Sensor Recycling and Reuse

International Journal of Sensor and Related Networks (IJSRN)
Volume 1,Issue1 , February 2013

http://ijsrn.info/article/IJSRNV1I102.pdf

Sensor Recycling and Reuse
Ioannis Deliyannis
#

#
Department of Audio and Visual Arts, Ionian University
Plateia Tsirigoti 7, Corfu, Greece
1
yiannis@ionio.gr

Abstract The concepts of sensor recycling and re-use offer a
new developmental methodology for both centralised and
network-based interactive multimedia systems and multimedia
art applications. This work formalises the proposed
methodology, researches common issues that appear when reuse
or recycling of sensing devices is introduced and discusses its
application within physical interactive systems. It becomes
apparent that the high system development costs typically
introduced in the visual arts domain can clearly be reduced via
the use of alternative recycled and reused sensing devices. A
number of interactive new-media art systems case studies are
presented to demonstrate its flexibility, economy and ecological
advantages. This work aims to render sensor re-use a design
choice that offers an alternative and inexpensive approach from
the theoretical, engineering and artistic perspectives in various
sensor-driven interactive multimedia systems.

Keywords interaction; sensors; recycled sensors; sensor reuse;
inexpensive sensors; interactive sensor-based applications;
interactive multimedia art.
I. INTRODUCTION
This research lies within the area of sensor
development for interactive multimedia systems
and focuses on the development of sensing devices
used to interact with physical user-input. Typical
candidate systems include installation-art and
computer-based multimedia applications that
capture user input, process, manipulate and trigger
interactive responses. Under complex systems, the
use of commercial sensing solutions can
significantly increase the cost of development,
while the use of proprietary communication
interfaces between sensing components and the
main application system may limit the flexibility to
employ open multimedia authoring systems. On the
other hand various commercial [1] or open source
[2-4] software and hardware-based environments
are available today enabling alternative sensing
devices to be de-composed and/or be re-
programmed in order to implement the desired end-
system sensing functionality. From our research [5]
and practical experience [6] we know that it is
possible to develop sensors via recycling and reuse
of computer-based input devices and network
technologies [7]. The process of sensing
replacement and reuse methodology offers a highly
desirable developmental solution that via the
analysis of practical and theoretical complexities
that affect the performance and the quality of
experience for the user manages to propose
alternative sensing configurations. The proposed
method introduces a classification mechanism
employed for each sensing mechanism in order to
identify its performance and hence its suitability for
the task in hand. Typical data collected for each
device include the sampling resolution, rate,
frequency, data rate, communication interface and
further processing requirements in order for the
sensing output to become accessible by the main
application algorithm. It is therefore important to
research the literature for appropriate frameworks
and methodologies in order to identify related
approaches and methods that may be employed
constructively to address the current research
problem.
A. LITERATURE RESEARCH
New media art systems are classified under
information systems [8]. This implies that their
functions (input, processing, output) can be
specified using standard engineering techniques and
methods [9-11]. As we are only concerned with the
interaction forefront of the end-system or
application, our research focuses on interaction-
based classification. Interactive systems have
evolved over the years and their main characteristic
is the increase of their functional complexity [9, 12].
This is reflected to the user by the availability of
advanced interactive system functions. Similarly to
experimental multimedia systems [12], the
development of self-adapting [13] and component-
8


based [14] systems is limited to software and
theoretical adaptation of existing processes. As end-
system functions are deterministic and precisely
specified by computer coding, a reversed
engineering approach similar to that introduced by
Taylor is followed in this work: if the analyst
accepts that the analysis will only be valid for a
particular target system then the specification of the
system can be used to infer the behaviour of the
software that interacts with it [15]. This can be
used to reduce represent system complexity using
the actual functional components (hardware and
software) that are active in end-system, a strategy
that may be recursively applied to identify only the
subset of functional system components for a given
sensing specification.
In the area of interactive art, despite the fact that
creators and End-User Software Engineers (EUSE)
face similar interdisciplinary problems [16], limited
bibliography and few real-life examples may be
accessed publically. This is attributed to the fact
that most artists and developers do not reveal their
techniques openly and each participating group of
experts may employ inherently distinct professional
methodologies during the design and development
the process. Artists make extended use of more
creative and non-formalised processes (sketches,
storyboards, diagrams, often employing other
systems as examples for reference). Engineers
choose systematic approaches through the use of
CASE tools [11] in order to produce precise
specifications at early stages of development and
predict accurately completion time, cost and risks.
Research in interactive multimedia technologies
moves towards the area of sense-enhancement.
According to Hansen, interactive multimedia art is
widely recognised as an enhanced creative tool
that appeals to wider audiences more than
traditional forms of Art [17]. Artists active in the
area of new media arts appreciate the capabilities
offered by multimedia technologies and
demonstrate increased interest in the development
of multimedia artwork enabling the transfer of
emotions, experiences, feelings and messages to the
audience. From the scientific forefront this is
clearly aided by the introduction of multimedia
frameworks (MPEG-21). Within certain interactive-
art installations the dividing line between virtual art
and real life becomes blurred [18]. As a
consequence to that, standards for human
interchange with virtual worlds (MPEG-V) are
being established [19-24]. The role of authoring
tools is quite important as they abstract the media-
handling processes, offering automate repetitive
programming tools. Artists focus on interactive
programming in their attempt to compose unique
adaptive artworks featuring advanced sensory
experiences [20] that appeal to a wider audience
ranges. It is apparent that interactive multimedia
research benefits as well as a whole from the
application of technologies in highly demanding
projects which often feature increased processing,
communication, interfacing, interaction and sense-
enhancing requirements [12, 25].
Belucci et. al introduced in 2012 a framework for
rapid prototyping of physical interaction, which
consists of a hardware-based abstraction toolkit
[26]. Other researchers utilise generalised
engineering approaches, tools and techniques for
complex systems specification that present high-
order methodologies in order developers to grasp,
analyse and address specific problems efficiently
[27]. Alternative approaches study partial system
failure options where they recognise that when risk
reduction is part of the system mechanics increases
system efficiency [28], and this is a direction that
clearly may aid under a sensor replacement
approach. Various interesting practical approaches
need to be pointed out as they include the
development of attention-aware systems [29],
application data to application logic linking [30],
content-context sensing for mobile applications [31],
semantic interpretation [32] and inexpensive
developmental approaches [33]. In the case study
forefront typical paradigms involve human-body
interaction [34], robotics [35] and examples where
reprogramming and reuse of existing sensing
devices such as the Wii-controller (Nintendo
Wiimote) are used to develop systems that offer
gesture recognition [36]. From various models that
deal with complex systems, PSM are considered as
the most appropriate for our purpose: Phantom
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System Models (PSM), a modeling methodology
inspired by philosophical and conceptual thinking
from the arts, and is driven and supported by
systems engineering theory, methodology, and
practice [37].
Chapter II examines the problem in hand from
the perspective of the developer and the artist and
proposes the new methodology. Chapter III presents
a number of case studies where via the use of
examples the applicability of the method is tested.
Chapter IV concludes the work by discussing
further research directions.
II. INTRODUCING THE RECYCLED SENSOR REPLACEMENT
METHODOLOGY
The lack of specification methods that focus on
sensor-based new media art systems is evident from
our literature review. It is clear that in order to
capture the specification essence for any given
system, the proposed methodology needs to address
and capture software, hardware and quality of
experience issues. New media arts systems
specification is a complex task due to a number of
interrelated issues: the complexity of the hardware
components output, sensor-based data interface
linking to the main application software
environment and the overall configuration as a
system. Therefore the problem of sensor
replacement may clearly be addressed as a complex
system beyond its relation to the sensing process,
may also affect all other factors: end-system
performance, quality of representation,
communication, software and hardware issues.
System complexity may expressed algebraically
[38], experimentally [39], through models [40] or
discretely [41]. We choose to express it abstractly
using the notion of dimensions in order to
describe using a universal notion the functional
complexities. For this purpose we consider the end-
system as one or more applications (A
1
to A
n
) and a
number of sensing inputs (S
1
to S
n
).
The dimensionality of the representation relates
directly to sensing complexity. A one-dimensional
representation is used to represent a single value
that a sensor S
1
detects and the routine
communicates to the main application A
1
. The
value may be multi-typed ranging from a Boolean
value to a numerical value such as distance,
velocity, acceleration, direction, humidity or
temperature. When two one-dimensional sensors
are combined in order the sensing component or the
software to produce the required data for the
evaluation process, the complexity increases to two-
dimensions. A sensor may also produce two-
dimensional output types. For example one may
consider the typical matrix data type produced by a
camera that captures a two-dimensional image.
Using the sensing information as the basic building
block for each sensing device one may then
combine various sensors into systems that require
higher-order sensing complexity. A system with N
d

sensing dimensions requires N
0
sensors according
to the following equation:

The above representation enables the
development of an open-ended methodology in
terms of functional and technical characteristics.
The developer can use it to measure and contrast a
systems sensing complexity to that of other
systems, or as a sensor-selection method enabling
the design of an efficient system from scratch. In
the case of complex systems with n-dimensions of
sensing, it is possible to model the complexity
algorithmically [42]. Automation of the comparison
process can be implemented using the methodology
in the form of a computer program or database
containing the necessary information. This may in
turn be used to run specific queries that output
possible design options using multiple designer-
based criteria.
The issue of temporal sensor-based dimensions
does not always increase complexity, as the whole
process is deterministic. This does not imply that
time cannot affect the sensing quality of the process
and developers are urged to take great care in order
to specify the minimum temporal requirements for
each sensing process. For example, when a frame
differencing motion-detection algorithm is
employed, the picture elements of two images
10


captured at time-states t
0
and t
1
are numerically
compared in order to detect movement, by detecting
the changes between the images taken at t
1
and t
0
.
Under this scenario, temporal system behaviour is
part of the detection process which is completed
with the comparison of the image elements. If the
developer does not set a minimum frame-rate
requirement for the application in hand, the sensing
complexity of cameras with a lower frame-rate is
equal to those with better performance. In other
words, when temporal information is essential for
the process, it is treated as another dimension to
the sensor complexity representation.
Network issues are also categorised under
temporal-based dimensions. In that respect, network
efficiency is calculated across the communications
chain between the sensor and the controlling
application and its suitability is assessed based on
its end-to-end performance.
A. Generalisation of the Recycled Sensor Replacement (RSR)
Methodology
The plethora of digital to analogue and digital to
digital sensing devices that are commonly available
today and combine sensing and data interfacing
features is constantly increasing. Mobile phones,
cameras, keyboards, mice, joysticks, scanners,
hands-free microphones, track pads, barcode
readers and many more allow creative flexibility to
interactive multimedia system developers and
artists who wish to cover the interaction
requirements of their projects using efficient and
inexpensive hardware that may be recycled
specifically for this purpose. The key issue here is
not only to cover the functional requirements but to
also provide an pleasant experience that suits the
systems aesthetics. Therefore often there is a need
for artists to cooperate with developers [11], in
order to overcome practical and technological
difficulties [43] and view the process from the
artists perspective [44]. In some instances,
developers may require to merge software
components and allow networked sensing platforms
to communicate and exchange data in order to
achieve the desired effect [45]. It is common for
projects that combine novelty with new
experimental multimedia technologies and content
to require non-conventional engineering approaches.
These difficulties are addressed by the proposed
methodology as it is designed in a modular way that
deals with each component separately, and the end-
system encapsulates other sub-systems, as each of
which serves a highly important role in the process
[46]. This work proposes a software/hardware
selection process based on the project needs and
system compatibilities that the developer may use
as a guide in order to obtain the intended system-
functionality. This is clearly a multi-dimensional
problem that is examined further in order to reduce
the problems complexity and allow effortless
component comparison to be implemented. The
propose Recycled Sensor Replacement (RSR)
methodology described below presents developers
with a method that allows identification of the best
combination of software and hardware for their
intended purpose. This is implemented directly by
categorising the parameters of importance for a
candidate system and by excluding inappropriate or
less efficient components automatically. To state
this through a generalised example from the system
developers perspective, the selection of appropriate
software and hardware system components from the
list of all available components is filtered using the
following query:

find the least number of authoring environments
that:
i. can be combined in order to present the
new-media-art content to specification
and
ii. can handle the interaction mechanisms and
iii. the developer knows or can learn how to
link and program.

Then for each of those systems that require
sensor-based interaction mechanisms:
a. find the appropriate sensors that
meet the minimum physical
requirements (resolution, refresh-
rate, data transfer rate over the
interface etc.) and
b. present them in an order that places
first those that interface with the
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system with least and less important
complications.

Clearly system designers must refine further the
above query in order to suit their purposes. For
example in the case one does not need to combine
different authoring environments, queries (i) and (ii)
can be ignored. Or in the case where there exist
multiple repositories covering a large percentage of
the requirements under a system, this may be
entered in the sequence as a fourth (iv) query,
enabling further refinement for the environment
through re-programming and refinement of existing
code segments [3]. In the case where the complex
solution of intercommunication between separate
systems, network-based communication
components will have to be utilised in order to
establish a communication protocol across the
applications, this should be considered in both (a)
and (b) cases. Finally, one may notice that the
sensing complexity is not part of the selection
procedure. This is intentional as conversely to the
algorithmic computer science definition, complex
sensing solutions are not always considered worse
or underperforming, as long as they meet the
minimum physical requirements set in (a) for a
candidate system. Case study III.B presents a
characteristic example.
As one may notice from the above definition, the
RSR methodology functions between the interactive
units (entities) of the system, by matching and
linking the communicated data across the building
components of the system. This may be shown
using a diagram presented in Figure 1, where the
application receives input from either routine A or
B. A sensing entity (routine A or B) combines
software, hardware and data interface components
and evaluation routines necessary to collect, process
and broadcast the data and interfaces with the main
application algorithm.

Fig. 1 Replacement of sensing mechanisms for the same application
Inherently this implies that should the issue of
exchanging an entity with another arises, this may
implemented by switching the input from one
sensor evaluation routine to another. Various
developments may be triggered by this modular
organisation for both hardware and software
components. First each entity encapsulates all the
components required for it to function properly.
Only the output data need to be exchanged with the
main application algorithm, permitting an out-of-
the-box experience for those that experiment with
ready-made libraries, a process that leads to both
software and hardware recycling. Another
advantage is that such organisation may later on
enable automatic testing of components without
human intervention. Furthermore, functional and
tested entities may be exchanged in order to test
their suitability in a variety of inputs.
The interdisciplinary value of the proposed
methodology needs to be mentioned at this point, as
its use may be extended to a wide area of
applications. Interest is evident in multiple
forefronts that include creative [47], academic [48]
and military applications such as the Adaptable
Sensor System (ADAPT) developed by DARPA in
the US [49]. Related engineering processes may be
traced in the literature [50, 51] that specify the
12


increased interaction needs between participating
developing parties. Some view the problem from
the user perspective and specify systems by
considering the human factors introduced in the
design and development process [50]. Clearly as
sensing problems become more complex for
example with the introduction of Experimental
Multimedia [12], it becomes apparent that there is
a wider need to clearly specify the sensor
mechanics and factors that can affect the
developmental process from multiple perspectives:
the artist, the developer and the audience.
III. SENSOR REPLACEMENT AND REUSE CASE STUDIES
Today, various computer-based interactive
multimedia applications utilise recycled sensing
technologies due to their wide availability and
minimal cost. The applicability of the method
ranges from the single sensor-replacement and
recycling level to the development of complex
systems evaluating combined sensing output. At the
base level, various examples may be mentioned.
Take for example the case of an interactive drinking
vending system designed to dispense the drink
when this is below certain temperature level.
Various sensor configurations may be consider to
perform such a task, each characterised by different
properties and scenarios: one may embed a
resistance temperature detector (RTD) at the fluids
exit and calculate the temperature decay in time,
embed an infrared thermometer at the dispenser and
provide dynamic measurements or develop mugs
from heat-sensitive colour-changing thermal
material and use colour detection to identify when
the fluid is at the appropriate temperature. This
indicates that there are more than one solutions to
the sensing requirements and the appropriate
solution must be selected according to the systems
sensing requirements.
Typical projects undertaken under the course
Experimental Multimedia at the Department of
Audio and Visual Arts, Ionian University, Greece
have in the past employed a plethora of alternative
solutions to enable interaction: wireless mouse
devices were used to detect motion, mice devices
have been disassembled and its functional rollers
were used to measure distance and acceleration.
Keyboards were used to detect 3D object shapes by
detecting the set of keys that were pressed and
standard web cameras were transformed to input
devices using either colour-detection, motion
(frame-differencing) and light-source detection
through the use of infrared-lights and night-vision
in order to be used as sensing input devices. It is
important therefore to view a number of case
studies presented in increasing complexity and
discuss the findings.
A. DEVELOPMENT OF AN AUDIOVISUAL MUSICAL
INSTRUMENT
This case study aimed to develop an audiovisual
instrument that may be used to compose music and
imagery at the same time. The original hardware
specification included a laptop computer and a
typical piano-based keyboard connected through a
midi interface. Playing music through the musical
keyboard would sound the audio and trigger
selected images with specific transparency settings
to appear compose visuals on screen. As a result,
different performances would result in different
audiovisual effects which could then be randomised
further by dynamic image association to the keys
pressed.
In our attempt enable users to experiment with
the musical instrument without the necessity for
musical hardware and midi interface, the use of the
Recycled Sensor Replacement methodology
revealed that it was possible to replace the piano-
based keyboard with the standard laptop keyboard
in order to trigger the appropriate note
combinations. Each key was programmed to
function as an individual note, emulating the piano-
based keyboard functionality, and upon a key press
was programmed to action both the sound and the
visual, as shown in Figure 2. Programming was
implemented through processing [4].
13


Fig. 2 The coding environment and visual output of the audiovisual
instrument that utilises the keyboard as a musical input device
B. REPLACING INTERACTIVE SENSING MECHANISMS FOR
USER-GAME INTERACTION
Another case study is used in order to consider
replacement of digital to analog input. The game
was implemented on a laptop and the project
required students to alter the code, aesthetics and
interaction design of an existing keyboard-
controlled 2D shoot-em-up game based on the
Adobe Director multimedia authoring environment.
The final aesthetic changes are displayed in Figure
3.

Fig. 3 2D computer game controlled through audio and visual user input
By employing the Recycled Sensor Replacement
methodology we detected at least two sensing
devices that could be used to interact with the game
beyond the standard keyboard: the track pad, the
microphone and the built-in camera. As a result, the
internal microphone was used as an input device
that detects audio level, programmed to trigger the
firing function when a specific threshold is
reached. For spaceship movement the local
coordinates originally controlled via the key presses
function were later replaced with direct access to
the track pad-controlled cursor coordinates,
enabling the implementation a much more
responsive interaction mechanism. Following this
implementation and with the requirement to refine
more the system, the Adobe Director multimedia
authoring environment was extended with the
cXtraVideoCapture allowing colour detection and
positioning of an appropriately coloured object in
front of the camera. Colour detection algorithms are
used to identify the location of an appropriately
coloured object (a plastic water bottle cap was used
in our case) to control the location and position of
the spaceship accordingly. As x,y coordinates were
needed in order to identify the position of the ship,
the sensing algorithm was adapted to find the
geometrical center of the coloured object and return
those coordinates back to the main application
algorithm.
The dimensionality of this problem may be
calculated separately for each sensing component.
The fire function is clearly considered one-
dimensional as it may be represented using a
Boolean value. The x,y location function is two-
dimensional as it utilises image array information
used to describe object location in relation to the
camera viewport. Provided that a developer would
like to achieve similar functionality but without the
use of a camera, an alternative way to replace the
original keyboard-based functionality via the use of
a mouse pointing device or a track pad. This offers
a clearly different input device enabling faster
response and accuracy rates, similar dimensionality
and varying cost options that depends on the
availability of equipment selected.
C. SENSING, AUDIO AND VISUAL PRESENTATION WITHIN
MULTIPLE MULTIMEDIA ENVIRONMENTS
Complex case studies introduce the need for
sensing under multiple environments, functional
component synchronisation and coordination. The
interactive installation entitled Invisible places
immense white [6], Figure 4, lies within the field
of biometric-based art applications [52].
14


Fig. 4 The 3D representation of the installation Invisible places immense
white
This life-size installation presented in Strasbourg
in 2008 consists of a room-based installation (figure
5) featuring five projecting screens that display a
video. Visitors interact with the video by wearing a
mental-activity sensing device that transforms the
activity to image, which is composited with the
video, rendered and visualised via the VVVV open
source software.

Fig. 5 The actual installation setting for Invisible places immense white
The issue here was the need for synchronisation
of static and sensor-generated content across
different authoring platforms. The Recycled Sensor
Replacement (RSR) methodology indicated that
from multiple possible configurations, only few
could handle the interaction mechanisms and only
one of those environments (VVVV) was known to
developers. In the sensor forefront various high and
low-level approaches were proposed in order to
identify a safe and precise way to identify mental
activity level: from heartbeat and blood-pressure
measurement equipment to BioSensors, which were
ultimately chosen as other methods did measure
only the effect of mental activity and not the
activity itself. On the system forefront, computer-
controlled video playback was synchronised with
computer-generated composite visual output of the
sensed data. The multimedia stream was
synchronised via retiming as the static content
reproduction sequence was accurately timed and the
interactive system was programmed to synchronise
its output at specific key frames. The 10.2 surround
audio written for this particular interactive
installation was embedded directly with two video
streams, and a single computer using two multi-
VGA output video cards and two audio cards was
used to reproduce and synchronise the video and
audio streams.
Previous examples re-engineered the sensing
mechanisms through the use of human interaction
devices. However the proposed methodology may
be applied beyond the single sensor-replacement
scenario to more complex case studies. Networked
environments featuring self-adjusting sensing
systems can be deployed that are capable to recover
from partial failure [28] and dynamic changes in
their spatial configuration. A typical scenario
currently being developed as an experimental
multimedia project introduces the development of a
soundscape, aiming to engage the spectator in the
navigation of semantic and sensual space that has
its own quasi-mythical structure [53]. The project
sensing requirements are clearly be covered by the
proposed methodology as various sensors randomly
positioned in the geographical area can be used to
communicate the experience virtually in another
part of the world. The solution proposed for this
research project includes randomly positioned wind,
humidity, heat, distance, range, object detection,
ultra sonic range measurement devices, IR distance,
vibration and sound sensors, where their location,
orientation and sensing capabilities are known to
the controlling system application and they
15


communicate via wireless Arduino-based
networking modules [54].
IV. CONCLUSIONS
Although the proposed methodology was
presented under a popular form of artistic
expression influential to society [48], that of
interactive multimedia art, it can with be directly
used to cover the requirements of other sensor-
based domains of interest [55]. This work has
introduced the concept of sensor recycling and
reuse in the development of interactive multimedia
systems. The introduction of the Recycled Sensor
Replacement (RSR) methodology enables the
formalisation of the process in order to minimise
development time and enable the use of appropriate
hardware and software components in order to
reduce end-system complexity and guarantee
sensing efficiency. A small number of related case
studies were presented and discussed while many
more examples are traced in the literature. From the
perspective of the artist, the findings are introduced
in the creative forefront, while for developers in the
design offering implementation efficiency. In the
audio and visual art-based interactive systems
presented, replacement of existing hardware-based
sensing mechanisms was implemented via
recycling/reuse of human interaction sensing
devices. Their sensing capabilities were evaluated
and selected sensing features were employed to
cover specific interaction requirements. As re-
engineering of the sensing process relies heavily on
algorithmic solutions, this approach also increased
the software-based sensing workload, a process that
introduces software recycling. However this issue
requires further investigation as various approaches
in the literature can be employed to cover
reusability requirements [10, 11].
Further research directions include the
establishment of a developmental framework that
enables artists to appreciate the limitations of
technology and expand its capabilities in order to
cover their presentation requirements. This
development, combined with the introduction of
new virtual reality multimedia standards will
certainly enable the creation of a powerful sense-
enhancing medium enabling artistic expression and
exploration through interactive multimedia
technologies.
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