating
imaginary term
258. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- w(L1+L2+2M) = 1/wC w2C = 1/(L1+L2+2M) w2 =
1/C(L1+L2+2M) Here neglecting the mutual inductance and putting w = 2f (2f)2 =
1/C(L1+L2+2M) f = 1/2(C(L1+L2+2M))1/2
259. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- 2M+L1+L2 = Leq So f = 1/2(LeqC)1/2
260. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- Equating real term equal to zero
w2(1+hfe)(L1+M)(L2+M) = (L1+M)/C Putting the value of w2 (1+hfe) (L2+M) / LeqC = 1/C So
that Gain hfe = (L1+M)/(L2+M)
261. 7. ADVANTAGES:- 1.The frequency is varied using a variable capacitor . 2. The output
amplitude remains constant over the frequency range . 3. The feedback ratio of the tapped
inductor remains constant .
262. 8. DISADVANTAGES:- 1. Harmonic-rich content of the output . 2. It is not suitable for
a pure sine wave.
263. The Hartley oscillator is extensively used on broadcasting bands.9. APPLICATIONS:-
264. Feed back signal is coupled through the feedback resistor R should be such that when
added amplifier stage input resistance hie it is equal to i.e., R+ hie = R Voltage
shunt feedback is used for a transistor phase shift oscillator .1. CONSTRUCTION :-
265. 2. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
266. The RC network produces a phase shift of 1800 between output and input voltages.
The output of the amplifier is supplied to an RC feedback network . This variation in base
current is amplified in collector circuit . The circuit is set into oscillation by any random or
variation caused in the base current . 3. OPERATION :-
267. The circuit arrangement of a phase shift oscillator using NPN transistor in CE
configuration. RC phase shift network is the frequency determining network. Thus sustained
variation in collector current between saturation and cut-off values are obtained . So CE
amplifier produces a phase reversal of the input signal ,total phase shift becomes 3600 or 00
which is essential for regeneration or for sustained oscillation.
268. 4. H-EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT :- R4 1k C3 1u C1 1u C2 1u + VG1 R1 1k R2 1k R3 1k
269. Making above assumption and replacing current source by equivalent voltage source .
hoe of the transistor is very small 1/hoe is much larger than Rc so the effect of hoe can be
neglected. hre of the transistor is negligibly small so hre Vout omitted from the circuit 5.
FREQUENCY OFOSCILLATION :- Following assumption are made-
270. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- Applying KVL to the three loops, we have
(R+Rc+1/jwC)I1 -RI2 +hfeIbRC=0...(1) -RI1 +(2R+1/jwC) I2 -RIb=0
.(2) 0-RI2 +(2R+1/jwC) Ib=0 (3)
271. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- Substituting 1/wC= Xc (R+Rc-jXc) (-R) (hfeRc) (-
R) (2R-jwC) (-R) =0 0 (-R) (2R-jwC)(R+Rc-jXc) [(2R-jXc)2-R2] +R[(-R) (2R-jXc)- hfeRc(-R)] =
0
272. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- R3+R2Rc(3+hfe)-(5R)Xc2-RcXc2-6jR2Xc-
j4RRcXc+jX3c = 0Equating the imaginary components of the above equation to zero we have or
6R2Xc+4RRcXc-X3c = 0 or Xc = (6R2+4RRc)1/2 XC=1/wC=1/jwfC
273. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION :- 2fc = 1/(6R2+4RRc)1/2 f = 1/2RC (6+4Rc/R)1/2
(if Rc=R) f = 1/2RC(10)1/2 f is frequency of oscillation
274. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION :- Now equating the real components of equation to
zero we have R3+R2Rc(3+hfe)-X2c(5R+Rc) = 0 R3+R2Rc(3+hfe)-(6R2+4RRc)(5R+Rc) = 0
29R3-23R2Rc+hfeR2Rc4RR2c = 0 -29R/Rc-23+hfe-4R/Rc = 0 hfe = 23+ 29R/Rc +4 Rc/R
275. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION :- For the loop gain to be greater than unity, the
requirement of the current gain of the transistor is found to be hfe > 23+ 29R/Rc + 4R/Rc If R =
Rc, then hfe > (23+29+4) hfe > 56
276. Rs 1k Rd 1k T1 2N3369 VccCs 1u R 1k C 1u R 1k C 1u 1.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:- R 1k
C 1u
277. The circuit uses voltage series feedback. The output of the last section is fed back to
the gate of the FET. The circuit consists of a conventional FET common source amplifier
followed by a three section RC phase shift network. 2. CONSTRUCTION:-
278. Hence the total phase shift from the gate around the entire circuit At some particular
frequency the phase shift is 180 . The phase shift network produces additional phase shift
which is a function of frequency . The basic amplifier shift the input voltage at the gate by 180
.3. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATOR:- &back to the gate will be exactly zero.
279. 4. H-EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:- C 1u C 1u C 1u Vi=Vf Rd 1k Vf=Vf rd 1k R 1k R 1k
gmVi R 1k
280. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATOR :-From figure I1R = Vf (i) I2R = I1{R+1/jwC}
I2R = Vf{1+1/jwC}. (ii) I3R = (I1+I2)/jwC + I2R = [Vf/R
+Vf/R{1+1/jwC}]/jwC+Vf{1+1/jwC} = Vf/R[R+ (3+1/jwC)/jwC] .(iii)
281. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- Vo = (I1+I2+I3)/jwC +I3R .. (iv) On
substituting the values of I1,I2&I3 using (i), (ii), (iii) in (iv) :- Vo/Vf = 1 6j/wCR -5/w2C2R2 +
j/w3C3R3 (V)We know -1/ = Vo/Vf = 1-5A2-j(6A A3) (vi)
282. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:- where A= 1/wCR For sustained oscillation A =1
Hence 1-5A2-j(6A A3) = A = A+j0 . (vii) Equating real & imaginary part to 0. 6A - A3 = 0;
283. FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATOR :- A2 = 6 A = (6)1/2Hence w = 1/(6)1/2 CR 2f=
1/(6)1/2 CR f=1/2RC(6)1/2Real part 1-5A2 = A 1-(5*6) = A29 = AA =1Thus=1/29 = hfe
284. It is not suitable for higher frequency operations. For generating different audio-
frequencies It is well suited to the range of frequencies from several hertz to several
kilohertz(20Hz to 200KHz)5. APPLICATION :-
285. They are much simpler than the wein bridge oscillators because it does not need
negative feedback and the stabilization arrangement. They are particularly suitable for low
frequencies. It provides good frequency stability. They have wide frequency range. The
output is sinusoidal that is quite distortion free. It is cheap and simple circuit as it contains
resistor and capacitor. 6. ADVANTAGE :-
286. It is essentially a two stage amplifier with an RC bridge circuit . It needs high voltages
(12V) battery so as to develop sufficiently large feedback voltage. It is difficult for the circuit to
start oscillation as the feedback is usually small. The frequency stability is not as good as that of
wein,s bridge oscillator. The output is small,it is due to smaller feedback.7.DISADVANTAGES
:-
287. The phaseshift across the network lags with increasing frequency and leads with
decreasing frequency. Itis a lead -lag network .
288. 1. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :-
289. 2. CONSTRUCTION :- o It is one of the popular type of oscillator used in audio and
sub-audio frequency ranges (20Hz-20KHz) o Its output is free from distortion and its
frequency can be varied easily. However the maximum frequency output of a typical wein
bridge oscillator is only about 1MHz. o At all other frequency the bridge is off balance (the
voltage feedback and output voltage do not have the correct phase relationship for sustained
oscillation).
290. So bridge circuit can be used as feedback network for an oscillator provided that the
phase shift through the amplifier is zero .
291. 3. OPERATION :- The circuit is set in oscillation by any random change of in base
current of transistor Q1. Base current is amplified in collector circuit of transistor with the
phase shift of 1800 the output of transistor Q1 is fed to the base of second transistor Q1 through
capacitor C4 . The output signal will be in phase with the signal input of the base of transistor
Q1. A part of the output signal at transistor Q2 is feedback to the input point (AC) of the
bridge
292. Feedback signal is applied to emitter resistor R4 where it produces degenerative effect
(-ve feedback).A part of feedback signal is applied across thebase bias resistance R2 where it
producesregenerative effect (or +ve feedback)At the rated frequency,effect of regenerative
ismade slightly more than that of generation so asto obtain sustained oscillation. The
continuous frequency variation in theoscillator can be held by varying the twocapacitors
C1&C2 simultaneously .This capacitor are called variable Air Gang
293. 4. FREQUENCY OFOSCILLATION:-For bridge to be balanced :- Z2Z3 =
Z1Z4Putting value in standard :- R3[R2/1+jwC2R2] = R4(R1-j/wC1) R2*R3=R4
(1+jwC2R2)(R1-jwC1) R2*R3 -R4*R1- (C2/C1 )R2R4 + jwC2R2R1R4 =0Separating real and
imaginary terms we have R2R3-R4R1- (C2/C1 )R2R4 = 0 C2/C1 = R3/R4-R1/R2 R /wC -wC R
R R = 0
294. Thus we see that in a bridge circuit the output will be in phase with the input only when
the bridge is balanced (at resonant frequency).FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATOR :- w =
1/C1C2R1R2 w = 1/(C1C2R1R2)1/2 F = 1/2(R1C1R2C2)1/2 If C1=C2=C and R1=R2=R , then f
= 1/2CR and R3 = 2R4
295. 5. APPLICATION :-1. The wein bridge oscillator is a standarddevice used for
generating a low frequencyin the range of 10Hz to 1MHz.2. All commercial audio generators
makeuse of wein bridge oscillator.
296. 6. ADVANTAGE :- 1. It provides a stable low distortion sinusoidal output over a wide
range of frequency. 2. The frequency range can be selected simply by using decade resistance
boxes. 3.The overall gain is high because of two transistor.
297. Thisis a particular class of oscillator which uses negative resistance element such as
tuned diode, unijunction transistor etc.NEGATIVE RESISTANCEOSCILLATOR
298. 1. INTRODUCTION:- A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the
mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material (ex. quartz,rochellesalt) to
create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to
keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital
integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters.
299. 2. CIRCUITDIAGRAM(BASIC):- U1 HC49S_CY11BS C1 1u R1 1k L1 1m
300. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (VOLTAGESERIES)
301. The voltage feedback signal form the collector to the base in maximum when the crystal
impedance is minimum. Radio frequency coil (RFC) provides for dc bias while decoupling any
ac signal on power lines form affecting the output signal. Capacitor Ce provides ac bypass of
emitter resistor Re . Resistor R1,R2 and Re provide a voltage- divider stabilized dc bias circuit.
(VOLTAGE SERIES)CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
302. The circuit frequency stability is set by the crystal frequency stability, which is good.
Variation in power supply voltage, transistor parameter, etc. have no effect on the circuit
operating frequency which is held stabilized by the crystal The resulting circuit frequency of
oscillation is set by the series resonant frequency of the crystal. The coupling capacitor Cc has
negligible impedance at the circuit operation frequency but block any dc between collector to
base .CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR (VOLTAGESERIES)CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
303. CRYSTAL OSCILLATORCIRCUIT DIAGRAM ( VOLTAGESHUNT)
304. Capacitor C3 provides an ac short circuit R2 to ensure that the transistor base
Transistor NPN combined with R1, R2, RFC and Re constitutes a common base emitter. C1
and C2 form a capacitor voltage divider which returns a portion of the output voltage to the
transistor emitter. Parallel resonant impedance is of a crystal of a maximum value, it is
connected in parallel.CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR (VOLTAGESHUNT)CONSTRUCTION AND
WORKING remain at
305. As the voltage increase positively, the emitter voltage also increases,(VOLTAGE
SHUNT)CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING & The reduction in VBE causes collector
current Ic to diminish,since the base voltage is fixed, the base-emitter voltage is reduce. & this
in turn causes the collector voltage Vc to increase positively. Thus, the circuit is applying its own
input, & a state of oscillation exists.
306. The crystal in parallel with C1CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
(VOLTAGESHUNT)CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING & The oscillation frequency is
stabilized at the parallel resonant frequency of the crystal. At other frequencies, the crystal
impedance is low, and so the resultant feedback voltage is too small to sustain oscillation. C2
permit max. voltage feedback form the collector to emitter when its impedance is maximum, i.e.,
at its parallel resonant frequency.
307. There is no effect of temperature on crystal oscillator. Ct=Cs * Cm/(Cs+Cm) fShunt =
1/2 (LCt)1/2 fseries= 1/2 (LsCs)1/2 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORFREQUENCY OF
OSCILLATOR
308. Different oscillation frequencies can be had by simply replacing one crystal with an-
other. The Q factor , which is measure of the quality of a resonant circuit of a crystal is very
high. The crystal oscillator provides excellent frequency stability. It is very simple circuit as it
does need any tank circuit other than crystal itself.CRYSTAL OSCILLATORADVANTAGE
309. The crystal oscillator are fragile and, therefore, can only be used in low power circuit.
The crystal oscillators have a very limited turning range (or not all). They used for frequencies
exceeding 100KHz. CRYSTAL OSCILLATORDISADVANTAGE
310. Example :- Blocking oscillators.A Relaxation Oscillator is an oscillator in which a
capacitor is charged gradually and then discharged rapidly. Its usually implemented with a
resistor, a capacitor, and some sort of "threshold" device such as a neon lamp, diac, uni junction
transistor, or Gunn diode .RELAXATION OSCILLATOR
311. BLOCKING OSCILLATOR A Blocking Oscillator is the minimal configuration of
discrete electronic components which can produce a free-running signal, requiring only a
capacitor, transformer, and one amplifying component. The name is derived from the fact that
the transistor (or tube) is cut-off or "blocked" for most of the duty-cycle, producing periodic
pulses.
312. BLOCKING OSCILLATORCIRCUIT DIAGRAM
313. Schmitt Trigger Bistable Multivibrators Monostable Multivibrators Astable
Multivibrators Types of Multivibrators Devices used in Multivibrators
IntroductionCONTENTS
314. INTRODUCTION A Multivibrators is an electronic circuit which generates square
wave or other non-sinusoidal waveforms(i.e. square waves, rectangular waves, triangular or saw
tooth waves, etc.).
315. BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM
316. A MV has two-stage amplifier with positivefeedback between two stages. It can be
seenthat output of one amplifier stage is input tothe second stage. So in Multivibrators, each
amplifiersupplies feedback to the other stage in such away that one transistor is driven
intosaturation and the other in to cut-off, i.e. whenone transistor is ON the other is in OFF
stateor vice versa.
317. MULTIVIBRATORS:The two possible states of Multivibrators are :-First state : Q1
ON and Q2 OFFSecond state: Q2 ON and Q1 OFF
318. A Multivibrator switches between these twostates. The condition in which a
Multivibratorremains in one state only indefinitely and doesnot changes its state until it is
triggered by someexternal signal is known as stable state.Otherwise known as quasi-state.
319. (iii) OP Amps.(ii) Negative resistance devices such as UJT, tunnel diode. (i) Active
devices such as electron tubes, BJTs or FETs. DEVICES USED IN MULTIVIBRATORS
Multivibrators use
320. TYPES OF MULTIVIBRATORS
321. BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR The Bistable MV also known as Two ShotMV,
requires application of two trigger pulses toreturn the circuit to its original state. The first
trigger pulse causes the conductingtransistor to be cut-off and the second triggerpulse causes a
transition back to the conductingstate. Because two trigger pulses are required,therefore
Bistable circuit are sometimes calledflip-flop.
322. BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORIn this circuit , both coupling networks provide
dccoupling and no energy storage element is used.USES(a) Storage of binary information.(b)
Counting pulses.(c) Generating of pulse waveform of square waveform.(d) For frequency
division.
323. BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
324. COLLECTOR COUPLED BISTABLEMULTIVIBRATOR Construction:- The circuit
consist of two identical NPN transistor Q1 and Q2 with equal collector resistance RC1 and RC2
and with output of one supplied to the input of other. The forward bias is coupled through each
resistor R1 and R3.R2, R4 and VBB provides fix bias for the base junction.
325. WORKING The multivibrator can be driven from first stable state to another stable
state by applying either a negative trigger pulse to the base of Q1or positive trigger pulse to the
base of Q2
326. WORKING This increase in potential will forward bias the emitter base junction of Q2,
as it is connected to the collector terminal C1 by R3. as a result collector current (IC2) of a
transistor Q2 increases and therefore its collector voltage falls.
327. WORKING The decreases in the collector voltage appears across the emitter base
junction of Q1 where it further reverse biases the emitter base junction of transistor Q1 to make
the collector current (IC1) to fall. After few cycle, Q2 is driven into saturation state and Q1 is in
cut-off state. This is the second stable state to the multivibrator . The circuit will remain now in
second stable state until any trigger pulse is given.
328. Stable state 1:- Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON:-IC2 (sat) =(VCC-VCE (sat))/RC2=
VCC/RC2IB2 (sat)>=IC2 (sat)/bonI3=(VCC-VB2 (ON))/(Rc1+R3)I4=(VB2 (ON)-(-VBB))/R4IB2
(sat)= (VCC-VB2 (ON))/(RC1+R3)-(VB2 (ON)-(-VBB))/R4VB1(OFF)=-[|VBE (CUTOFF)|-VBE
(sat)]VB1(OFF) = (VCE (sat)R2)/(R1+R2)-VBBR1/(R1+R2)
329. Stable state 2 :-Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF:-IC1(sat)=(VCC-VCE (sat))/RC1=
VCC/RC1IB1 (sat)>=IC1 (sat)/bonI1=(VCC-VB1 (ON))/(R1+RC2)I2=(VB1(sat)-(-VBB))/R2IB1
(sat)=I1-I2IB1 (sat)= (VCC-VB1 (ON))/(R1+RC2)-(VB1(sat)-(VBB))/R2VB2
(off)=[|VBE(cutoff)|-VBE (sat)]VB2 (off) = (VCE (sat)R4)/(R3+R4)-VBBR3/(R3+R4)
330. COMMUTATING CAPACITORS Transition Time:- It is define as the time interval
during whichconduction transfer from ON transistor to the OFFtransistor. Usually, it is
desirable that the transitionshould be small and the transition should require afinite amount of
trigger energy.
331. COMMUTATING CAPACITORS Transition time may be reduced byintroducing the
binary capacitances Cm1 andCm2in shunt with the coupling resistor R1 and R2respectively.
These capacitors speed up thetransition from OFF state to ON state. Hencethese capacitor are
known as speed upcapacitor or commutating capacitor ortranspose capacitor. The main
purpose of these capacitors is toimprove the switching characteristics of thecircuit by passing
high frequency component ofsquare wave.
332. RESOLVING TIME:- The minimum time interval between twoconsecutive trigger
pulse is known as resolvingtime.Delay time, D=0.693RC where, R=>Resistance C=>Capacitance
333. TYPES OF MULTIVIBRATOR:-(c)Self Biased Transistor MV(d)JFET Bistable MV
334. NUMERICAL:Question:-Design a BMV who has two o/p as 0 and 10v;givenIcMAX =
25mA, = 100, VCE(ON) = VBE(ON) = 0 &voltage of -1v is required to reverse bias
thetransistor & VBE(OFF) = -10v ?
335. Solution:-Given that:VCC = 10vVBE(ON)=VCE(ON) = 0 = 100VBB = -1VVBE(OFF)
= -10VTo Find :-All the parameters which are required forthe circuiti.e. R1,R2,R3,R4,Rc1,Rc2 .
336. Calculation:Q1 is off and Q2 is on:-IB2 sat>=IC2 sat/on =25/100 mA =0.25 mAIC2 sat
=(VCC-VCE sat)/RC2= VCC/RC2 RC2 =(10*1000)/25 =400
337. VB2 off = (VCE satR4)/(R3+R4)-VBBR3/(R3+R4)VB2 off = R3/(R3+R4)-10 =
R1/(R1+R2)R2 = -11R1/10R1=35.9 KR2 = -11*35.9/10 =39.4 K
339. BLOCKING OSCILLATORWORKING This voltage applied to base of transistor.
Thus Ic isfurther increased due to increase in FB to base-emitterjunction. The transistor is
quickly driven intosaturation. Now capacitor is charged and ive chargeon the base of transistor
which RB the base-emitterjunction. Thus the transistor is driven cut-off. The transistorremains
at cut-off, as capacitor now commencesdischarge.
340. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORIt is also called a single swing, or delay MV.In this
circuit, one coupling network provides accoupling while the other provides dc coupling. It has
only one stable (stand by) state and onequasi stable state.
341. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS The circuit remains in its stable state until a
triggering signal causes a transition to the quasi stable state. Then after a time T, the circuits
return to its stable state.
342. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS As only one triggering signal is required to
induces a transition from a stable state to quasi- stable and the circuit returns to its initial stable
automatically after a definite period, it is called single-shot MV.
343. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORApplication(1)This MV is employed for
generating clean andsharp pulses from distorted, old pulses.(2) The falling part of the
monostable multivibratoroutput is often used for triggering another pulsegenerator circuit thus
producing a pulse delayedby a time T with respect to the input pulse.
344. CONSTRUCTION:- It consists of two identical transistor Q1 and Q2 of N-P-N type.
Output of Q1 is coupled to base of Q2 by capacitor C. Q1 is reversed biased due to power supply
VBB. While Q2 will be in ON state, because base potential required for Q2 is supplied through
VCC by R continuously. So initially in stable state Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON .
345. COLLECTOR-COUPLED MMVCIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
346. CONSTRUCTION:-Capacitor C charges to VCC through RC1 and basecurrent of Q2 ,
then this current stops flowing. Socapacitor C is completely charged to VCC with leftplate
positive. Cm is a commutating capacitor orspeed up capacitor which provided to improve
theswitching characteristics of the circuit.
347. WORKINGWhen the positive trigger is applied to the base ofQ1 transistor through the
capacitor C2 the basevoltage of Q1 increases and it starts conducting .Thus Q1 starts conducting
and the potential ofcollector of Q1 comes down to ground.Since charge on capacitor C cannot
disappearinstantly, the voltage across the capacitor plates ismaintained.
348. WORKINGAs the capacitor discharges the negative bias isapplied to the base of Q2 and
Q2 is cutoff. Thecollector of Q2 rises towards VCC and is nowcapable of supplying base current
of Q1 through itsbase resistance R1. thus transistor Q1 remainstuned On after the positive spike
from thetransistor Q1 is removed.
349. WORKINGStage 1:- stable state:- In stable state Q1 is off and Q2 is on.(A) when Q2 is
ON:-VC2 sat = vCE satIC2 sat = (VCC VCE2 sat )/ RC2 = VCC/ RC2 (VCE2sat = 0)IB2on >=
IC2 sat /bon = (VCC-VBE sat)/RVB2ON = VBEON = VBE sat
350. WORKING(A) when Q1 is OFF:-VC1 OFF = VCCVB1OFF = (-VBBR1+VCE
satR2)/(R1+R2)VB1off <= -0.5to -1V neglecting VCE satVB1OFF = -VBBR1/(R1+R2)
351. Q1 IS ON Q2 IS OFF:-
352. STAGE 2(A):- Q1 IS ON:-VC1sat = VCE sat = 0IC1sat = (VCC-VCE sat)/ RC1 =
VCC/RC1IB1sat >= IC1sat/bonVB1sat = VBE satI1 = (VCC-VBE sat)/(RC2+R1)I2 = (VBE sat-
(-VBB))/R2IB1sat = I1-I2
353. WORKING:-V(t) = Vin+(Vf-Vin)e-t/t(V (t)-Vin)/(Vf-V in) = e-t/t(V f-V in)/(V (t)-Vin) =
et/tAt t = TV(t) = Vl (cut in voltage)V f= VCC and Vin= (VBE sat-VCC+VCE sat)
354. WORKING:-(VCC-(VBE sat-VCC+VCE sat))/ (Vl- (VBE sat -VCC+VCEsat))= e-t/tAt
VBE sat=0.7V VCE sat =0.3VVCC-(0.7-VCC+0.3) / Vl-(0.7-VCC+0.3)=e-t/tSolving the equation
(V l=0.5)2= et/t t=t ln2 T=0.693RC
355. NumericalQuestion:-Design a monostable multivibrator which gives apulse duration of
10ms & a height of 10v when ittriggered for transistor to be used
;=125,vce(on)=vbe(on)=0,reverse bias of 1v isrequired to turn off the transistor
vbe(off)=10vicmax =20mA
356. Solution:-Given that:=125vce(on)=vbe(on)=0Vbe(off)=1v vbb=10v icmax
=20mAt=10msLet us assume that T1 OFF T2-ON
357. IC2 sat=(VCC VCE2 sat )/ RC2 = VCC/ RC2 =10/20mA=1000/2=500IB2on>= IC2 sat
/bon =20/125=16mA(VCC-VBE sat)/R=16mA R=10/16=62.5kVB1OFF= -VBBR1/(R1+R2) 1= -
10/(R1+R2) R2=-11R1
358. In Next Clock Pulse WhenT1-ONT2-OFFI1=(VCC-VBE sat)/(RC2+R1)I2=(VBE sat-(-
VBB))/R2IB1sat=I1-I2 = (VCC-VBE sat)/(RC2+R1) -(VBE sat-(-VBB))/R2
359. 0.6mA=10/500+R1-1/r2R1=33.7KR2=11*33.7KT=0.693RC10ms =.693*62.5*C
C=0.23F
361. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR In an astable MV , both coupling network provide ac
coupling through coupling capacitors. It has no stable state. The two states had by the astable
MV are quasi-states The astable MV , therefore, makes successive transition from one quasi-
state to the other one after a predetermined time interval, without the aid of an external
triggering signal.
362. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
363. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR Since its output oscillates in between off and on states
freely, it is called a free-running MV. Frequency of oscillation; f=0.7/RC
364. TYPES OF AMV:-2) Asymmetrical astable Multivibrator3) Symmetrical Astable
Multivibrator4) Saturating Astable Multivibrator5) Non Saturating Astable Multivibrator:-6)
Voltage Controlled Astable Multivibrator:-
365. COLLECTOR COUPLED SATURATING ASTABLEMULTIVIBRATOR:-
366. Capacitor Cb1 connects the output of transistor Q1 to the base terminal of the
transistor Q2. Capacitors Cb1 and Cb2 are the coupling capacitors. Resistors Rc1 and Rc2 are
the collector circuit resistors.COLLECTOR COUPLED SATURATING
ASTABLEMULTIVIBRATOR:-
367. COLLECTOR COUPLED SATURATING ASTABLEMULTIVIBRATOR:-Resistor
RB1 and RB2 provides the ON state basecurrents to the transistors Q1 and Q2
respectivelyduring the saturation region. For a symmetricalastable MV, we should have RB1=
RB2, Cb1= Cb2and Rc1= Rc2.
368. WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:-Let at time instant t=0, the power supply voltageVcc
get applied abruptly. Then in a symmetricalastable multi, due to slight mismatch, let thecurrent
Ic1 flowing in transistor Q1 be slightly morethan the current Ic2 in transistor Q2. Hence the
rateof Vc1 at collector Cb1 of Q1 is greater than of Vc2 atcollector of Q2.
369. WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:- For the transients, the capacitor act as short- circuit
and the voltage across them cannot change instantaneously. Hence the drop in collector voltage
of Q1 from the initial value Vcc to Vc1 (Vc1< Vcc) makes the voltage of transistor Q2 to reduce
by the same amount.
370. WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:- This negative increment in the voltage at the base of
transistor Q2 reduce the conduction current and cause increase in the collector voltage Vc2
thereby making it move towards Vcc.
371. WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:- This increase in Vc2 gets transferred through
capacitor Cb1 to the base of the transistor Q1 making its voltage more positive thereby
increasing the conduction in Q1. Increased conduction in Q1 further reduces the collector
voltage Vc1 which in turn causes further reduction in voltage of base of transistor Q2.
372. WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:- Thus a regenerative or positive feedback action with
loop gain greater than unity sets in. As a result, the above mentioned sequence of operation
occur instantaneously causing the transistor Q1 to go into saturation and transistor Q2 to go
into OFF region.
373. WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT:-Thus when astable MV is switched, we have the
following condition:(i) Transistor Q1 is in saturation region.(ii) Transistor Q2 is in OFF region.
374. LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WITH Q1 IN SATURATIONAND Q2 OFF
375. CIRCUIT CONDITION FOR TRANSISTOR Q1 INSATURATION REGION VC1(0)
=VCE sat IC1 sat=(VCC-VCE sat)/RC1 = vcc /RC1 (vCEsat=0) VB1ON >=VBEON =VBESat
IB1ON=(Vcc VBE Sat )/RB1 IB1ON >=IC1Sat / bON VB20ff=-VCC+VBEon VCEoff = VCC-
VCEsat
376. CIRCUIT CONDITION FOR TRANSISTOR Q1 INSATURATION REGION For
silicon transistor Q1, the base voltage should be about 0.7v. With collector to-emitter
saturation voltage VCE=0.2v,this base voltage of 0.7v will forward bias both the emitter and the
collector junctions.
377. CIRCUIT CONDITION FOR TRANSISTOR Q1 INSATURATION REGIONOn
making the simplifying assumption that thetransistor Q1 is ideal .For large Vcc,Vc1(0)=0v
IC1sat=VCC /RC1For large VBB ,VB1ON=0v IB1ON= Vcc /RB1
378. CIRCUIT CONDITION FOR TRANSISTOR Q 2 INOFF REGION:- VB2OFF (0+)=-
VCC+VB2on IC2(0)=0 VC2 (OFF)=VCC-VCE (sat)=VCC
379. CIRCUIT BEHAVIOUR IN QUASI STABLE STATE:CHARGING OF CAPACITOR
CB2 (0<T<T1 ):- The time interval 0<t<t1 , the voltage across capacitor Cb2 rises fromVB2
OFF(0) towards Vcc. The charging path of capacitor Cb2 is shown figure.
380. LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WITH Q2 INSATURATION AND Q1 OFF
381. LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WITH Q2 IN SATURATIONAND Q1 OFF VCE
sat of transistor Q1 to be negligible .At any time t, the expression for voltage on capacitor Cb2
or VB2 OFF(t) may be written:- VB2 OFF (t) = Vcc +[VB2 OFF(0)- Vcc ]e-t/Rc2CB2
382. LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WITH Q2 INSATURATION AND Q1 OFF During
the quasi stable state ,capacitor Cb2 charges towards VBB through resistor RB2.At the time
instant t=t1, the instantaneous base voltage of Q2 equals VB2on and Q2 enters conduction .
Figure shows the variations of voltageVB2.Thus we have:-
383. LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WITH Q2 INSATURATION AND Q1 OFF VB2
ON=VB2()+[VB2 OFF(0)-VB2()]e-t1/RB2CB2 But VB2off(0)=-VCC+VB2 ON And VB2()=
Vcc Hence on solving for time interval t1 we get :- t1=RB2CB2In[(Vcc +(VCC-VB2 ON))/ Vcc -
VB2 ON]
384. LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WITH Q2 IN SATURATIONAND Q1 OFF We
assume that VCE sat<<VCC and VB2on<<VBB. hence voltage VCE sat and VB2on may be
neglected.so above equation gets reduces as given below:- t1=0.693RB2Cb2.
385. BEHAVIOUR AT TIME INSTANT T=T1At time instant t=t1 transistor Q2 enters
intoconduction. The collector voltage of Q2 begins tofall. This falling collector voltage of Q2
getscommunicated to the base of transistor Q1 by acapacitor Cb2 consequently the conduction
of Q1reduces resulting in the increase of collectorvoltage of Q1
386. BEHAVIOUR AT TIME INSTANT T=T1This increase in collector voltage of Q1
iscommunicated to the base of Q2 via capacitor Cb2increasing the conduction of Q2 .This
processcontinuous and Q2 goes into saturation while Q1goes OFF instantaneously.
387. CIRCUIT BEHAVIOUR DURING QUASI ASTABLESTATE(T1<T<T2):-During this
time period capacitor Cb1 charges fromVB1 OFF(0) towards Vcc analogously. At the
timeinstant t=t2 the instantaneous base voltage is VB1ONwhich brings Q1 into conduction.
388. CIRCUIT BEHAVIOUR DURING QUASI ASTABLESTATE(T1<T< Assuming that
VCE sat (t2-t1)=RB1Cb1In[((VCC +(VCC-VB1ON))/(Vcc -VB1ON)] The time interval (t2-t1)
may then be expressed as:-T2):-<<VCC and VB1ON<< (t2-t1)=0.693RB1Cb1 equation
reduces to the following simple form:-Vcc the
389. TIME PERIOD:-The time periods T is the sum of periods t1 and (t2-t1).thus:- T =
0.693[RB1Cb1+RB2Cb2]For symmetrical multivibrator, we have RB1=RB2=RB say
Cb1=Cb2=C sayThen eq. reduces to the following form:- T=1.38RbCb f=1/T f=0.72/RC
390. from above eqn. we see that the time period ofastable multivibrator is independent of
the supplyvoltage, temperature and junction voltages. Duty cycle: =t1/T=t2/T = TIME IN
WHICH CAPACITORCHARGES/ TOTAL TIME PERIOD
391. NUMERICAL:-Q. Design a astable multivibrator whichgenerates a waveform of
prf(pulserepetition frequency) 50khz & duty cycle of60% of height 10v icmax=20mA,=100.
392. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORSolution:- Given that f=50KHZ Duty cycle =60%
Vcc=10V =100 Icmax=20mA
393. Formula to be usedRc=Vcc(max) / Ic(max)IB(sat)=Ic(sat) / RB1=Vcc-VBE/IonDuty
cycle=t1/T=t2/tT=1/fT=t1+t2t1=0.693R1C1t2=0.693R2C2
394. Rc=Vcc(max)/Ic(max) = 10/20mA Rc=500 IB(sat)=IC(sat)/ IB(sat)=20mA/100
IB(sat)=0.2mA RB1=Vcc-VBE/Ion RB1= 10V-0/.2mA=50K Duty cycle=t1/T
395. T=1/50Kt1=12 sT=t1+t21/50K-0.12s=t2t2=8st1=0.693R1C1C1=12
/0.693*50KC1=346pFC2=8 /0.693*50KC2=230pF
396. Robotics FM Demodulation Signal Regeneration Squaring circuit Flip flop circuit.
Amplitude comparator APPLICATION:- & Frequency SynthesizerRadio control
397. SCHMITT TRIGGER CIRCUIT
398. It is a device that generates squareSCHMITT TRIGGER & (II) Feedback from
output of transistor Q2 to transistor Q1 is achieved through Re. (I) In schmitt trriger base of
transistor is kept open. It has two stable state (one high, other low) It is bistable
multivibrator.rectangular waveforms.
399. OPERATION OF SCHMITT TRIGGER As input voltage Vin increases from zero(Q1
off, Q2 on) output voltage V0=Vcc-Ic2Rc2, and when input voltage reachesV1,output suddenly
rises to Vcc as Q2 become off and Q1 remains on,if Vin is increased beyond V1 circuit remains
in stable state(i.e. Q1 on and Q2 off) but if Vin decreases,during negative half cycle then when it
reaches to V2 the circuit makes as abrupt change i.e. Q1 off and Q2 on. V0=Vin-Ic2Rc2 again.
400. Forward biases. Slightly the transistor Q2 and , therefore Q2 starts conducting . The
transistor Q1 is now reverse biased due to flow of current in emitter resistor RE from Q2.
When the power supply is switched on for the first time, R3, R1 and R2 forming a potential
divider across VCC and VBB.SCHMITT TRIGGER AS A FLIP FLOP
401. SCHMITT TRIGGER AS A FLIP FLOP Thus the Q1 goes to cut off. As a result the
potential of Q1 collector rises to VCC. This positive going signal appears across the emitter base
junction of transistor Q2, as it is connected to terminal C1 by R1, and drives transistor Q2 into
saturation and holds there . Thus in the initial static condition of the Schmitt trigger circuit;
transistor Q1, is in cut off and Q2 is in saturation
402. SCHMITT TRIGGER AS A FLIP FLOP Now when the input ac signal (say positive
going) is applied to the base of transistor Q1 ,if it is to sufficient strength to overcome the
reverse bias placed on the base of Q1, due to voltage drop across emitter resistor RE, the Q1 is
forward biased.
403. Withreduced emitter current voltage drop across emitter resistor RE falls and
therefore reverse bias placed on the Q1 due to it decreases and Now Q1 start conducting , its
collector terminal C1 potential drops, this negative going signal coupled to the base of transistor
Q2 via resistor R1 reduces its forward bias and consequently emitter current.SCHMITT
TRIGGER AS A FLIP FLOP
404. SCHMITT TRIGGER AS A FLIP FLOP Q1 starts conducting more. As a result
collector Voltage of Q1 drops further and therefore Q2 is further driven to cutoff at the end Q1
goes into saturation and Q2 goes into cutoff. After half a cycle of the input signal, when the
input signal to the base of transistor Q1 is negative going Q1 becomes reverse biased, its
collector current drops and therefore its collector terminal potential rises
405. SCHMITT TRIGGER AS A FLIP FLOP As a result the transistor Q2 is forward
biased, it starts conducting again, emitter current increase voltage drop resistor RE increases
and therefore the Q1 in further reversed biased, at the end Q2 comes into saturation and Q1
come into cutoff.
406. Flip flop circuit. Amplitude comparator Squaring circuitAPPLICATION:-
407. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCHMITTTRIGGER AND BI STABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR:- SCHMITT TRIGGER BISTABLE MULTI VIBRATOR 1.It is a square
wave 1.It is a square wave or any generator. non sinusoidal wave 2.V(in) is applied in it.
generator. 3.We do not apply 2.V(in) is not applied in it. external triggering pulse 3.We have to
apply external in it. triggering pulse in it. 4.Re resistance is there 4.There is no Re resistance. in
Schmitt trigger.
408. SCHMITT TRIGGER BI STABLE MULTIVIBRATOR5.Feedback from Q2 is 5. In bi
stable it is not likeobtained through that.resistance R2 6. In bi stable both are connected.6.In it
output of 1 is stconnected to base of2nd transistor butOutput of 2nd is notconnected to base
of1st .
409. HYSTERESIS IN SCHMITT TRIGGER:-In the non-inverting configuration, when the
input ishigher than a certain chosen threshold, the output ishigh; when the input is below a
different (lower)chosen threshold, the output is low; when the input isbetween the two, the
output retains its value. Thetrigger is so named because the output retains itsvalue until the
input changes sufficiently to trigger achange. This dual threshold action is calledhysteresis, and
implies that the Schmitt trigger hassome memory
410. Fig.:-Schmitt trigger using OP-AMP
411. Hysteresis H=UTP-LTP= 2b Vsat The upper trip point has a value: UTP= b Vsat =
R2/(R2 + R 1) VsatThe lower trip point has a value: LTP= - b Vsat = - b R2/(R2 +R1 ) Vsat The
feedback fraction, b =R2 /(R2 + R1)The trip point are defined as the two input voltages where
the output changes its states.FORMULAE:-
412. NUMERICALQuestion:-Derive a Schmitt trigger given that VUTP=5v and VLTP= -5v
What is hysteresis voltage?
413. Solution:-Given that:-VUTP = 5vV LTP = -5vAssume thatVsat =10vnow by solving
equations for VUTP and VLTP we get10R1/ R1+ R 2 =5 hysteresis voltage =VUTP-VLTP=5+5=
10v
414. Gopal Kumar Roy Deepak Kumar Maru Bhawna Kaushik Bhawani Singh Kanawat
Jogendra AjmeraMULTIVIBRATOR:- Hemant Bhawariya Dilip Kumawat Diggujawal
KumarS UBM TTED BY- IOSCILLATOR-

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