Film Art

A cognitive schematic analysis of film
Gregory George Hale

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF YORK

Doctor of Philosophy

2009

2
Abstract

This research used two short films to investigate whether schema theory has
value for researching and designing film experiences.

The first study used the neutrally rated Ice Cream Dream to qualitatively
analyse talk from ten viewers, for research and design contributions based on
schema theory. The analysis was systematic and driven by the data, with
bottom up analysis iteratively structured by emergent schematic categories.
The viewers talk indicated confusion about the film content and included talk
on schematic structure in the film. The second study developed a method of
schematic analysis to investigate schemas in a case study in good structure, The
Wrong Trousers. The films content was systematically logged, with
aggregate schemas and re-interpretive schemas emerging as structuring the
film, with the schemas causally linked together. The third study used
schematic analysis to investigate Ice Cream Dream, both as a comparison to
The Wrong Trousers and for research and design contributions from schema
theory. Aggregate schemas were only partially evident, with content weakly
linked causally or unlinked. The fourth study examined if non-interview based
viewers talk would contribute additional insights and design implications from
schema theory, using 65 online movie reviews of The Wrong Trousers.
Systematic analysis revealed strong positive reactions focused on aggregate
schemas plus two high salience elements (the techno trousers and the penguin).

This research has revealed that schema theory is powerful in identifying
research based insights into film of value to film researchers and professionals.
Twenty three design implications resulted from the four studies, revealing that
schema theory is powerful in design terms. The further research, as correctives
to the weakness of the research, will include schema based studies of other
films, the development of a systematic Schematic Analysis Design Method
(SADM) and the development of a schematic modeling language for film.

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Table of Contents
Abstract.................................................................. 2
Acknowledgements.................................................................................. 12
Authors declaration............................................................................... 13

Chapter 1. Literature Review............................................................. 15
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 15
1.2 Aims and approaches ....................................................................... 15
1.2.1 Rich descriptions of film experiences .................................... 18
1.2.2 Choice of experiences to research............................................. 19
1.3 The changing context of film........................................................... 21
1.3.1 Ubiquitous interactive devices and content............................... 22
1.3.2 Web 2.0 ..................................................................................... 23
1.3.3 Convergence.............................................................................. 26
1.4 The search for an integrating framework ......................................... 27
1.4.1 Philosophical approaches to experiences .................................. 28
1.4.2 Theorising film experiences ...................................................... 29
1.4.3 Narratology................................................................................ 35
1.4.3.1 Aristotles Poetics .............................................................. 37
1.4.3.2 Story issues in modern narratology.................................... 38
1.5 Schema theory.................................................................................. 40
1.5.1 History of schema theory .......................................................... 40
1.5.2 Structure of schemas ................................................................. 41
1.5.3 Schema in films and viewers reports ....................................... 42
1.6 Choice of research approach ............................................................ 43
1.7 Initial research questions.................................................................. 47

Chapter 2. Investigation one viewers talk on short film Ice Cream
Dream . .................................................................. 50
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 50
2.2 Method ............................................................................................. 51
2.2.1 Design........................................................................................ 51
2.2.2 Ethical issues ............................................................................. 51
2.2.3 Participants ................................................................................ 52
2.2.4 Materials.................................................................................... 52
2.2.5 Procedure................................................................................... 54
2.2.6 Data analysis ............................................................................. 55
2.2.7 Coding nomenclature ................................................................ 57
2.3 Results and Discussion..................................................................... 59
2.3.1 Enjoyment scores ...................................................................... 59
2.3.2 Summaries................................................................................. 60
2.3.3 Real Life Reflection category grouping.................................... 61
2.3.3.1 Real-Life Reflection Film............................................... 61
2.3.3.2 Real-Life Reflection Actors ............................................ 62
2.3.3.3 Real-Life Reflection Personal ......................................... 64
2.3.3.4 Real-Life Reflection General .......................................... 66
2.3.4 Specific Film Aspects................................................................ 67
2.3.4.1 Specific Film Aspects-Actions........................................... 68
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2.3.4.2 Specific Film Aspects Location ...................................... 70
2.3.4.3 Specific Film Aspects Costume ...................................... 71
2.3.4.4 Specific Film Aspects Prop............................................. 73
2.3.4.5 Specific Film Aspects Camera ........................................ 76
2.3.4.6 Specific Film Aspects Sound .......................................... 77
2.3.4.7 Specific Film Aspects Hair ............................................. 79
2.3.4.8 Specific Film Aspects Cast ............................................. 79
2.3.4.9 Specific Film Aspects Dreams (identity) ........................ 80
2.3.4.10 Specific Film Aspects Dreams (transitions).................. 82
2.3.4.11 Specific Film Aspects Credits ....................................... 83
2.3.4.12 Specific Film Aspects Starts and Ends.......................... 85
2.3.5 Intentions, Expectations ............................................................ 86
2.3.5.1 Film Makers Intentions..................................................... 87
2.3.6 General Film Expectations ........................................................ 88
2.3.7 Character Observations ............................................................. 90
2.4 Concluding discussion and further research .................................... 91
2.4.1 Report structures and schemas.................................................. 92
2.4.2 Overview of design implications .............................................. 97
2.4.3 Six design implications ............................................................. 98
2.4.4 Conclusion and issues for further investigation...................... 100

Chapter 3. Investigation two schematic analysis of short film The
Wrong Trousers ................................................................................. 103
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 103
3.1.1 Issues arising ........................................................................... 103
3.1.2 Methods of analysing film content and problems ................... 104
3.2 Method ........................................................................................... 106
3.2.1 Materials.................................................................................. 106
3.2.2 Analysis and coding procedure ............................................... 108
3.2.2.1 Factual logging and the Shot Description Document....... 108
3.2.2.2 Schematic map schema structure and slot tables .......... 110
3.2.2.3 A structuring schema....................................................... 110
3.3 Results and discussion.................................................................... 111
3.3.1 An expanded typology of schemas.......................................... 111
3.3.2 Nomenclature and identification of behavioural schemas ...... 111
3.3.2.1 Nomenclature of behavioural schemas ............................ 111
3.3.2.2 Identification of behavioural schemas.............................. 112
3.3.3 Schema map for The Wrong Trousers .................................... 115
3.3.4 Having breakfast schema...................................................... 116
3.3.4.1 Identification .................................................................... 116
3.3.4.2 Design implications.......................................................... 117
3.3.5 Having a birthday schema....................................................... 118
3.3.5.1 Identification .................................................................... 118
3.3.6 Getting ready in the morning(1) schema .............................. 122
3.3.6.1 Identification .................................................................... 122
3.3.7 Financial crisis schema......................................................... 123
3.3.7.1 Identification .................................................................... 123
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3.3.7.2 Design principles.............................................................. 124
3.3.8 Getting a lodger schema ....................................................... 124
3.3.8.1 Identification .................................................................... 124
3.3.8.2 Design principles.............................................................. 125
3.3.9 Decorating a room schema ................................................... 126
3.3.9.1 Identification .................................................................... 126
3.3.10 Bad lodger schema.............................................................. 128
3.3.10.1 Identification .................................................................. 128
3.3.10.2 Design principles............................................................ 128
3.3.11 Getting ready in the morning (2) schema ........................... 129
3.3.11.1 Identification .................................................................. 129
3.3.11.2 Design principles............................................................ 129
3.3.12 Having breakfast (2) schema .............................................. 130
3.3.12.1 Identification .................................................................. 130
3.3.12.2 Design implications........................................................ 131
3.3.13 Faithful pet dog subverted schema .................................. 131
3.3.13.1 Identification .................................................................. 131
3.3.14 Leaving home schema ........................................................ 133
3.3.14.1 Identification .................................................................. 133
3.3.15 Antagonists plan equipment schema.............................. 135
3.3.15.1 Identification .................................................................. 135
3.3.16 Getting ready in the morning (3) subverted schema........ 136
3.3.16.1 Identification .................................................................. 136
3.3.17 Lodger seeking accommodation schema............................ 138
3.3.17.1 Identification .................................................................. 138
3.3.18 [Re-interpretative] Antagonists criminal plan schema...... 138
3.3.18.1 Identification .................................................................. 138
3.3.19 Spying schema.................................................................... 140
3.3.19.1 Identification .................................................................. 140
3.3.20 [Re-interpretative] Antagonists heist plan outworked ... 141
3.3.20.1 Identification .................................................................. 141
3.3.21 Getting ready in the morning (4) subverted schema........ 142
3.3.21.1 Identification .................................................................. 142
3.3.22 Captured(1) schema............................................................ 143
3.3.22.1 Identification .................................................................. 143
3.3.23 Escape schema.................................................................... 145
3.3.23.1 Identification .................................................................. 145
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3.3.24 Chase schema ..................................................................... 146
3.3.24.1 Identification .................................................................. 146
3.3.25 Captured (2) schema........................................................... 147
3.3.25.1 Identification .................................................................. 147
3.3.26 Faithful pet dog restored schema..................................... 149
3.3.26.1 Identification .................................................................. 149
3.3.27 Financial crisis - resolved schema...................................... 150
3.3.27.1 Identification .................................................................. 150
3.3.28 Walking off into the sunset schema.................................... 151
3.3.28.1 Identification .................................................................. 151
3.4 Concluding discussion and further research................................... 152
3.4.1 Schema structures.................................................................... 152
3.4.1.1 Schema structures in Act One .......................................... 153
3.4.1.2 Schema structures in Act Two ......................................... 155
3.4.1.3 Schema structures in Act Three ....................................... 155
3.4.2 Design implications................................................................. 156
3.4.2.1 Within schema design implications.................................. 156
3.4.2.2 Between schema design implications............................... 159
3.4.3 Further research....................................................................... 162

Chapter 4. Investigation three schematic analysis of short film Ice
Cream Dream . ............................................................................ 164
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 164
4.1.1 Issues arising ........................................................................... 164
4.1.2 Research questions .................................................................. 165
4.2 Method ........................................................................................... 166
4.2.1 Materials.................................................................................. 166
4.2.2 Analysis and coding procedure ............................................... 167
4.2.2.1 Factual logging and the Shot Description Document....... 168
4.2.2.2 Schematic map schema structure and slot tables .......... 169
4.2.2.3 Behavioural schemas a structuring schema?................ 169
4.3.1 An expanded typology of schemas.......................................... 169
4.3.2 Nomenclature and identification of behavioural schemas ...... 170
4.3.2.1 Nomenclature of behavioural schemas ............................ 170
4.3.2.2 Identification of behavioural schemas.............................. 170
4.3.3 Schema map for Ice Cream Dream......................................... 170
4.3.4 Selling ice cream from van (1) schema ................................ 171
4.3.4.1 Identification .................................................................... 171
4.3.4.2 Design implications and integration with viewers talk... 172
4.3.5 Causally unlinked elements [Harry/alter ego]......................... 175
4.3.5.1 Identification .................................................................... 175
4.3.5.2 Design implications and integration with viewers talk... 176
4.3.6 Putting valuables into bank - daydream schema .................. 177
4.3.6.1 Identification .................................................................... 177
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4.3.6.2 Design issues linked to viewers talk ............................... 178
4.3.7 Causally unlinked elements [Concerned parent talk].............. 179
4.3.7.1 Identification .................................................................... 179
4.3.7.2 Design implications linked to viewers talk..................... 180
4.3.8 Causally unlinked elements Harry/alter ego (2) dream ..... 180
4.3.8.1 Identification .................................................................... 180
4.3.9 Selling (prize winning) ice cream from van (2) - dream. ..... 182
4.3.9.1 Identification .................................................................... 182
4.3.9.2 Design implications and link to viewers talk.................. 183
4.3.10 Causally unlinked element Parent wakes child .................. 184
4.3.10.1 Identification .................................................................. 184
4.3.10.2 Design implication ......................................................... 185
4.3.11 Selling ice cream from van (2) schema .............................. 186
4.3.11.1 Identification .................................................................. 186
4.3.11.2 Design implications and link to viewers talk................ 187
4.3.12 Causally related elements [Harry/alter ego].......................... 188
4.3.12.1 Identification .................................................................. 188
4.3.12.2 Design implications and link to viewers talk................ 188
4.3.13 Child making friends schema ............................................. 189
4.3.13.1 Identification .................................................................. 189
4.3.13.2 Design implication and link to viewers talk ................. 189
4.4 Concluding discussion and further research................................... 190
4.4.1 Schema structures.................................................................... 190
4.4.1.1 Schema structures in Act One .......................................... 191
4.4.1.2 Schema structures in Act Two ......................................... 191
4.4.1.3 Schema structures in Act Three ....................................... 192
4.4.2 Design implications................................................................. 193
4.4.2.1 Within schema design implications.................................. 193
4.4.2.2 Between schema design implications............................... 195
4.4.3 Further research....................................................................... 198

Chapter 5. Investigation four viewers online talk on short film The
Wrong Trousers.................................................................................. 199
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 199
5.1.1 Issues arising ........................................................................... 199
5.1.2 Research questions .................................................................. 200
5.2 Method ........................................................................................... 200
5.2.1 Design...................................................................................... 200
5.2.2 Participants .............................................................................. 201
5.2.3 Materials.................................................................................. 201
5.2.4 Data collection......................................................................... 204
5.2.5 Data analysis ........................................................................... 205
5.3.1 Word Count ............................................................................. 206
5.3.2 User movie summaries ............................................................ 206
5.3.2.1 Identification .................................................................... 206
5.3.3 Story summaries in user comments......................................... 208
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5.3.3.1 Identification .................................................................... 208
5.3.4 Positive talk in material which is not a story summary........... 216
5.3.4.1 Identification .................................................................... 216
5.3.4.2 Positive talk on Story..................................................... 216
5.3.4.3 Positive talk on laughter................................................... 217
5.3.4.4 Animation......................................................................... 217
5.3.4.5 Positive talk on Chase ...................................................... 218
5.3.4.7 Conclusions and Future Research .................................... 220

Chapter 6. Summary and conclusions.............................................. 223
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 223
6.2 Summary of thesis.......................................................................... 223
6.3 Methodological contribution.......................................................... 228
6.3.1 Semi-structured interviewing, prompted recollection............. 228
6.3.2 New method of analysing film structure schematically.......... 229
6.3.3 Use of online movie reviews................................................... 230
6.4 Results contribution........................................................................ 231
6.4.1 Film design implications for a schema based approach.......... 231
6.4.1.1 Design practice of film content creators .......................... 231
6.4.1.2 Design implications whole film.................................... 232
6.4.1.3 Design implications between schemas.......................... 234
6.4.1.4 Design implications within schemas ............................. 235
6.4.2 Schema theory and film........................................................... 237
6.5 Higher level contributions , limitations and further research......... 238
6.6 General conclusions ....................................................................... 239

Appendix One: Interview Schedule (Investigation One)....................... 241
Appendix Two: Sample Transcript (Investigation One)........................ 259
Appendix Three: Shot Description Document (Investigation Two) ..... 274
Appendix Four: Shot Description Document (Investigation Three)..... 286
Appendix Five: Sample Movie Reviews (Investigation Four) .............. 298

List of References .................................................................................. 309

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Tables
Table 2.1 Segmentation of Ice Cream Dream in three act form ........... 53
Table 2.2 Coding categories: Real Life Reflection ............................... 61
Table 2.3 Coding frequencies: Real-Life Reflection-Film.................... 62
Table 2.4 Coding frequencies: Real-Life Reflection-Actors ................. 63
Table 2.5 Coding frequencies: Real-Life Reflection-Personal .............. 65
Table 2.6 Coding frequencies: Real-Life Reflection-General ............... 67
Table 2.7 Coding categories: Specific Film Aspects............................. 68
Table 2.8 Coding frequencies: Specific Film Aspects-Act ................... 70
Table 2.9 Coding frequencies: Specific Film Aspects-Location........... 71
Table 2.10 Coding frequencies: Specific Film Aspects-Costume........... 73
Table 2.11 Coding frequencies: Specific Film Aspects-Properties ......... 75
Table 2.12 Coding frequencies: Specific Film Aspects-Camera............. 76
Table 2.13 Coding frequencies: Specific Film Aspects-Sound............... 78
Table 2.14 Coding frequencies: Specific Film Aspects-Hair .................. 79
Table 2.15 Coding frequencies: Specific Film Aspects-Casting............. 80
Table 2.16 Coding frequencies: Specific Film Aspects-Dreams (ID) ..... 82
Table 2.17 Coding frequencies: Specific Film Aspects-Dreams (Trans) 83
Table 2.18 Coding frequencies: Specific Film Aspects-Credits.............. 84
Table 2.19 Coding frequencies: Specific Film Aspects- Starts/Ends ...... 86
Table 2.20 Intentions, Expectations......................................................... 87
Table 2.21 Coding frequencies: category Film Makers Intentions.......... 88
Table 2.22 Coding frequencies: category General Film Expectations .... 90
Table 2.23 Coding frequencies: category Character-Observations ......... 91
Table 2.24 Coding categories with no design implications..................... 97
Table 2.25 Summary of design principles from coded segments............ 98
Table 3.1 Segmentation of The Wrong Trousers ................................ 107
Table 3.2 Sample extract from the Shot Description Document ......... 109
Table 3.3 Schema structure table......................................................... 116
Table 3.4 Instantiated schema slot table, Having Breakfast ............. 118
Table 3.5 Instantiated schema slot table Having A Birthday............ 120
Table 3.6 Instantiated schema slot table Getting Ready (1) ............. 122
Table 3.7 Instantiated schema slot table for Financial Crisis ........... 124
Table 3.8 Instantiated schema slot table for Getting A Lodger ........ 125
Table 3.9 Instantiated schema slot table, Decorating A Room......... 127
Table 3.10 Instantiated schema slot table, Bad Lodger ...................... 128
Table 3.11 Instantiated slot table, Getting Ready (2) ......................... 129
Table 3.12 Instantiated schema slot table, Having Breakfast (2)........ 131
Table 3.13 Instantiated schema slot table, Faithful Pet Dog/Friendship-
Subverted.... ................................................................................... 133
Table 3.14 Instantiated schema slot table, Leaving Home ................. 134
Table 3.15 Instantiated schema slot table, Antagonists Plan Equip.136
Table 3.16 Instantiated schema slot table, Getting Ready (3) ...
Subverted........ ........................................................................... 137
Table 3.17 Instantiated schema slot table, Lodger Seeking
Accommodation................................................................................. 138
Table 3.18 Instantiated schema slot table, Antagonists Plan Equip. 139

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Table 3.19 Instantiated schema slot table, Spying .............................. 140
Table 3.20 Instantiated schema slot table, [Re-interpretative]Antagonists
Heist Plan Outworked......................................................................... 142
Table 3.21 Instantiated schema slot table, Getting Ready in the Morning..
(4) Subverted.................................................................................. 143
Table 3.22 Instantiated schema slot table, Chase................................ 144
Table 3.23 Instantiated schema slot table, Escape .............................. 145
Table 3.24 Instantiated schema slot table, Chase................................ 147
Table 3.25 Instantiated schema slot table, Captured........................... 148
Table 3.26 Instantiated schema slot table, Faithful Pet DogRestored149
Table 3.27 Instantiated schema slot table for Financial Crisis-...
Resolved.. .............................................................................. 150
Table 3.28 General design implications at the within schema level...... 158
Table 3.29 Slot design implications at the within schema level............ 159
Table 3.30 Design implications at the between schema level ............... 160
Table 4.1 Segmentation of Ice Cream Dream in three act form ......... 167
Table 4.2 Sample extract from the Shot Description Document.. 168
Table 4.3 Schema structure table (non-schematic elements indented) 171
Table 4.4 Instantiated schema slot table, Selling Ice Cream From
Van............................................................................. 172
Table 4.5 Instantiated schema slot table,Putting Valuables Into
Bank. ...................................................................... 177
Table 4.6 Instantiated schema slot table, Dream Selling (Prize )
Winning Ice cream From Van.. ............................................................. 183
Table 4.7 Instantiated schema slot table, Selling Ice Cream From Van
. ............................................................................. ..187
Table 4.9 Design implications at the between schema level ............... 197
Table 5.1 Coding categories for user summaries (quotes uncorrected)207
Table 5.2 Coding categories for story summaries ............................... 210
Table 5.3 User comments citing causal elements in story summaries. 213
Table 5.4 Design implication of positive talk...................................... 220
Table 6.1 Film designer attitudes......................................................... 232
Table 6.2 Whole film design implications........................................... 233
Table 6.3 Between schema level detailed design implications............ 235

11
Figure
Figure 5.1 Extract from user comment (summary relocated)207

12
Acknowledgements

My primary thanks go to Professor Andrew Monk (supervisor, University of
York) for his enthusiasm, interest and insight. Primary thanks also to
Microsoft Research (Cambridge) for funding the first three years of this
research, and to Fabien Peticolas and Ken Wood, my industrial supervisors at
Microsoft Research (Cambridge) for their interest in the project.

Thanks also to Peter Wright, Padriac Moneghan and John Mateer for their
interest and for their positive challenge, as members of my Research
Committee.

13
Authors declaration

I declare that all the material presented in this thesis is based on my own
work. Prior to writing this thesis in its final form, the following papers were
written by myself, apart from the first one listed, which had authorship as
indicated.

2009 Cognitive Approaches to Entertainment and Fun Experiences. Special interest
group submission accepted for CHI2008, but insufficient time for revisions. With
groups approval, will resubmit to refereed international HCI conference in 2009. G.
Hale with J. Hoonhout, C. Lindley, F. Myr, E. Ollila, C. Thimm and J. Verhaegh

2007 Pumping up the Fun on Web 2.0. - Can Psychology Give a Helping Hand?
Presented at Towards a Social Science of Web 2.0 2007, York, United Kingdom.

2007 SIFT: Schematic Instances For Transmedia. Workshop position paper
presented at ACE 2007 workshop, Transmedial Interactions and Digital Games,
Salzburg, Austria.

2006 SCUSI? Story Content Using Schematic Instances: Possibilities and
Problems in Using Schema Theory for Story Content Generation. Late poster
presented at TIDSE 2006 workshop on interactive storytelling, Darmstadt, Germany.

2006 SCUSI? Story Content Using Schematic Instances. Workshop position
paper presented at TIDSE 2006 workshop on interactive storytelling, Darmstadt,
Germany.

2006 Insights into the Design of Computer Entertainment from Schemas in Film.
Paper presented at TIDSE 2006, Darmstadt, Germany.

2005 What could simple computing be? The case of the electronic matchbox.
Poster presented at the Microsoft, Less is More conference, Cambridge, United
Kingdom.

2005 A qualitative exploration of entertainment experiences. Paper presented at
ACE2005, Valencia, Spain.
14
2005 Re-conceptualising fun through viewers experiences to build new home
system interfaces. Paper presented at HOIT 2005, York, United Kingdom.

15
Chapter 1. Literature review

1.1 Introduction

This chapter firstly reviews the aims and approaches of the thesis (section
1.2). Then it reviews the changing context of film and entertainment (section
1.3). The chapter then reviews the search for an integrating framework for film
experiences, examining philosophical, film and narratalogical approaches
(section 1.4). This review identified patterns in general and schema theory in
particular as a possible candidate for an integrating framework for
understanding film experiences (the thesis uses schemas for the plural, rather
than the more dated schemata). The chapter then considers schema theory
(section 1.5). Schema theory is examined as a suitable candidate for building a
framework of film experiences with value for both researchers and designers of
film and so is used in this research. The chapter then discusses the research
approach (section 1.6) and concludes by identifying the initial research
questions, set in the context of the literature cited (section 1.7).

1.2 Aims and approaches

This research constituted an investigation of the application of schema
theory to two narrative short films (The Wrong Trousers and Ice Cream
Dream). The overall aim of the research was to examine the use of schema
theory (see Chapter One) in relation to developing a new approach to
researching film and offering new insights into the design of film. The target
audience for the research is researchers with a cognitive interest in film and
film professionals involved in creating films.

The aim of the first study (reported in Chapter Two) was to investigate
viewers talk prompted by the viewing of Ice Cream Dream. The approach
was to show the film once right through, then show it again in sections and
have the viewers report their experiences from the first viewing. The talk was
16
systematically categorically analysed, grouping speech elements into related
categories. The study sought to identify what report structures viewers used in
their talk, whether these report structures linked to schema theory and whether
any design implications could be drawn. The study found that participants
were using language that suggested they were accessing schematic elements
related to the film, with participants able to summarise the film and active in
building their reported understandings of the film. Nevertheless, conflicting
schemas as reported in the talk reflected confusion about the films content.
Design implications including identification of the active nature of the reported
viewing experience, the need for visual clarity and the avoidance of
incommensurate schemas. Because study one only investigated viewers talk,
there was a concern that material in the structure of Ice Cream Dream of
potential relevance was not being reported. This argued for a further study
comprising a structural and schematic analyses of Ice Cream Dream. The
lukewarm rating for Ice Cream Dream also argued for a structural analysis of a
highly rated film next, as a new context for applying the schema theory
approach being developed and as a case study in excellence. A schematic
structural study of the highly rated The Wrong Trousers was therefore
undertaken next.

The aim of the second study (reported in Chapter Three) was to
schematically analyse The Wrong Trousers. After examining problems with
some extant analytic methods, a systematic and schematic method of analysis
was developed through the analytic process of analysing The Wrong Trousers.
This approach was driven by the films content, with a particular emphasis on
mid and high level structures in the film. The analysis revealed that The Wrong
Trousers is strongly and causally structured around nameable aggregate
schemas (breakfast as a nameable aggregate of lower level nameable action
schemas such as drinking a cup of tea). Additionally, re-interpretative
schemas were used in the film, which reinterpreted previous aggregate
schemas. Design implications included the possibility of hiding continuity
errors through fast actions, manipulating the presentation of schemas for
different effects and using prototypical slots in isolation to suggest a whole
17
schema. For the next study, would this method of schematic analysis of the
neutrally rated Ice Cream Dream be valuable in this new context and also link
to material from study one?

The aim of the third study therefore (reported in Chapter Four) was to
analyse Ice Cream Dream using the new systematic and schematic method of
analysis developed in the previous study. This analysis revealed that Ice
Cream Dream is weakly structured around intermittently occurring aggregate
schemas, with weak causality and with some film content causally unlinked to
the developing story. Linkage to issues identified in study one were also
reported, such as clearly identifying the schema in use at any moment in the
film, having film elements causally linked together and prompting an
understanding of the protagonists problem and how the problem is solved.
Design implications included the need for strong causality throughout the film,
integration of all elements into the story, stronger use of aggregate schemas and
a greater crisis and resolution in the films story. A concern from study one
(though care was taken to prevent this) was that viewers reports might have
been affected by the interview context. To deploy the schematic approach in a
totally different context and therefore avoid this possibility (as well as test the
approach in a new context) a schematic investigation of viewers reviews about
The Wrong Trousers on the Internet Movie Database was conducted (there
were insufficient reports to do such an analysis for Ice Cream Dream).

The aim of the fourth study (reported in Chapter Five) was therefore to
schematically investigate viewers talk in relation to The Wrong Trousers, as
reported in online movie reviews on the Internet Movie Database (imdb.com).
The approach was to download the corpus of reviews, removing unsuitable
reviews. The talk was then systematically categorically analysed, grouping
speech elements into related categories, aiming, as with the first study of
viewers talk on Ice Cream Dream, to identify what report structures viewers
used in their talk, whether these report structures linked to schema theory and
whether any design implications could be drawn. Reviewers talk was coded
on praise, with particular emphasis on comparison with similar films and the
18
uniqueness of the production method (claymation). Almost a third of the
reviews contained story summaries and these focused on aggregate schemas
such as financial crisis or on elements such as lodger. Therefore story
summaries (for this film with this corpus of reviews) seemed to make use of
aggregate schemas as a structuring device. Design implications included using
strong and causally linked aggregate schemas in the film, ensuring that
aggregate schemas are strongly emotional and using schematic analysis to
ensure that a film being developed compares well with other similar films
already available to the viewing public.

The thesis concludes with a summary of the four studies undertaken and then
details the contributions made (Chapter Six). Methodological contributions of
this research include a new method of schematic analysis that could be used in
film studies and film creation and the use of online content to investigate
cognitive phenomena in films. Results contributions of this research show that
schema theory has general value for film analysis and design, with implications
for the professional practice of film professionals and design implications
throughout the film (at the level of the whole film, between schemas and within
schemas). The thesis concludes by suggesting that further research, as a
corrective to the limitations in the research, could be focused on investigating
real time viewers responses to film, structure in other films in relation to the
new schematic approach developed in this research and the creation of a formal
Schematic Analysis Design Method for film, extended and deepened by further
schematic research on many other films.

1.2.1 Rich descriptions of film experiences

There is currently expansive growth in new types of entertainment, forms of
film content and outlets for film content, facilitated by new technologies, new
content and changes in context of use (e.g., Ofcom, 2007; Beer and Burrows,
2007; Hale, 2005a; Gates, 2004). These developments are creating research
and design imperatives in relation to entertainment generally (not covered
specifically in this research) and for film in particular, which this research
19
addresses (because of films possible generalisability on some dimensions to
other entertainment, see section 1.2.1, below), to provide rich research based
insights (e.g., McCarthy and Wright, 2004) for film researchers and film
professionals. Indeed, other disciplines have been marked by an extension of
research into areas such as experiences, pleasure, fun, entertainment, mediated
experiences generally and experience design (e.g., McCarthy and Wright,
2004, Shedroff, 2001; Blythe, Overbeeke, Monk and Wright, 2003; Green and
Jordan, 2002; Cherny, Clanton and Ostrom, 1997), which have relevance to
considerations in relation to film.

Yet terms such as fun, pleasure and entertainment are multidimensional,
hard to operationalise and subject to large individual and contextual variation
(Dube and Le Bel, 2003; Vorderer, Klimmt, and Ritterfeld, 2004; Vorderer,
2001; see also Blythe and Hassenzahl, 2003). This represents a challenge to
quantitative experimental work, particularly in the light of the complexity of
film experiences and the desire to develop rich research insights of use to
researchers and film designers. Conversely, as Bartlett suggested in his studies
of remembering (1932), it might be expected that an inductive psychological
and qualitative investigation (though he doesnt use the term, qualitative)
would yield insights that are rich, grounded, insightful theoretically and also
useful in design terms (McCarthy and Wright, 2004; for examples see Clarke
and Duimering, 2006; Hale, 2006; Hale, 2005a). A qualitative approach is
accordingly used in this research.

1.2.2 Choice of experiences to research

The choice of film itself to research was a challenge, given the multiplicity
of entertainment experiences that could potentially be researched. Selection
criteria to identify those experiences that might be most productively be
researched are required. Selection criteria of mass uptake, story, maximum
visual design potential and maximum sonic design potential were used in this
research, as will now be discussed.

20
Firstly, the entertainment experience should have mass uptake, since a large
user base maximises the possibilities for further research after this project.
This means that novels, theatre, graphic novels, comics, computer games and
film are potential candidates but interactive stories and pervasive games are
currently not, since they remain a minority form.

Secondly, because some of the most complex and engaging mediated human
experiences involve story, a structured telling that prompts responses in
people, story should be a central part of the experience. Story might be
expected to ensure longevity of this research in an entertainment context which
is rapidly changing (Ofcom, 2007; Beer and Burrows, 2007) since the
fundamentals of story are pervasive (see Bordwell, 1989; Mandler, 1984) and
may be unvarying, even as the presentation of story in film and also other
media artifacts becomes more sophisticated, multi-textured and distributed
across different modalities. Story is still weak in computer games (strongest in
adventure games but weakest in first person shooters). Computer games
accordingly drop from the list of potential candidates to research, despite
having good visual and sonic design possibilities, leaving novels, film, graphic
novels, comics and theater as candidates for research.

Thirdly, the chosen experience should offer extensive visual and sonic
design potential. Novels fail this test on both visual and sonic grounds.
Graphic novels and comics have no sonic content and the visual content is
static, a substantial limitation compared to film and theatre. Theatre offers
visual design possibilities, but the viewpoint tends to be fixed: the audience is
seated and the action usually takes place in real time on a stage, with little
possibility of instant cuts in time, space and point of view. Novels, graphic
novels, comics and theatre therefore drop from the list of potential candidates
to research. Even if some computer games had strong story content, the best
candidate from the computer games category, adventure games, suffers from
a slow pace due to the conventions of the interface point and click to where
you wish the character to go and watch him or her walk there, then click from a
range of text based options for character behaviour a design limitation in
21
relation to fast visual events as well as a general design limitation, since pace is
now under control of the user rather than the designer. Additionally, because
computer games are real time, the constant visual transitions of time and
space as used in film are unavailable to designers and camera viewpoints in
computer games can only be partially manipulated in play, representing a
further visual design limitation. Computer games therefore fail this criteria, as
well as the first criteria of story. Film, in contrast, offers strong story
possibilities, with unlimited visual and sonic effects and a totally free visual
viewpoint that can instantly move to different times, spaces and viewpoints via
cuts or other transitions. Film was accordingly used for this research.

Additionally, if it turns out that the distinctive aspects of other entertainment
experiences can be included into a psychological framework for film, then such
a framework may be able to make a contribution to the research of these other
experiences (something to be researched beyond the scope of this project).
This contribution might be expected, both because of convergence in content
where film often has a central role and because of underlying psychological
regularities that might span different entertainment experiences.

Film also offers the potential for rich insights into story, which could inform
the research of story in other artifacts such as theatre, graphic novels and
comics also not undertaken in this researh. Such insights might also have
value for considering how first person shooter computer games could have
enhanced story content. Film also offers the potential for rich insights into
visual design possibilities for theatre, computer games, graphic novels and
comics. Interactivity remains an issue in generalising from a film based
framework to interactive entertainment, but does not represent an insuperable
difficulty, especially as computer games already contain cutaways - essentially
short filmic sequences.

1.3 The changing context of film

As well as the digitisation of film content via DVD and DVR (Digital Video
22
Recorder), film product itself has been undergoing a digital revolution. With
more films being made on high definition video, the U.K. Film Council seeking
to move to a digital theatrical distribution model, high definition television
uptake increasing and film piracy increasing (Ofcom, 2007; Hale, 2005a; UK
Film Council, 2004), more films are available digitally than ever before - and
so are now more readily available for consumption on the move, whether as
whole films, sequences, or stills.

Currently, developments in, and conflict amongst, new services and
technologies is happening so quickly and with so many parameters of change
that it defies research attempts to understand and map (Beer and Burrows,
2007; Ofcom, 2007). Three significant changes are however discernable.

1.3.1 Ubiquitous interactive devices and content

Film is now more available. In 2005, this author wrote how, in the future,
digital entertainment would be available anytime, anywhere (Hale, 2005a,
italics added). In 2009, digital experiences are available anytime, anywhere,
principally via mobile telephones. In 2004, 86% of households in the U.K.
owned at least one mobile telephone (Ofcom, 2004c). By 2007, mobile
telephony at a reported rate of 100% ownership (Ofcom, 2007) had made
interactive devices ubiquitous.

In 2004, 3G mobile telephones were just coming to market (Durman, 2004),
with the offer of a much increased range of digital experiences for users
facilitated by two 3G technical developments: always-on broadband
connection at speeds of up to 384 Kb/s, with potential speeds up to 1 Mb/s
(Ofcom, 2007) and high-quality colour displays. These technical advances
facilitate the enjoyment of services such as fax, email, web access,
videoconferencing and movie-related content such as trailers, machinima, tie-in
competitions, music videos with high quality audio and multi-player mobile
gaming Bill Gates view of digital entertainment, everywhere (Gates,
2004). In 2004, services were still being rolled out in time for the Christmas
23
season, with billing structures not finalised, a factor which might have hindered
uptake because consumers worry about the cost of their mobile calls (The
Work Foundation, 2003). By 2007, billing structures and services were in
place. In 2005, 7% of users had a 3G subscription. By the first quarter of
2007, this number had risen to 11%. Additionally, in 2004 technical issues
were a concern, with 3G networks sparse and slow growth predicted (Durman,
2004). By the end of 2006, 11.2% of mobile subscribers were able to connect
to a 3G network, and 80% of handsets able to read XHTML code, a necessity
in rendering websites for mobile telephones (Ofcom, 2007).

Although computing based devices in the form of mobile telephones are now
ubiquitous, there remains a gap between the capabilities of mobile telephones
and users awareness of these capabilities and a gap between users
awareness of these capabilities and their use of them. For example, 44% of all
users are aware their mobile telephone can access the internet, but only 13%
report having done so; 27% of all users are aware their mobile can download
video clips but only 7% have done so; 32% of all users are aware they can
download music, but only 11% report they have done so; only 4% of mobile
subscribers say they play mobile games daily (all these figures, Ofcom, 2007).
Interactive devices in the form of the mobile telephone may now be ubiquitous
but peoples experiences of digital entertainment, everywhere (Gates, 2004)
remains partial, though potentially rising: mobile call minutes per year rose
from 52 billion in 2002 to 82 billion in 2006, a 58% increase. It may be that
current broadcast advertising of mobile sports services such as football video
clips, new 3G handsets and the 2009 Christmas season will add both to user
awareness of device capability and actual usage of this capability. These
changes greatly add to the potential for film delivery to customers.

1.3.2 Web 2.0

In 2005, this author wrote about how users were creating and distributing
content (including film content) via the internet (Hale, 2005a). Now discussion
of user generated content has coalesced around Web 2.0 (e.g., Beer and
24
Burrows, 2007; OReilly, 2004), with users active in producing and uploading
content onto the internet via such sites as MySpace, YouTube, Wikipedia, the
Internet Movie Database and others (www.myspace.com; www.youtube.com;
www.wikipedia.com, www.imdb.com). In 2007, YouTube, for example,
reached a monthly audience of 37 million users who typically viewed 2,500
clips, a daily usage figure per person of approximately three minutes a day
(Ofcom, 2007), though usage is still low in comparison to mainstream media
such as television.

One feature of Web 2.0 is the re-use and personalization of existing media
content such as films (Bolter and Grusin, 1999), shown most clearly in the
production of videos and other entertainment artifacts by fans, involving
pastiche, spoof and new contexts for familiar media offerings (e.g.,
Atomfilms.shockwave.com and ifilms.com for example; see also Jenkins, 2006).
With Web 2.0, the consumer can be both creator and controller of content, a
democratisation facilitated by availability of software based creative resources,
low software costs and low technical barriers to entry, as seen in text, video
and games examples:

Text: comment and information in Wikis and blogs democratised by
specialist online software accessible to all

Video: democratised by the availability of low-cost video cameras, mobile
telephone video and still cameras and low cost or free bundled-in computer
video editing software

Games: democratised by the availability of low-cost and easy to use games
creation software with point and click selection of pre-created software
entities (characters, environments and properties such as weapons) with
preprogrammed adjustable behaviours implemented

A number of issues in relation to Web 2.0 need further research, beyond the
remit of this doctoral research. Firstly, the conception of Web 2.0 as a
democratising opportunity for amateurs in relation to film is open to refinement
(Hale, 2007), since there is considerable professional and semi-professional
activity on Web 2.0 sites. So, YouTube hosts substantial amounts of
25
professionally produced video material (music videos, movie trailers
masquerading as amateur footage). YouTube also hosts machinima short
films made using computer games with in-game editors and video capture of
game sequences which require high levels of technical expertise to produce
and may often be created by professional programmers or dedicated media
companies, as well as enthusiastic amateurs. Despite this colonisation of Web
2.0 by professionals, two of the most popular video clips on the internet,
Numa Numa and Star Wars kid (BBC News, 2006) were created by
amateurs using simple technologies, with simple content. Secondly, in an age
of snack entertainment (e.g., Miller, 2007), story may include other
messages such as the story behind the story: Numa Numa becomes a story
of unexpected success and multiple versions of the original video; the Star
Wars Kid becomes a story of unauthorized uploading, bullying and a law suit
(BBC News, 2006; Wired News Report, 2003). Thirdly, examination of claims
that story itself is changing (Cieply, 2008) as new forms of entertainment are
being developed need to discriminate between story as narrated by a designer
and story as created by a user in the absence of overt narrative structure
embodied in an entertainment artifact, beyond the scope of this research on
film. Yet there are psychological regularities in how we segment events and
make sense of them (e.g., Tversky et al., 2002), so story may be more resistant
to change than is currently realized. Finally, new forms of stylistic schemas are
developing. Machinima film productions, for example, have stylistic
signatures (schemas) as a result of the technical context from which they
spring: in-game editors do not offer full control of characters, resulting in
stylized, awkward and unsubtle body movements derived from a pre-
programmed and limited repertoire, giving a distinctive texture to machinima
productions (see Shurtleff, 2007).

Web 2.0 means that viewers can and increasingly will actively reconstitute
film content according to their preferences and desires, whether as an
expression of personal creativity or for other reasons. Due to its popularity as a
form of mass entertainment, amateurs on Web 2.0 face increasing levels of
activity and competition from professionals. In online films this may mean that
26
professionals are making use of a film grammar that has developed over the
last hundred years to effectively tell stories amateur productions may suffer
in comparison.

1.3.3 Convergence

Film content is now available across many devices. In 2005, this author
wrote about how entertainment providers were expanding digital entertainment
by increasingly integrating content from different media (Hale 2005a). By
2007 convergence the coming together of technical delivery, devices and new
forms of content was a pivotal theme in discussions about communications
technology and entertainment (e.g., Ofcom, 2007; Cisco, 2006), yet
convergence and 3G devices and services are now mainstream. The picture is
not all positive, as technical challenges identified earlier (Drucker, 2007; Peleg,
2007) and device proliferation (e.g., Oulasvirta and Sumari, 2007) remain
concerns.

Convergence has been driven partly by the replacement of analogue content
with digital content, which in turn has facilitated networks and devices working
together with different media and potentially with each other as well as
heightening broadband availability and uptake (Ofcom, 2007). These
developments have together offered providers the chance to provide mixed
media content, distributed in new ways (ibid.). Convergence means that triple
play offerings (telephone, broadband data and cable television) are becoming
common, with quad play (the addition of mobile) on the horizon (Yedwab,
2007), all offering possibilities for film creators.

Convergence is having a wholesale effect on film, through content and rights
management, packaging (portals and content, bundles and channels),
distribution over networks and devices, navigation to content (e.g., electronic
programme guides), consumption and new forms of content (Ofcom, 2007).
New forms of film content include integrated media experiences across
multiple channels, offered to consumers via newspapers, websites, TV/radio,
27
mobile and so forth. Games can now include the physical world of consumers
real lives, such as in the game, Uncle Roy All Around You (Blasttheory,
2003/2009). This spilling over of computer games into, and interleaving with,
real life is likely to be heightened by the development of location aware mobile
telephones which can be used as the basis for new multi-player games such as
electronic shoot-em-ups played out in real life (Norris, 2003). Snacking
forms of consumption (Pearlstein, 2008) offers producers the opportunity to
slice entertainment products into many more configurations: a music CD can
result in over 400 separate stock keeping units (ibid.), with multiple
distribution possibilities that significantly impact on revenue generation
possibilities from film.

The upshot of convergence as media companies create and market their
products to generate multiple streams of revenue is that content in general and
film in particular starts to come to consumers from all directions in all
formats (Cisco, 2006, p.5). The snacking implicit in some delivery
modalities such as mobile telephony do not necessary mean the end of
traditional content creators, rather they may in fact mark a whole new
beginning (Cieply, 2006), increasing the need to develop a suitable integrated
framework for researching and designing film experiences in these new
contexts, something beyond the scope of this research on film to consider.

1.4 The search for an integrating framework

This section starts with a brief review of philosophical approaches to
experiences. Then research into film is reviewed, revealing a preference in the
discipline of film studies for non-empirical and political approaches, with a
limited influence of cognitive based approaches. Since there is a lack of
cognitive research in film studies, the discipline of narratology is then
examined, to see what research frameworks and concerns are prevalent and
might also be suitable candidates for a psychological framework of film
experiences. Across these different accounts, schema theory and schematic
patterns were a recurring theme, making schema theory a plausible candidate
28
for an integrating framework of film experiences. Schema theory also seems to
offer a suitable foundation for an integrative account of film experiences due to
its psychological background. It was accordingly concluded that schema
theory forms a suitable choice for an integrating framework of film and so was
used in this research.

1.4.1 Philosophical approaches to experiences

Aristotles conception of experience matches the traditional approach in
philosophy of experience as that a buzzing, blooming confusion of sense-
impressions that, through repetition and memory, comprise the world as
understood by us (King, 2003, p. 3), a cognitive explanation in terms of
sense, memory and imagination (ibid.). Aquinas claims that sense perceptions
provide input related to specific instances but not universal instances with
the intellect abstracting from what is perceived to the universal instance by
removing its individualizing conditions (King, 2003, p. 10). This
abstracting process reveals the true form that lies underneath the perception,
the form that is universal, in a process that takes place prior to conscious
experience (ibid.). For Dewey, an experience becomes such when it becomes a
whole, with its own individualizing quality and self-sufficiency
(Dewey, 1934, p. 35). An experience flows and has a unitary whole though
its parts can be perceived which is greater than the sum of the parts. For
Dewey all experiences have an aesthetic quality to them, a structure that is only
complete when the experience has finished and is created into a unity by
emotion, with patterns discernable across experiences (Dewey, 1934).

A recent approach to experiences that roots itself in the conception of
experience as internal and subjective a felt-life phenomenon has been put
forward by McCarthy and Wright in their technology as experience account
(2004; see also Wright, McCarthy and Meekison, 2003). This account aims to
go beyond existing accounts: of usability and its dimensions; accounts of users
as cogs in virtual machines; accounts of users as social actors and accounts of
users as consumers. Instead, McCarthy and Wright focus on peoples felt life,
29
an account rooted in the emotional, sensual and aesthetic aspects of interaction.
They suggest four threads of experience the sensual, the emotional, the
compositional and the spatio-temporal. These strands operate wholistically as
people dialogue with artifacts such as films in their use of them, making
sense of their interactions by anticipating, connecting, interpreting, reflecting,
appropriating and recounting (McCarthy and Wright, 2004; see also Wright et
al., 2003). In this account, experiences cannot be designed, only designed for
and prompted (McCarthy and Wright, 2004; Wright et al., 2003). This
approach is qualitative, investigative and illustrative, seeking to capture
peoples different accounts.

Despite the wide range of potential experiences available to human beings,
certain structures and structuring processes can be suggested: abstraction to
ideal conceptual types (Aristotle and Aquinas, reported in King, 2003)
resulting in integrative wholes (Dewey, 1934) comprising patterned threads of
experience built up by processes of sense making (McCarthy and Wright,
2004), with a corresponding implication that perceived boundaries between
patterns facilitate their discrimination (e.g., Tversky, Morrison and Zacks,
2002). Philosophical accounts offer principles by which experiences may be
had and understood but say little about specific experiences such as film
experiences, with the exception of McCarthy and Wright, who use case studies
to illustrate their model (McCarthy and Wright, 2004).

1.4.2 Theorising film experiences

Having reviewed philosophical and related accounts of experience, research
on film experiences are now examined. As a matter of terminology, the term
film experiences or just experiences will be used to stand only for film
content experiences, excluding group and contextual aspects, such as when a
group of friends watch a film in a cinema.

Film, with its strong visual sense, structured approach to storytelling and
popular accessibility, is a paradigmatic example of visual story telling, a
30
mimesis of real life in an immersive and intense experience. Directors
structure the screenplay, shooting script and final film for impact, removing
uninteresting material, intensifying interesting material and seeking to foster
engagement through compelling story, interesting characters and appropriate
use of music (e.g., Boorstin, 1995).

Enjoyable movie content can therefore be typified as exemplifying strong
narrative drive, with interesting characters, structured visual elements
controlled by a technical grammar, evocative music and affecting sounds.
Movies can also be characterized in an age of ubiquity, convergence and Web
2.0 by delivery platform interconnectedness (forms of the movie are available
across different media such as websites, mobile telephones, print media and
computer games) and cultural interconnectedness (by referencing other movies
through the use of similar scenes or by dealing with current political issues etc.,
Bolter and Grusin, 1999). The elements of a film working together prompt
cognitive and emotional engagement, the experiential gestalt of a flow
experience (Csikszentimihalyi, 1990). Films may therefore be conceptualised
as experience machines (see Tan, 1996), or at least, machines for prompting
experiences (e.g., McCarthy and Wright, 2004). It might be thought that a
psychological approach would have been a natural choice of method for
researchers in film studies. In fact film studies, due to its own politicised
disciplinary culture never fully embraced psychological approaches, as will be
discussed shortly.

Early work on film focused on quasi-experimental psychological work on
editing, carried out by Russian filmmakers such as Kuleshov and Pudovkin in
the early twentieth century (Carroll, 1988). The first attempt to articulate a
psychological perspective and a psychological research programme on film
experiences was by Munsterberg (1916) at a time when films were black and
white, without sound and with leaders cards with story sentences on them
accompanied by live music. After detailing the developments of film
technology, Munsterberg considered aspects of the film itself. The very nature
of the film medium meant that, in contrast to the theatre, it could use real
31
backgrounds, change these backgrounds very rapidly by means of editing,
show an unfolding story involving more than one location with interleaved
scenes, use special effects to make impossible actions possible (ibid.,
chapter two, online version) and direct the attention through the use of close-
ups to certain parts of the film (ibid.). Munsterberg considered the factors of
importance to understanding the film experience were depth and movement
perception, persistence of vision (his explanation is couched in terms of
afterimages), attending and directed attention, emotional intensification and the
effects of memory on the viewing experience to be important though he asks
more questions than he offers answers.

Munsterbergs attempt to define a psychological and empirical programme
of enquiry for film experiences was almost totally neglected by film
researchers, being uncited in Arnheims work on art films as art (1933) and not
cited until Bordwell (1985). Film researchers were interested in different
questions and it would only be in 1985 that a cognitive approach was again
suggested by a film studies specialist (Bordwell, 1985). The intervening period
between Munsterberg and Bordwell (see Anderson, 1996; Noel Carroll, 1988)
consisted of explorations of whether film was art and consequently whether
directors as the integrating intelligence behind films were artists, in the 1950s.
This was followed by investigations of film as language in the 1960s and
1970s, attempting to use semiology as a means of political engagement
(Carroll, 1988) together with critical theory approaches shaped by Freud, Marx
and feminism. In these approaches, films were conceived as being watched by
viewers who had things done to them, as opposed to being active in processing
and constructing the films (Bordwell, 1985). The final destination of film
theory was a post-modernist approach where narrative became local and
nothing generic can be said about it (Anderson, 1996; Carroll, 1988).
Scientific or biology based approaches to film viewing were viewed with
suspicion because of their scientific provenance and the concern about
repressive consequences (Carrol, 1988; Bordwell 1989b).

The growing concern of two influential film scholars in the mid to late 1980s
32
(Bordwell, 1985; Carroll 1988) about the ambiguity and unverifiability of
existing film theory led them to a reappraisal of the value of empirically
founded research. This reappraisal resulted in the limited promulgation of a
tentative cognitive approach to film by Bordwell, in contrast to the prevailing
political approaches (Bordwell, 1989b; see also Anderson, 1996).

Bordwells cognitive perspective was part of his larger project to formulate a
poetics of narration (Bordwell, 1985), where narration was defined as the
activity of selecting, arranging, and rendering story material in order to achieve
specific time-bound effects on a perceiver. (ibid., pp. xi). For Bordwell,
critical film theory underestimated the importance of the work of the spectator
he argued for active viewers, his or her experience is cued by the text,
according to intersubjective protocols that may vary (ibid., p.30), a
constructivist view of processing involving both top-down and bottom-up
processes (Bordwell also cites Bartlett, 1932), with schemas guiding the
hypothesising of viewers (ibid.).

In Bordwells account (1985), schemas are central: they are knowledge
structures which are characteristic of a concept or category, embodied in
prototypes, the essential structures of which can be applied to many different
situations (ibid., p. 34). Bordwell suggests that some schemas function as
templates (ibid., p 35) that control and shape viewer processing by supplying
an interpretative framework, such as the schema for the universal or canonic
story which in 1985 Bordwell questioned the universality of but in 1989a
accepted (Bordwell, 1985, 1989a). This universal story consists of setting
plus characters-goal-attempts-outcome-resolution. (Bordwell, 1985, p. 35),
comprising schematic assumptions about the story and plot, processed by
means of other perceptual schema related to people, actions and locales
(Bordwell, 1985). In Bordwells account plot is altered to create effects in
viewers, with other schemas operating to supply rules for interpretation or as
stylistic templates. Bordwell draws a distinction between story and plot: story
is everything that could have happened in the storyworld (not the film per se)
from the chronological start of events in the story world to their end, as if the
33
events had flowed in an unbroken sequence. Story is not presented to viewers,
rather plot is the actual form in which the story is presented. For Bordwell,
the semantic content, the structure of schemas and the processing of schemas
(Bordwell, 1985; Bordwell, 1989a) are all important with viewers building
semantic structures that effect how they sample on screen data (ibid.). This
run-time activity by viewers results in a representation of the unfolding film
that also guides perception and comprehension, with the central goal of the
spectators being to create a meaningful story for themselves:

the spectator seeks to grasp the filmic continuum as a set of
events occurring in defined settings and unified by principles of
temporality and causation. To understand a films story is to grasp
what happens and where, when, and why it happens (Bordwell,
1985, p. 34)

Noel Carroll, writing a few years after Bordwells 1985 contribution, starts
his account with a fundamental philosophical critique of contemporary film
theory (as already discussed above, Carroll, 1988). In the politicised and for
Carroll non-verifiable body of film theory, spectators were influenced
ideologically to uphold capitalism (ibid.). For Carroll, however, film is less
about ideology, codes and conventions and more about, amongst other complex
issues, the fact that on-screen structures can be representational in the way that
our normal perception is (ibid., p. 131).

Both Bordwell and Carroll want to avoid the dangers of theories that seek to
explain everything about film. They share a methodological concern for
soundly rooted theory (Bordwell, 1985; Carroll, 1988) that tell us verifiable
things about the film experience. Writing a few years later, Bordwell (1989a)
compares the cognitive approach to the film studies approach, in part defending
the cognitive approach from claims that it is based on scientific ideology and
therefore suspect. He points out that film scholars have ignored the scientific
background of some of their own theoretical positions: film studies is a
hermeneutic discipline[in which, therefore][t]heoretical doctrines that
themselves are cast in narrative formare special favorites, telling stories that
only describe phenomenon (Bordwell, 1989b, p. 17). These stories form a
34
descriptive meta language, but as Bordwell points out, descriptions are not
explanations and a cognitive account has advantages over critical theory
(Bordwell, 1989b), since it can identify problems and propose hypotheses. It
also has practical value he cites work on colour perception and it can
integrate research from other disciplines such as narratology (ibid.). Neither
Bordwell or Carroll seem to fully subscribe to a cognitivist approach.

Bordwells (1985) account is, by his own admission, incomplete it does
not include emotion, aesthetics or the theory of art. From the mid 1990s to the
early 2000s, a number of attempts have been made to offer a fuller account of
film experiences (e.g., Anderson, 1996; Tan, 1996; Perrson, 2003; Smith,
2003). These more recent works have sought to build on more verifiable
accounts examining ecological approaches where the experiences of a film
maps onto natural perception (Anderson, 1996), focusing on emotion as a
prompted and spreading phenomenon that occurs and reoccurs throughout the
entertainment artifact (Tan, 1996; Smith, 2003) or detailing a large variety of
research findings from psychology applied to specific filmic phenomenon but
without an integrating and organising framework (Perrson, 2003).

These modern approaches have problems. Firstly, the marshalling of
research is not always done within the context of an integrating framework:
there may be a focus on cognition or emotion or perception. Secondly,
emotional response are seen as correlated with content rather than prompted by
it content and experience are thus inappropriately conflated. Thirdly, there is
a lack of context, with deracinated accounts offered rather than theoretically
grounded empirical frameworks that engage with the phenomenology of the
felt life (McCarthy and Wright, 2004), which represents a paradoxical
disappearance of actual viewers from the experience. Fourthly, these
frameworks work back from psychological principles to films, resulting in
loose generalities, representing a paradoxical disappearance of any linkage to
the actual film content of specific films. Finally, these accounts do not seem to
have resulted in a productive research programme (see Persson, 2003 on
valuable theory).
35
Does schema theory give purchase in considering that other discipline of
relevance to stories, narratology? The following section examines this issue.

1.4.3 Narratology

Narrative has been defined as an artificial encoding of a series of linearly
organised causal relationships (Pinchbeck and Stevens, 2005, p.3) and can
be defined as a type of script, that is a type of grammar that can be extended
across different media (ibid., 2005). Stories enjoy special status over other
forms of text, being culturally universal and particularly easy to remember
(Graesser, Olde and Klettke, 2002). Also, comprehension of narratives has
been shown to depend on regularities across individuals, cultures and media
such as folktales, stories and comics (ibid.). It may in part be that stories are
artifacts that have been both culturally and individually internalised, facilitating
their processing. Alternatively, effective processing may be caused by the fact
that narrative maps onto everyday experiences (Graesser et. al., 2002, p. 16;
Graesser, Murray and Trabasco, 1994). Stories are universally distributed and
there is a universal story structure that is widely distributed across folktales and
other stories that consists of a protagonist, who has a goal, comes into conflict
with an antagonist, taking action, which results in a final consequence (e.g.,
Hiltunen, 2002; Graesser et al., 2002; Mandler, 1984). Narrative can be broken
down into actual events (the fabula or story as it would be if it unfolded in real
life, the event structure) and the version of events as narrated by a narrator (the
sjuzet, the discourse structure, the plot).

Functionally, all stories share the common function of someone telling
something to someone about something (Kearney, 2002, p. 5, italics
omitted). But what are these somethings and what do they become? Defining
narrative as encodings of organised linear relationships (see above, Pinchbeck
and Stevens, 2005) or events arranged in time-sequence (Forster, 1927,
p. 44, 87) does not seem fully satisfactory to tell us what story is, the first
definition because it lacks reference to the totality of the story, the second
because it omits causality. Cohan and Shires (1988) offer a fuller definition:
36
Story consists of events placed in a sequence to delineate a process of
change, the transformation of one event into another. An event depicts
some sort of physical or mental activity, an occurrence in time (an
action performed by or upon a human agent) or a state of existing in
time (such as thinking, feeling, being or having). The eventsbelong
to a sequence[which]contains at least two events, one to establish
a narrative situation or proposition, and one to alter (or at least merely
to differ from) that initial situation.
(Cohan and Shires, 1988, pp. 53-54, italics in the original)

Key terms in this definition are: events resulting in situations; sequence;
change; human agent; initial situation and altered situation (i.e., the ending
situation). Such a definition might suggest a two fold structure. In fact Cohan
and Shires quote approvingly from Todorov (1977) following the quote
(above), who outlines a three fold structure of a starting equilibrium, a state of
disequilibrium, and an ending state of equilibrium reestablished. It is therefore
more likely that Cohan and Shires (1988) are actually outlining a three stage
model which matches Todorov (see Todorov, 1977), an event which alters the
initial situation creates disequilibrium, resulting in a third stage of a new
equilibrium, the altered situation that is not the same as the initial situation.
This gives the following working definition of story, used for the rest of this
thesis:

A story is a causally linked sequence of at least two events,
establishing at the minimum three situations of an initial equilibrium, a
disequilibrium and a new equilibrium, which happen to or is
performed by one or more characters.

In this definition, the term characters replaces human agents (Cohan and
Shires, 1988) because in stories characters may be animal, alien or personified
objects such as buildings or weather states such as storms. Additionally, a term
such as characters implies personality and influence and a term such as
events implies a context of time and space (location).

In what follows (section 1.4.3.1, below), we first consider Aristotle, who has
had high impact on thinking about stories. Then modern narratological story
approaches and issues in relation to story are reviewed (section 1.4.3.2, below).
37
These sections show that schema theory and schematic approaches to patterns
have value and influence in the study of story, as they do in areas already
considered above (sections 1.4.1 and 1.4.2). Following the work on Aristotle
and modern narratological approaches, we move to consider schema theory
within the discipline of psychology (section 1.4.4 below).

1.4.3.1 Aristotles Poetics

Aristotles Poetics has shaped consideration of story for centuries and has
been influential on film (e.g., Howard, 2004; McKee, 1997/1999; Hiltunen,
2002). It has particular relevance for film structure (see below, investigations
two and three) and also for viewers talk (see below, investigations one and
four; more specifically in this thesis see the listings in section 1.7, below). For
Aristotle, the first essential, the life and soul, so to speak, of Tragedy is the
Plot; andthe Characters come second (Bywater 1920/1929, p. 38, capitals
and punctuation in all quotes from Bywater as in the original), with Spectacle
(ibid., p. 39) mattering least. The work should consist of an action that is
complete in itselfwhich has beginning, middle, and end. (ibid., p. 40)
suitable to the length of the story and its causal needs (ibid., p. 40). Wholeness
also involves connection and causality (ibid., pp. 42-43), where the removal or
move of one incident (ibid., p. 42) within the story will disjoin and
dislocate the whole. For that [incident] which makes no perceptible difference
by its presence or absence is no real part of the whole. (ibid., p. 42-43). Also
important are reversal (Peripety in Bywater, see p. 46) and recognition
(Discovery in Bywater, see p. 47). Reversal is a change in the situation from
one state to its opposite, recognition is a change from ignorance to knowledge,
which implies surprise (ibid., pp. 46-48). A third part of plot is Suffering
(ibid., p. 48) an action of injury or death (ibid.). The protagonist makes a
mistake (ibid., p. 50) with negative consequences, with the emotions of the
viewer being best aroused by the story rather than the Spectacle (ibid., p. 52).
Aristotle also states that the Dnouement (ibid., p. 57) should come from the
story, not from artificial means (ibid., p. 57). Finally, the story should always
be probable, [a] likely impossibility is always preferable to an unconvincing
38
possibility (ibid., p. 84).

1.4.3.2 Story issues in modern narratology

Various terms have been used to try and identify the psychological state that
readers go into when reading a narrative, such as transportation, trance,
presence and flow. Transportation (Green, 2004) is where a reader engages
with the narrative world at the expense of the real world. Trance, in a context
of listening to stories, has characteristics such as: the experience seems real,
there is a lack of awareness of self and surroundings, people are receptive and
time seems distorted (Sturm, 2001). Presence:

is an emergent property of a combination of cognitive and
perceptual processes and stimuliindicat[ing] that a relationship has
been established between stimuli within an organisms frame of
referencea snapshot of the organisms management of active
schemata(Pinchbeck and Stevens, sections 1 and 2.2, 2005).

A concept that embodies many of the above features is flow
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) which is marked by immersion and pleasure, though
flow is difficult to operationalise in practice.

People understand stories through constructing meaning, focused on interest
and inference. Interest has been conceived by researchers as being divided into
individual interest (the personal interests of human beings that develop slowly)
and situational interest (interests elicited by stimuli that are generated quickly),
with a further distinction of interest referring to interest whilst awaiting the
outcome of an event and interest following the outcome of an event
(interestingness and interestedness, Frick, 1992; see also Kim, 1999). Interest
is not a singular construct but is related to information which changes a
persons beliefs (by this is meant not necessarily large scale belief about life
but beliefs about, for example, the trajectory of the story, see Frick, 1992) and
prompts causal bridging inferences (Kim, 1999, p.57). Inference has
been conceived as effort after meaning (Bartlett, 1932, p. 20) focused on
coherence and explanation and driven by the readers goals (Graesser et. al.,
39
1994; Bartlett, 1932). Coherence building is partly a run-time comparative
process where a reader seeks to build a coherent situation model at local and
global levels, resulting in a structure that can be organised hierarchically up
from episodes, chunks, super-chunks and thematic points (Graesser et. al.,
2002. p.21 on online version from which the above is taken). Explanations
refer to the why issues in the story, such as why agents perform certain
actions. These processing strategies are relatively automatic (ibid.).

Empathy also affects how people understand stories. Empathy is the taking
of another persons psychological position (Coplan, 2004). Research shows
that readers of fiction privilege an imagined position near the protagonist and
that readers explain the emotions of characters by particularly focusing on one
character (Coplan, 2004).

From empirical work, narratologists have considered six levels of discourse
that are constructed in the mind of a reader (Graesser et al., 2002, from which
the following paragraph is drawn). The first is the surface code, the explicit
form of the text. The second is the textbase, a compact version of the surface
code in propositional form. The third is the situation world, a mental model
about the different elements of the story such as location, chronology etc., and
inferred or added (ornamentation) details of the story, with the causal chain in
the story remaining longer in memory than the ornamentation (ibid.). The
fourth element is that of thematic point. Thematic points are difficult for
human beings to delineate within an unfolding experience. People find it easier
to do this afterwards and easier still to recognize whether or not a theme is
appropriate for a story (ibid.). The fifth element is agent perspective, which
refers to the understandings that a reader has of each character whereby each
agent (character) speaks, knows, acts and experiences emotions. The sixth
element is genre, classifications of narratives according to their type. Graesser
et al. (2002) also identify pragmatic context as important, by which they
mean that the context of the delivery of the narrative supplies conventions that
assist in both telling and receiving the story.

40
1.5 Schema theory

A recurring theme in these accounts is schema theory, which appears in
different forms, either explicitly (e.g., Bordwell, 1985) or as patterning
phenomenon that can be interpreted in schematic terms (e.g., Tan, 1996; Smith
2003) or levels of understandings and characters (Graesser et al., 2002).
Schema theory also seems suitable, as against other accounts which have
provided psychological research backing for isolated and atomised film
phenomenon (e.g., Perrson, 2003), to provide an integrated account of film
phenomenon.

1.5.1 History of schema theory

Schemas were originally propounded by Bartlett (1932) as a structuring
mechanism in his studies of perception and memory (Bartlett claims inspiration
from an earlier model of proprioceptive schemas, but it has been suggested that
Bartletts model is qualitatively different from that model and therefore
original, Brewer, 2000). In Bartletts account, schemas relate to an active
organisation of past reactions, or of past experiences (Bartlett, 1932, p.
201), facilitated by the effort after meaning (ibid., p. 20) and built up by
repetition (ibid.). Schemas serve to adaptively facilitate and organise
perception and memory by minimising cognitive load and facilitating speed
and accuracy of response.

Bartletts conception of schemas did not find universal favour, a
premature burial of a healthy corpse (Rosa, 2000, p. 47) but was revived
in the computational work of Minsky on frames (1974). This work was
followed by work on script theory (see Abelson, 1981) and work on knowledge
representation, using models of the outside world, enabling rapid processing of
external stimuli (Rumelhart and Norman, 1985). Schema theory and its related
correlates such as frames and scripts are not the only theoretical conception of
how human beings represent meaning. Developed separately but sharing
related concerns with schema theory was the concept of mental models (e.g.,
41
Craik, 1943; Johnson-Laird, 1983).

Schema theory has also been used to study problem solving (VanLen, 1989).
It has also been used to study memory organisation, word order effects, actions
and story understanding, to name a few applications (De Beaugrand, 1982; see
also Saito, 2000).

1.5.2 Structure of schemas

Structurally, schemas are conceived of as consisting of a fixed part and a
variable part. The fixed part of the schema map the unvarying elements. The
variable parts consist of those elements where the specific problem is different
from the initial schema, requiring changes to that schema. The architecture of
schemas can be delineated more precisely, drawing on VanLehn (1989) in this
paragraph, in his work on problem solving. Schemas have two parts, which
operate in three stages. The first part of a schema is the prototypical problem
schema (the initially activated schema), with two stages of use. The first stage
of use occurs when, upon presentation of a suitable stimulus, a schema is
selected, it suddenly pops into mind[the] triggering process is not well
understood (VanLehn, 1989, p. 546). The second stage of use is when the
problem schema is instantiated to the given problem by being specifically
shaped and elaborated in the given context. The points of change are
conceived as slots which are filled with the new elements that are unique to
that problem, the fillers or slot content (e.g., VanLehn, 1989). The second
part of the schema is the solution schema, which is developed in the third
stage of schema use as the schema is used to find a solution of the problem. At
any one of the three stages other schemas can be triggered, if required. This
notion of stages is not to be taken as meaning that people are always rational
optimizing problem solvers, some human beings may approach problems using
non-standard sequences of operations (ibid.). Until the problem is solved, the
activation of schema remains tentative and subject to change, so an ongoing
process of schema search may take place until the final schema is chosen and
proves successful (ibid.).
42
Schema theory therefore attempts to gain purchase on the patterning of
mental representations and how these patterned mental representations
facilitate cognition in different contexts. Schemas are organised into
conceptual groupings that come into existence at many different levels in the
process of watching a film, ranging from low level perceptual related to
boundaries (e.g., Intraub, Bender and Mangels, 1992) to that of generic
universal story structures (e.g., Bordwell, 1985) and story elements (e.g.,
Graesser et al., 1994; Graesser et. al., 2002; Hiltunen, 2002; Mandler, 1984;
Frick, 1992; Kim, 1992). Schemas enable a viewer to identify a visual
arrangement of shapes as a human being, then categorise these human beings
as specific people such as Jo Smith. Viewers then develop on-line
(Graesser et. al., 1994) an instantiated schemata of Jo Smith as the film
unfolds, with inferences made from her looks, clothes and particularly her
speech and behaviour as to what type of person she is. Further schemas are
triggered as she interacts with other characters. These are in turn linked to the
understanding of plot as the viewers engage with the film (or book, ibid.) in the
unfolding stream of moments. Plot schemas are themselves organised by
higher level schemas that viewers have absorbed from long exposure to
commercial feature films (e.g., Howard, 2004; McKee, 1997/1999), including
schemas related to genre expectations and schemas built up in the process of
engaging with specific teasers, trailers and other advertising material for the
film in advance of its release.

1.5.3 Schema in films and viewers reports

With reference to this research, schemas can be divided into two main types,
focused on where they are found (film content or human minds though we
have no access to human minds and in fact deal with viewers reports).
Schemas consisting of patterning in artifacts (film) are referred in this research
by the term film schemas or just schemas if the context is unambiguous.
Schemas consisting of patterned psychological effects in peoples minds are
referred to simply as schemas.

43
An advantage of schema theory is that schemas have a rudimentary but
flexible architecture. This architecture becomes dense when the particularities
of the specific context in which the schemas are triggered and deployed are
considered. This suggests that schemas should be a good vehicle for handling
specific film content in a meaningful and theoretically useful manner.

An issue with schema theory is that it would seem to have no mechanism for
identifying transitions between schemas it lacks any process to select one
schema type over another at the point at which a stimuli is presented (e.g.,
Anderson, 1996). Schema theory would seem to explain only the elements, not
the sequencing of these elements into ''threads of experience (McCarthy and
Wright, 2004). This issue can be addressed, firstly, by supplementing schema
theory with other empirical work such as event perception research and
constructivism (e.g., Zacks and Tversky, 2001; Graesser, Murray and Trabasso,
1994). Secondly, schemas have a hierarchical multilayered and interlinked
structure and it seems reasonable that causal links and accepted story schemas
may act to integrate different schemas. Any schema based account of visual
story experiences such as those promoted by film must incorporate such an
explanation. This research does not examine perceptual schemas related to
character identification and other low level phenomenon.

1.6 Choice of research approach
Philosophical work identifies the importance of cognition (e.g., King, 2003;
Dewey, 1934) and the importance of a wholistic phenomenological account
(McCarthy and Wright, 2004) but philosophical accounts tend to be generalist,
focusing on the importance of cognition and differences in sensually perceived
objects as a basis of categorization and therefore discrete experiences (Dewey,
1934), though some accounts explicitly engage with specific content
(McCarthy and Wright, 2004). Narrative work focused on schematic elements
in story, such as the universal story (e.g., Pinchbeck and Stevens, 2005;
Mandler, 1984; Bordwell, 1985) offer possible ways of breaking these down
into smaller aggregates, such as acts, as does Aristotle in his Poetics (Bywater,
44
1920/1929; Else, 1957). Nevertheless, at the lower levels of granularity
(without looking at individual purely perceptual schemas such as man,
woman or dog) such accounts still can tell us little about actual film content
and how it works together a promise which is only held out by narrative
accounts, but not currently fulfilled by them. Other attempts have been made
to develop an integrated framework, such as Bordwell (1989a) in his account of
meaning making in film criticism. This account identifies the centrality of
semantic fields, processed by means of a series of informing processes and
cognitive hypotheses, with category schemas (such as genre), personification
schemas (schema that are related to people, such as film maker style) and text
schemas (such as journey). The problem with this framework that it is highly
abstract and has little to say about the actuality of film content or how the
schemas interact and outwork in the moment by moment unfolding of the film,
falling foul of Bordwells own criticism of film theory (1985).
Schema theory, if used to investigate schemas in viewers talk and film
content, seems to be suitable for meeting the desideratum of an approach which
integrates and is integrated by existing research based theory, supplying an
underlying and productive rationale for a powerful research agenda that can
inform some of the less well researched issues related to viewers experiences
of film. Other multidisciplinary empirical findings can then be integrated as
needed for a new account of film content experiences. A framework for
implications for design will also be constructed through the programme of
research undertaken and reported in this thesis, drawing on schema theory.

There are a number of different ways this research could proceed. A guiding
principle is the need for suitability not just for film researchers but also for film
designers (scriptwriters, storyboarders and directors). This precludes
investigations using physiological measures, brain scanning and pure
experimental and quantitative approaches, since specialist equipment and
techniques would be required. Also, such methods may report specific
physiological measures but give little insight into the phenomenological
reported content of film experiences, a prime concern of this research.
45
Investigations of viewers talk would seem to be suitable, being relatively
portable and accessible for film practitioners. Having viewers report during the
film is problematic because such talk is likely to disrupt and reshape the
reporting possibilities, as well as interfere with the processing of the film.
Reports on the film immediately afterwards face the challenge of plausible yet
inaccurate reconstructions given inadvertently by participants. Yet this
challenge can be mitigated. Firstly, participants can be told at the start of the
session that it is permissible to have nothing to report on a given scene, thereby
avoiding the pressure that can lead to production of plausible reconstructions.
Clearly the content of all reports will not consist of such plausible
reconstructions subjects may have strong memories of a particular part of an
experience that is closely linked to specific film content (such as the way an
actors acting was poor or a visual or sonic element in the film was unclear)
such that the strength of the feeling, the correlation to specific film content and
the close temporal contiguity of event and report argue for the veracity of the
report and therefore successful avoidance of this danger. Secondly, questions
should be asked during the session to assess this possibility. Thirdly, viewers
talk is work that they do, it is still meaningful since it reflects how they are
framing their discourse of specific film content, whatever the precise
relationship of their internal experience to this content at the time of viewing
(something that may forever elude researchers, given its hidden and internal
nature). Therefore an approach to viewers talk that makes use of post film
interviews, with playback of scenes and careful use of prompts to avoid
plausible reconstructions is appropriate.

Investigations of actual film content would seem to be also called for.
Investigating this content within the context of design choices that directors
and other film professionals make during the course of writing the script and
film production might be suitable. This implies either an ethnographic
approach or a series of extended interviews with scriptwriter, director and
others. Yet there are significant barriers to such an approach:

46
Commercial film making is a highly time and money pressured
environment, with often stringent demands of confidentiality.
Research access is unlikely to be given.
The number of design artifacts produced in a commercial film
production would challenge even the resources and disciplinary
expertise of a substantial team of researchers.
The time scale of a commercial feature film is also challenging,
often taking two or more years from idea to screen. The only viable
possibility would be for a film director to also be lead researcher
coordinating a team of researchers at the same time as making the
film, an unlikely combination of expertise.
There was not time in this research to wait for films to be made:
both the films used here had already been created.

A different approach is to consider the artifact as embodying both the
explicit and implicit knowledge of the designers (Ramduny-Ellis, Dix, Rayson,
Ondoti, Sommerville and Ransom, 2005). This results in the need for a direct
analysis of film content, without reference to the individuals and processes
involved in the production of that content. This approach was used in the
present research (see Investigations Two and Three, below), using a analytic
method developed iteratively during the course of the project, linking this to
relevant extant literature and deepening it through engagement with the
findings from the research investigations as they unfolded.

Two short films were used in this research (Ice Cream Dream and The
Wrong Trousers, Walia, 2003; Park, 1993). The choice of short films was
dictated by time constraints, since the time costs associated with using feature
films for the research are too great for a three year doctoral project involving
only one researcher.

This research proceeds on three fronts. Firstly, an attempt to assemble
material from disparate research sources into an integrated framework, whilst
avoiding the danger that such a framework might prove heuristically fruitless at
the desired level of explanation i.e., it might not adequately address the issue of
what makes a good movie content experience or the framework might be too
abstract or theoretical for the task at hand, it might lack heuristic power in the
real world. Secondly, qualitative investigations of film viewing, with the aims
47
of identifying themes, issues and ideas as expressed in viewers talk about
movies. Thirdly, an examination of film content.

As well as developing a research approach, a further objective of the
research is to develop design implications for film content. Such a framework
could have wide applicability for a range of devices and technologically
mediated contexts where engagement, character, visual design and story are
crucial, issues not currently examined in this research project.

1.7 Initial research questions

This paragraph reiterates the three fold focus of this research on film
structure, viewers reports and design implications. As indicated above
(section 1.4.3), all stories share the common function of someone telling
something to someone about something (Kerney, 2002, p.5, italics omitted).
The first dimension of story, the someone telling somethingabout
something, with the narrator and the artefact the films in this research
treated as equivalent (see Ramduny-Ellis et al., 2005, above) resulting in the
need to consider structure in film. The second dimension of story, the
someone who is being told something, results in the need to consider the
viewer of the film. In line with the concern stated in the Aims and Approaches
(section 1.2, above), both of these dimensions result in design implications. In
what follows, the dimension of viewers talk is dealt with first (this being the
first study, reported in Chapter Two, below), though it is recognised that some
of the structural issues subsequently mentioned can also be expected to
influence viewers reports on film. The following two paragraphs briefly
review the literature already dealt with above, as the context for the initial
research questions that formed the starting point for the whole research.

In relation to the research questions about viewers talk, the dimension in
story who is the someone (1.4.3, above) who is being told something, this
research focuses firstly on viewers talk. Viewers as active agents disappeared
from film studies with the lack of interest in Munsterbergs (1916)
48
psychological approach to film viewers were seen as passive recipients of
theoretically based positions in film studies (see Bordwell, 1985). It might be
expected that participants would talk of fun (e.g., Blythe and Hassenzahl,
2003) and seek to relate to the film experience as a whole (e.g., Dewey, 1934),
with clear boundaries benefiting the reported experience (e.g., Tversky et al.,
2002). A viewer wishes to enter a trance, transportation or flow state (Sturm,
2001; Green, 2004; Csikszentimihalyi, 1990), seeking to build up a coherent
model of what is going on in the film (e.g., Bartletts effort after meaning,
1932, p. 20), with any interruptions to this being possibly perceived as
negative. The use of the universal story structure in a film may benefit
reported understanding, especially if strong causality and wholeness (e.g.,
Pinchbeck and Stevens, 2005; Aristotle in Bywater 1920/1929) are in evidence,
with the protagonist making a mistake with negative consequences (Aristotle in
Bywater, 1920/1929). These issues in relation to viewers talk about film and
the design issues that are linked to such talk relate to the first group of three
research questions that formed the initial starting point of this research. Since
it cannot be assumed that schemas structure viewers talk, the first question
about viewers talk relates to examining the content structures that organise the
viewers talk. The second question examines whether these content structures
map onto schema theory, with the third question considering design
implications. The answers to these three questions related to viewers talk are
particularly dealt with later in the thesis (see sections 2.3, 2.4, 4.3, 4.4, 5.3).
The three questions in relation to viewers talk are therefore:

What are the report structures that viewers use when they talk about
film content?
Do these report structures map onto schema theory?
Can a set of design implications be developed from viewers talk
findings?

In relation to the research questions about film structure, film studies largely
considered film structure only through critical theory based approaches
(Bordwell, 1985). The telling of the story (plot, Bordwell, 1985) is important,
with the universal story structure suggesting that narrative film would benefit
49
from a protagonist with goals, conflicts with antagonists and actions by the
protagonist resulting in a final consequence (e.g., Graesser et al., 2002).
Structure could therefore consist of as a minimum: an initial equilibrium, a
disequilibrium and a new equilibrium which happens to or is performed by one
or more characters (see above, section 1.4.3). From Aristotle (Bywater,
1920/1929, see section 1.4.3.1 above) effective structure should not use mere
spectacle solely to create effects, should have wholeness (parts cannot be
removed from the story without damaging it) and should demonstrate causality
(events should succeed each other according to probability and need, see also
Pinchbeck and Stevens, 2005). Also, Aristotle suggests that the protagonist
should make a mistake, there should be a consequent complication and then an
unravelling of this mistake in the story, with no visible introduction of
irrational or absurd parts usually (Bywater, 1920/1929). These issues of
structure and the design issues that are linked to them relate to the second
group of three research questions that form the initial starting point for this
research. Since it cannot be assumed that schemas structure films, the fourth
question relates to examining what content structures organise the films used in
this research. The fifth question examines whether these content structures
map onto schema theory, with the sixth question considering design
implications. The answers to these questions about the structure of the films
are particularly dealt with later in the thesis (see sections 3.3, 3.4, 4.3, 4.4, 5.3).
The three questions in relation to the structure of the two films are therefore:

What are the content structures that organise the film?
Do these content structures map onto schema theory?
Can a set of design implications be developed from film content
structures findings?

The first study examined viewers talk on the short film, Ice Cream Dream.
This is reported in Chapter Two (following).
50
Chapter 2. Investigation one viewers talk on
short film Ice Cream Dream

2.1 Introduction

The extensive expansion of entertainment possibilities in relation to film
content through the internet and other factors (Chapter One, above),
presents the need to develop new research and design insights into viewers
reports on film content. Yet cognitive approaches to film have been a
minority position in film studies, with no integrated frameworks based on
schema theory in relation to film being fully developed, despite the
influence of schema theory in this and related areas (Chapter One, above).

The focus of this first investigation was therefore to explore viewers
reports about how film prompts individual experiences. This focus is not
intended to suggest that all viewers will think and feel the same things at
the same time, a deterministic and mechanical model (see McCarthy and
Wright, 2004). Rather it means that the experiences prompted by the film
have been sufficiently similar for the viewers to be able to talk
meaningfully in a similar, as opposed to uniquely individual (e.g.,
Scheurich, 1995) fashion about the film and their responses to it.

Specifically, this investigation sought to answer the three initial research
questions related to viewers talk, which are also particularly addressed in
study four (see section 1.7, above). Questions related to film structure (the
last three questions at section 1.7, above) are particularly dealt with in
studies two and three, below. The first question in this study concerned the
conceptual structures that might be reflected in viewers reports of film
content experiences: What are the report structures that viewers use when
they talk about film content? (research question one, section 1.7 above).
The second question concerned the linkage of these report structures to
schema theory: Do these report structures map onto schema theory?
51
(research question two, section 1.7 above). The third question related to
the design of film content: Can a set of design implications be developed
from viewers talk findings? (research question three, section 1.7) above.
These questions will be revisited in the fourth study. Links between
structural and viewers talk findings are reported throughout the results and
discussions sections for each study, as indicated in detail above (section
1.7).

2.2 Method

2.2.1 Design

The design was a qualitative category analysis, drawing on a grounded
theory approach to build theory, using post-film semi-structured
interviewing. A grounded theory approach (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) was
incorporated because it explicitly integrates theory building, offering the
freedom to investigate and follow up a range of phenomena at a range of
levels of granularity, rather than being focused at a fixed level of
granularity that an approach such as conversation analysis would offer.
Theoretical sensitivity (Glaser, 1978) meant that the analysis was focused
on issues in relation to schema theory. Detailed procedure in relation to
analysis can be seen below (sections 2.2.6 and 2.2.7).

2.2.2 Ethical issues

The project was assessed for ethical issues according to the guidelines of
the Ethics Committee of the Department and in accordance with the British
Psychological Society Code of Conduct in relation to research with human
participants. There were no threats to values or dignity, since the film
contains no offensive content. Informed consent was obtained beforehand
via the consent form after an explanation of the aims of the research and
participants were offered the chance to withdraw if, after this explanation,
they no longer wished to participate. No participants in this investigation
52
chose to withdraw.

2.2.3 Participants

Ten participants took part in the investigation. Seven were female, three
were male, age ranged from twenty-one to thirty (M = 23.8). All
participants were attending or had attended the University of York as
students. Nine of the participants were in current attendance, comprising
two undergraduate students, two Masters students and five PhD students.
One was a recent graduate. A record of the discipline studied by each
participant was not kept.

To participate, all participants had to self-report watching at least one
feature film every two weeks (whatever the location of this viewing) and
owning a mobile telephone. All participants were unpaid volunteers.
Participating in the research did not give course credits for any of the
courses that students were enrolled on.

2.2.4 Materials

Ice Cream Dream (Walia, 2003), a short film of nine and a half minutes
minutes duration on DVD was used as the stimulus material. The
investigator prepared a factual summary of the content of the film, a
segmentation (Bordwell, 2001) before the field work commenced (see
Appendix One). A summary of the film, to aid reader comprehension, is
presented here (Table 2.1, below).
53
Table 2.1 Segmentation of Ice Cream Dream in three act form

OPENING TITLE AND CREDITS

ACT ONE: Status quo and inciting event
A girl (Luna) is in the ice cream van with her Dad. She is worried about the
other children. A boy (Harry) goes past on a scooter. Luna watches him go.
Her Dad suggests Luna go out and play. Luna sees her sinister alter ego
outside the van, through a cracked van window, and shakes her head to her
Dad, no, shell stay in the van.

ACT TWO: Hero takes action, reversal, antagonist wins
At home, her mother asks, how many sales did you make? And is delighted
at the answer of 300, adding to Luna that you should put that in the bank.
Luna has a day dream about bars of ice-cream being put into a small safe in a
bank. The mother and father do the accounts with Luna watching, Luna is sent
to bed. Her Dad comes in and encourages her to make friends, then leaves.
Luna has two dreams. In the first dream her alter ego successfully stops her
making friends by suggesting that Luna will have nothing to say to them and
will be laughed at. In the second she is announced as a prize winning ice
cream maker on television, is seen selling the ice cream from the van and
dealing with a rude boy by putting chilli sauce on his ice-cream, to cheers
from the crowd of children waiting to buy ice cream.

ACT THREE: High effort and victory

The next day Luna and her Dad start to go out in the van, then Luna changes
her mind and gets out, intending to meet the other children. Her alter ego
watches as Luna walks towards Harry to talk to him, and the alter ego realizes
that she has lost the battle to prevent Luna making friends. Luna talks to
Harry and is invited to meet his friends. From the van, Lunas Dad smiles
happily as he sees this and drives off, playing the vans ice cream chimes.

CLOSING TITLE AND CREDITS

The film story takes place in three locales, which the above description
mirrors, divided into sections for the van, the home and the street (in the
segmentation, the dream sequence is treated as occurring at home, though
in terms of its content it is set in and around the van). These three locales
are treated as contiguous with the three act structure, for the purposes of
this research.

The segmentation (see Appendix One) and the above description (Table
54
2,1, above) are constructed as factual documents they contain no
explanatory material ahead of the time in the film that such explanations
are forthcoming. So, for example, the reason that Luna is worried is left
unstated, mirroring the fact that the reason for her worry is only obliquely
revealed later in the film, when her father has a talk with her about making
friends.

A 23 inch flat plasma screen television connected to a DVD player was
used to show the film, which was shown in a residentially styled living
room in the Responsive Home run by the Centre for Usable Home
Technologies (CUHTec) at the University of York, United Kingdom. A
copy of the Independent Television Commission - Sense of Presence
Inventory (Lessiter, Freeman, Keogh and Davidoff, 2001), a cross media
questionnaire developed to measure immersion and general media habits
was filled out for each session (Part A and the Background Information
section only). These sources were integrated into one proforma, together
with a copy of the original segmentation of the film, which acted as a guide
for the investigator, to ensure that all items were covered in the correct
sequence for all participants.

2.2.5 Procedure

All participants signed a University of York Psychology Department
consent form. Participants took part in the investigation individually, with
only the investigator present at the same time. Participants watched the
film in the living room of the responsive home, seated on a two person sofa
which was about three meters from the screen. After the film had finished
the investigator interviewed the participants (see Appendix One for copy of
the interview schedule and related material). First, the participants were
asked to summarise the film. Then enjoyment scores were taken, with
participants asked How much did you enjoy the film?, scored on a 1-5
Likert scale (to match ITC-SOPI items), with 3 representing a neutral point
(Neither agree nor disagree) and 5 indicating strong agreement (strongly
55
agree). Then the investigator used the remote control to step-through the
film scene by scene, using the segmentation (see Appendix One) as a guide
(prompted viewing). Participants were asked to reflect on their experiences
of each scene of the film from the first viewing and report these. Also,
participants were encouraged not to report if they did not remember any
experiences or to report if they were sure that the experiences they reported
were from the second prompting viewing, to reduce the likelihood of
plausible reconstructions. Checks were made throughout the interview by
the interviewer to ensure that these reports related to the first viewing, not
the viewing of the film in its scenes at the second viewing. It was
recognized early on that viewers reports of their reactions to the second
viewing would also constitute information of interest, but this material was
not analysed, since the issue of viewers reports on first viewing compared
to second viewing forms a different set of research questions not addressed
in this research and because the inclusion of the question related to the
second viewing was included only as a safeguard against spurious
reconstructions. Reports were explored with participants in the interview.
Following this, participants were questioned using Part A from the ITC-
SOPI, which was filled in by the investigator to preserve the informal
conversational tone of the session. After this the ITC-SOPI section
Background Information was filled in, with the investigator asking the
questions and recording the responses on the pre-prepared proforma. There
was a post-session de-brief, which also investigated the participants views
of the conduct of the session and provided the opportunity for feedback.
For data analysis, the interviews were recorded on audio cassette.

2.2.6 Data analysis

This section gives a procedural description of the data analysis as carried
out (see also the introductory material in section 2.2.1 and also the
illustrative material on coding nomenclature, below, section 2.2.7). Data
analysis was undertaken using categorical analysis with a grounded theory
approach for theory building, focused on schema theory, as mentioned
56
above (section 2.2.1; see Glaser, 1978; Glaser and Strauss, 1968; Strauss
and Corbin, 1990, see also Parker and Roffey, 1997), using the transcripts
of the interviews (a sample transcript with transcription principles can be
seen in Appendix Two). The talk of each participant was transcribed and
structured according to the segmentation used by the investigator. Codes
were assigned to each participant to preserve participant confidentiality: PH
9.7 means Participant H, from section nine of the segmentation, coded
speech segment seven (see also below, section 2.2.7). The key to these
codes was held in a separate locked place. The analysis initially started at a
wrong level the investigator attempted to code speech at the level of
cognitive phenomenon that he perceived were reflected in the data. After
this error was realized, coding was resumed but on a factual basis. Phrases
were used as the basic unit of analysis, but defined by what the participant
was saying, rather than deciding a priori on a given granularity in relation
to phrase or sentence. Speech from the transcripts were first coded into top
level factual codes. So for instance, if a participant mentioned an actors
hair negatively (PL 9.5/9.7), this was coded as talk about hair. All the
salient data were thus factually coded and then grouped into same
categories (for example, talk on location formed one category). These
categories were themselves then put into higher level categories (such as
Specific Film Aspects), as it became clear from the analysis that the lower
level categories could be classed together into higher categories. Logical
and temporal sequence was preserved (though this is not possible with all
qualitative data analysis) since internet searching (Hale and Moss, 1999)
and films have temporal regularities that make this preservation possible.
Material pertinent to the psychology of film music (a specialist area in
which the author has no expertise) and a few segments of idiosyncratic talk
were not coded into subcategories and are not presented. Further
illustrative material on the procedural aspects of the coding are provided
below (section 2.2.7).

A common misunderstanding of the grounded theory approach is that
analysts come to the research process with no preconceptions. This is
57
incorrect, since theoretical sensitivity is an important precursor to coding
(Glaser, 1978).

2.2.7 Coding nomenclature

During the coding process, it became necessary to develop a
nomenclature for clarity and this is used for the rest of the thesis. The term
segment is used to refer to a coded section of participants speech, the
lowest level of coding. The term category grouping is used for the
highest level category, consisting of a collection of categories such as Real
Life Reflection (coded as RLF, see 2.3.3, below). The term category is
used for the second highest level category, such as Film, coded to show
the collection of categories it belongs too, as in Real Life Reflection
Film (coded as RLF - Film, see 2.3.3.1 below). Within a category, the
term cluster refers to thematically similar segments which are collected
together into a named sub-group within a code category, with a requirement
that there be a minimum of three segments from at least two participants to
be so classified. The term viewer is used to denote someone who is
watching a film in a general and non-experimental setting i.e., generic
viewers. The term participant is reserved for someone participating in
this investigation. Individual participants segments in this investigation
are identified by an alphabetic doublet with a number following (see above,
2.2.6) which were randomly allocated to participants in accordance with
good confidentiality practice.

During coding, segments were coded for positive, neutral and negative
response in participants talk. Only overtly stated personal responses are
response coded, with any inferences as to emotional direction coded as
neutral, because of the difficulties of attempting to code them as positive
or negative. A segment coded as neutral usually consists of talk by a
participant that is purely observational, with no indication of the
participants emotional reaction. An example of a neutral coded segment
where the participant is merely observing or commenting on the film
58
content without indicating a personal emotional reaction, is,

the music just represented that sort of mood like quiet.
(PC 8.8)

Positively coded segments were coded on explicit positive comment by
the participant and were so coded either because a participant liked a
particular sequence in a film or because they were reacting in a way
intended by the film maker. In the latter case the emotion would normally
be considered negative but in the context of the film it is positive, since it
has been prompted by the content of the film, presumably according to the
film makers intentions and in line with the desires of the viewer in going to
see the film. The case of the negative emotion of fear in horror films is the
clearest example of this principle. Where a participants comments
contained a suggestive inference of a positive emotion but no explicit
statement of this, the segment was coded as neutral. An illustration of a
positively coded segment where a participant expressed a liking of an
element of the film is shown below, followed by an example of a segment
coded positively because the emotion (in this case a negative emotion)
corresponds to what is intended by the film-maker is,

Nice music(PI 17.2)

I remembered the first time round being annoyed, thats right, that
um she hadnt reprimanded him immediately for being rude(PE
12.2)

Segments coded as negative in response consisted of segments where
participants were puzzled by content which was unclear to them or content
which they regard as unreal or content where they explicitly said they did
not like a particular film sequence or element. Two examples of negatively
coded segments now follow. The first is an example of a participant
expressing puzzlement over content that is unclear to them, the second
where content is reported as seeming unreal:

59

You know, when he looked over at the red [money] box, that sort
of puzzled me a bit, why was he looking at that, why had they
shown that for so long, why was that significant.
(PH 16.2).

The kids being unrealistically crowd, an unrealistic crowd again.
(PL 11.3)

2.3 Results and Discussion

Results are presented as follows, with discussion following. The first
section reports the enjoyment scores (2.3.1, below). Next the results from
the summarizing activity are reported (2.3.2). Then the main clusters
arising out of the data analysis of viewers talk are reported with
explanations.

2.3.1 Enjoyment scores

Enjoyment scores are from the additional questions, on a 1-5 Likert scale
(to match ITC-SOPI items), with 3 representing a neutral point. Five
participants were neutral to the film (score of 3), three liked it (two scores
of 4, one of 5). Two participants mildly disliked the film (score of 2).
Four of the participants were neutral to the statement, Id recommend
the experience [of this film] to my friends, with four participants
disagreeing and two participants strongly disagreeing (ITC-SOPI item).

With reference to the design of film content and viewers reported
evaluations, only positive evaluations of content matter, since the aim of
film makers is that viewers enjoy the films they have created neutral and
negative evaluations essentially form one category of unsatisfactory.
Therefore for eight of the participants the film was a failure as an enjoyable
experience, according to the ratings they gave. Reasons why this might be
60
so will emerge during the consideration of the coding categories of
viewers talk that emerged from the category analysis (see below, 2.3.3 to
2.3.6).

2.3.2 Summaries

Participants were asked to summarise the short film, point by point.
All participants identified the main character and the pivotal issue, a little
girls insecurities (general) or a little girl who doesnt have any friends
(specific). Most described the positive outcome, that she overcomes her
fear of others. Participants kept closely to this core description, with some
of the more dramatically striking moments of the film (such as the
appearance of the evil alter ego or the comic sequence with the bank
manager) hardly mentioned by participants one participant commented
that these other issues didnt seem relevant in a summary.

Participants structured their summaries in terms of the definition of story
used above (section 2.4.3), with the main character, the starting state and
the ending state being correctly identified in most cases. Two issues
remain. The first is why all the participants did not correctly summarise the
film, this may be linked to the problems with the content that the viewers
commented on interfering with the building of a representation of the film.
The second relates to a methodological difficulty: if participants are
reporting their summary of the film according to a schema for a summary,
it may prove difficult to get reports that do not invoke this schema, with the
result that only partial data is gained. The instruction to summarise the film
point by point was intended to ameliorate this potential effect.

61
2.3.3 Real Life Reflection category grouping (RLF)

This category grouping consists of four categories mentioning aspects of
the film as these prompted reflections on real life, without reference to the
film. These codes are summarised below (Table 2.1), then reported and
discussed (sections 2.3.3.1 to 2.3.3.4, below).

Table 2.2 Coding categories related to Real Life Reflection (RLF)

Category name
and code

Definition (total number of coded
segments)

Subject clustering
(segments/number of
participants)

Real-life
reflection-film
RLR-FILM

Real-life
reflection-
actors
RLR-ACTRS

Real-life
reflection-
personal
RLF-PER

Real-life
reflection-
general
RLF-GEN

Talk about real life aspects of the actual
film (4)

Talk about real life aspects related to the
real actors (13)

Talk about their own real lives by
participants, whether in the present or in
some hypothetical future (16)

Talk about real life issues outside films
storyworld (18)

No clustering

One cluster (4/4) on Jon
Snow

One cluster (4/3) on
making friends

No clustering

2.3.3.1 Real-Life Reflection Film (RLF-FILM)

This category was defined by participants reflecting on real life aspects
of the film itself i.e., not aspects of the film story world or related to the
story world. This category was coded as RLF-FILM, with a + or prefix
to show response tone, where the participant indicated this explicitly.
There are no clusters within the coded segments. An example of this
category is:

62
Yeah, I noticed that it was written and directed by the same people.
(PJ 17.2)

The full break down of numbers and response tone of this category are
illustrated below.

Table 2.3 Coding frequencies for category Real-life Reflection-Film
(RLR-FILM)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
0

Neutral
(0)
4

Negative
(-)
0

Total 4

This category has no coded segments in which participants indicate
positive or negative responses, so the whole category is response neutral.
There was no cluster. Since the segments are unrelated to reports
concerning experiences of the film story world, there are no design
implications from this category.

2.3.3.2 Real-Life Reflection Actors (RLF-ACTRS)

This category is defined by participants reflecting on real life aspects
related to the real actors who acted in the film, rather than qualitative
judgments of the actors competence or believability, which was separately
coded as Specific Film Aspects-Acting (SFA-ACT). The category was
coded as RLF-ACTRS, with a + or prefix to show response tone, when
the participant indicated this explicitly, with absence of response tone
coded as response neutral. Within this category of segments, there was one
cluster of five segments related to the newsreader Jon Snow, from five
different participants. All the other segments consisted of single segments
or two segments by the same participant.
63

An example of a positively coded segment from this cluster related to
Jon Snow is:

I mean the first time round I think, I sort of found it quite amusing
and I really liked the Jon Snow aspect, that did amuse me quite a
lot, I think I was quite tickled by it, the first time round.
(PE 10.31)

The negatively coded segment is negatively coded because, as is
apparent from transcript, the participant reports thoughts started by the
appearance of Jon Snow as disrupted the processing of a period of the film
following his appearance:

I also thought they must have paid a lot of money to get Jon Snow
onhow did they get him on? Then I, that kind of thought process
carried on, actually, for quite a while, like what during this bit [of
the film]
(PL 10.4/10)

illustrated below (Table 2.4).

Table 2.4 Coding frequencies for category Real-life Reflection-Actors
(RLR-ACTRS)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
4

Neutral
(0)
7

Negative
(-)
2

Total 13

This category has four coded segments in which participants indicated
positive responses, three of which were related to Jon Snow. Of the two
negative responses, one related to Jon Snow. As indicated, these negatively
coded segments were coded as such because participants were thinking
64
about the real world and not the story world (as can be seen from the
example, PL 10.4/10, above), which in terms of content experiences of the
film is seen as disruptive and therefore negative.

The cluster of positive responses related to Jon Snow might suggest a
general design principle that viewers enjoy the appearance of well-known
personalities from other domains, playing themselves within the story
world of the film. This would need further research (not undertaken for
this thesis). A further point can be made: this cluster of coded responses
about Jon Snow represents someone from another domain playing the role
he or she plays in their other domain i.e., in this film, Jon Snow was
playing himself. There are therefore no design implications referring to
people from other domains playing different characters to their real selves
in films.

2.3.3.3 Real-Life Reflection Personal (RLF-PER)

This category is defined by participants mentioning personal issues
outside the storyworld of the film, with the personal sub-category
identifying a series of reflections by participants on their own real lives,
whether in the present or in some hypothetical future.

This category was therefore coded as RLF-PER, with a + or prefix to
show response tone, when the participant indicated this explicitly, with
absence of response tone coded as response neutral. Within this category
of sixteen items, there was one cluster of four coded segments by three
participants, related to making friends. There was one other group of two
coded segments by the same participant, related to speculations about how
this participant would behave if he were the father (PG 4.6/13.3). All the
other items consist of single unrelated segments. An example from the
cluster related to making friends is:

65
and I was also thinking back to when I made I was a child and
remembering how I had made friends and, then I remembered, that
sometimes it is that easy to make friends
(PB 15.5)


Table 2.5 Coding frequencies for category Real-Life Reflection-Personal
(RLR-PER)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
3

Neutral
(0)
9

Negative
(-)
4

Total 16

This sub-category has no clear pattern of response coding. Positive
codes included a personal reflection where a participant was reminded of
where he used to live, which he expressed as a positive experience (PL
2.2), negative codes included a segment where a participant reflected on
how the boy offered the main character Luna a turn on his scooter, with the
negatively coded segment constituting the reflection of the participant that
as a child he would not have done that, for fear that the scooter would be
stolen (PL 15.2).

It is likely that many films will cause participants to reflect occasionally
on their own lives. It is not clear from this data how this might form a
design principle that enhances the film viewing experience, since most
commercial narrative films would seem to privilege entertainment above
reflecting on ones life, i.e., such reflection is not a design aim of the
filmmakers. Nevertheless, feature films usually by their nature contain
many resonances to the commonalities of human living, so further research
on this issue beyond this thesis would be appropriate.
66

2.3.3.4 Real-Life Reflection General (RLF-GEN)

This category is defined by participants mentioning issues outside the
storyworld of the film, called here reflecting on real life. This general
category consists of general reflections on real life not covered by the other
RLF categories of film, actors and personal (see above).

This category was coded as RLF-GEN, with a + or prefix to show
response tone, when the participant indicated this explicitly. Inferences of
response tone from participant responses are not response coded. Within
this category, there were seventeen responses, with two clusters.

The first cluster (seven segments, four participants) were coded neutral
with the exception of two which were coded positive. This cluster relates
to the behaviour of characters in the film, comparing this behaviour to real
life behaviour. An example of this cluster, with a positive response coding
is:
and thinking actually how, authentic it seemed to be, in terms of
child interaction like when they first, the children first interact um,
the way that she approached him and what they did
(PE 15.1)

The other cluster (two segments) relates to references to other media
such as nursery rhymes and animated cartoons, all coded response neutral.
An example of this cluster is:

I actually started thinking about, Musique
Concretewhich I read about in a book.
(PG 9.12)

illustrated below.

67
Table 2.6 Coding frequencies for category Real-Life Reflection-General
(RLR-GEN)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
4

Neutral
(0)
10

Negative
(-)
3

Total 17

Other segments included a positively coded segment consisted of a
participant indicating that they liked a segment of the film (PE 10.1) and a
negatively coded segment consisted of a participant questioning the reality
of a film segment (Pl 2.2).

This category consists of idiosyncratic responses to isolated aspects of
the film and there is no discernable pattern to the responses. Therefore no
design implications can be identified.

2.3.4 Specific Film Aspects

This category consists of segments where the participants mentioned
film content. The category grouping is summarised below (Table 2.7).

68
Table 2.7 Coding categories related to Specific Film Aspects (SFA)

Category name and
code

Definition (total number of
coded segments)

Subject clustering (segments/
number of participants)

Specific film aspects-
acting SFA-ACT

location SFA-LOC

costume SFA-COS

properties SFA-PROP

camera SFA-CAM

sound SFA-SOUND

hair SFA-HAIR

casting SFA-CAST

dreams (identity) SFA-
DRE (ID)

credits SFA-CRE

starts and ends SFA-
S/E

dreams (transitions)
SFA-DRE (TRANS)

Talk about the quality of the
acting in the film (19)

Talk about locations in the
film (8)

Talk about the costumes the
characters in the film were
wearing (8)
Talk about the physical
items and their attributes in
the film (38)

Talk about the use of
camera specifically (4)

Talk about the sound (3)

Talk about the hair of a
character (1)

Talk about casting (1)

Talk about the dream
sequence which
incorporates identifying
characteristics (16)
Talk about credits (18)

Talk about the starting and
story ending of the film i.e.,
excluding credits (11)

Talk about transitions to,
from and within dreams (4)

One cluster (6/5) on the
children around the ice-cream
van
No clustering

No clustering

Four clusters: reverie sequence
(7/4); chilli (5/5); bedroom
hanging mobile (4/4); money
box (4/4)
No clustering

One cluster (3/3) on the sound
at the start of the reverie

No clustering

No clustering

Three clusters: altered reality
(10/7); visual effects (8/5);
music (4/4)

No clusters

One cluster related to ending,
no further breakdown possible
(6/4)

No clustering

This category grouping consists of twelve categories directly mentioning
aspects or elements of the film. These are now reported.

2.3.4.1 Specific Film Aspects-Acting (SFA-ACT)

This category is defined by participants mentioning the quality of the
69
acting in the film and this sub-category was coded as SFA-ACT, with a +
or prefix to show response tone, when the participant indicated this
explicitly, with absence of response tone coded as response neutral. This
category is different from the category RLR-ACTRS because it relates to
the actors performance in the story-world of the film and is unrelated to any
aspect of the real actor in the real-world. Within this category, there are
sixteen segments from the first viewing where participants commented on
the poor acting and two segments that relate to good acting. The main
cluster of items within this category relates to the children crowding around
the ice-cream van (six coded segments, four participants). All these
segments were coded as negative as they consisted of negative responses to
the acting. Typical of this cluster is the following segment:

the first time I watched it I was really struck by how noisy all
the kids are, I guess it seems a little bit, not exactly what you see in
real life, because theyre all shouting at the same time.
(PB 2.8)

An example of the two segments related to positive acting, all of which
were from the same participant, is:

and what a fantastic actress, just the look on her face and the
look on her, the visualisation of herself or what it is and then her
face looking absolutely petrified of herself I just thought was
fantastic.
(PE 4.7)


70
Table 2.8 Coding frequencies for category Specific Film Aspects (SFA-
ACT)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
2

Neutral
(0)
1

Negative
(-)
16

Total 19

The low frequency of responses coded for second viewing suggests that
participants responses were strong on the first viewing, which is also
reflected in the language used by participants. This sub-category of
responses contains clear design implications for creators of film content, in
the area of ensuring that only the most competent actors are used. The fact
that one participant felt that the acting of the girl actress (the main
character) was superb indicates that it may be difficult to ensure that the
acting is believable for all viewers. The feeling in participants that the
acting is contrived would seem likely to disrupt the flow experience of the
film and seemed to be experienced negatively by participants in this
investigation.

2.3.4.2 Specific Film Aspects Location (SFA-LOC)

This category is defined by participants commenting on the locations
used in the film, within the story world of the film. The eight codes in the
first viewing fall into four neutral and four negative response codes, with
no clear clustering as to topic beyond that of location itself, indicating
that participants were responding idiosyncratically. The grouping of
neutral comments consists of observation statements without any indication
by the participant of an emotional response to the content. So, for example,
one participant commented, in a neutral coded segment:

Um, I thought it was quite a small kitchen. PA 5.6
71

An example of a negatively coded segment is:

Um, only like, the physical location of the street, so I was like
wondering if it was cul-de-sac ora busy road, so can they be safe
playing on the street?
(PC 16.14-16.16)

illustrated below.

LOC)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
0

Neutral
(0)
4

Negative
(-)
4

Total 8

There are no clear design implications from this category due to the
idiosyncratic nature of the responses. One response related to the kitchen
being too clean (PG 5.9) and two responses related to the street (was it
safe, were the other children the neighbours of the main character who was
struggling to make friends). These responses may suggest that viewers
were basing their viewing on a series of subtle assumptions about the
implications of the story world, which film makers need to consider
carefully in terms of believability and suitability.

2.3.4.3 Specific Film Aspects Costume (SFA-COS)

This category is defined by participants commenting on the costumes
that the actors wore in the film and was coded as SFA-COS, with a + or
prefix to show response tone, when the participant indicated this explicitly,
72
with absence of response tone coded as response neutral. This category
consisted of eight items identified as being from the first viewing. This
subcategory falls into positive and negatively coded segments, with no
neutral coded segments.

Indicative of the positive grouping (four comments by two participants)
the comments consisted of positive evaluations about particular items of
clothing that the actors wore, such as:

I thought that the little boy was wearing cool surfer gear. (PG
9.4)

The negative grouping consisted of questions about the costumes, such
as why the main character and her alter ego were wearing the same clothing
(three comments, three participants) with one negatively coded segment
related to the match of the costume with the character:

I was also, noticed her clothes actually, on the evil girl, arent kind
of evil clothes, theyre kind of bright and kind of fairy kind of
clothes(PL 14.3)

illustrated below.
73
Table 2.10 Coding frequencies for category Specific Film Aspects-
Costume (SFA-COS)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
4

Neutral
(0)
0

Negative
(-)
4

Total 8

It is a matter for further investigation whether the positive evaluations of
costume (participants personally liking the costumes) influence global
enjoyment of a film. Equally, although the comment about costumes
matching character (segment PL 14.3, above) is suggestive, particularly
since this is a well used device in film, further quantitative research is
needed to explore the effect of matching clothing to character in relation to
global enjoyment ratings of film by viewers.

2.3.4.4 Specific Film Aspects Prop (SFA-PROP)

This category is defined by participants commenting on physical items
within the film world (such as a hanging mobile in the main characters
bedroom, a red money box or a cracked door window in the ice-cream
van). It seems appropriate to use the technical term used in the film and
theatre industries of properties or props for these items and this category
was therefore coded as SFA-PROP.

There were a total of thirty-eight responses, with thirty-one of these from
the first viewing being coded as negative. The negative codings were
characterised by comments that reflected the perception of participants that
what they had just seen was unreal, bizarre or puzzling. Within this
category (which was coded as SFA-PROP, with a + or prefix to show
response tone) there were four clusters of negative responses. The first
related to the daytime reverie sequence where ice-cream is put into the safe
74
(seven responses by four participants). The second to where the main
character puts chilli on a rude boys ice-cream (five comments, five
participants). The third to a sequence with a hanging mobile in the main
characters bedroom which was seen out of focus in the foreground of the
shot, reflecting light in the dark and which caused participants to wonder
what it was (four responses, four participants). Fourthly, where the main
character moves forward to meet the boy near the end of the film and the
filmmakers focus on the money box she has left behind, which confused
the participants as to its symbolic meaning (four comments, four
participants). A typical comment from participants in this negative
category was:

.at the beginning of the scene I was wondering for a minute what
the dark object on the right side of the screen was, and then when
the door opens you can see that its her mobile.
(PB 8.2)

Responses like these seem to be caused by a lack of visual clarity of the
object on-screen. Other negative responses related to the perceived lack of
reality as it related to the characters interacting with and using the objects,
such as this extract:

shes gone and put chilli on his ice-cream and then I thought,
hang on a sec, why is there chilli in the ice-cream van?
(PG 12.10)

There were only two positively coded responses from the first viewing,
which included one segment that indicated being scared by a broken
window (this was positively coded because it seems plausible that the
broken window was intended to heighten the effect of a sequence intended
to be disturbing). Another comment related to liking some curtains.

illustrated below.

75
Properties (SFA-PROP)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
2

Neutral
(0)
5

Negative
(-)
31

Total 38

This category has a very strong bias to the negative and there were a
number of issues (visual on-screen clarity, use of symbols and reality
concerns) around which participants responses clustered. This suggests
some clear design implications for film makers. The first is that a balance
needs to be found between visual interest (a childs hanging mobile turning
slowly and reflecting light) and visual clarity i.e., visual clarity as a
usability factor. In this instance, it seems that participants were removed
from the story world by the questions raised in their minds about what they
were experiencing. The second design implication concerns the symbolic
use of props, which needs to be clearly pointed to by film makers. In Ice
Cream Dream, after Luna has made friends, her father looks over at the red
cash box after she has left the van, as if to say, that phase of Lunas life,
where she was too scared to make friends and therefore helped me in the
van to avoid trying, is now over. Yet Luna and the red cash box had not
been clearly linked together by, for example, pointing by use of repeated
close-ups. Given that a red cash box may be schematic of money boxes in
general and therefore a schematic element of small scale cash transactions
such as those practiced by ice cream vans in the United Kingdom, the cash
box would not stand out unless pointed to. Not clearly understanding the
symbolic use of this prop interrupted the flow of the film, causing the
participants to ask questions of the film which were unrelated to the main
thrust of the particular sequence in the film (which also happened near the
climax of the film, heightening the disruptive impact of these questions),
for these participants by diverting cognitive and emotional resources away
76
from the peak moment of the film. The third principle, drawn from the
chili incident, is that care is needed in the presentation of reality.
Participants reports reflected an active questioning, meaning that the issue
of the match of filmic elements to reality is readily available to participants,
especially when on-screen action relates to common real-life transactions.
Such issues need careful examination at the script writing stage.

2.3.4.5 Specific Film Aspects Camera (SFA-CAM)

This category consists of utterances where participants specifically
mentioned the use of camera (as opposed to purely visual aspects of the
film). This category was coded as SFA-CAM, with a + or prefix to show
response tone. This category consists of only four items by three
participants in the first viewing, all coded as negative and exhibiting no
thematic clustering beyond the cameracategory. So for instance, one
participant commented:

And what I also found weird was, um, the camera focuses on the
character [of the alter ego] as if its actually an existing entity kind
of thing
(PI 14.15)

illustrated below.

Camera (SFA-CAM)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
0

Neutral
(0)
0

Negative
(-)
4

Total 4

77
The lack of a clear grouping in this category means that the design
lessons are limited. Participants are active in their understanding of the use
of the camera to point and suggest. This needs to be kept in mind by film
makers. So, for instance, if the physical constraints of a location result in a
close-up shot being used instead of a mid-shot, film-makers should be
aware that viewers of the film who cannot see the constraints of the
environment in which the film is being created (this being out of the frame
of the shot) will assume that the film-maker is pointing out something of
particular significance, as was the case in one segment where a participant
speculated on why the film maker had shown a close up the van door
opening as the main character makes her move to meet other children:

It just was a bit strange how the camera focused on the door, it
seems a bit unusual for it to focus on that, this was getting out of
the van, it just, I dunno, its because I felt they dont normally
focus on like, the hinge of the door, it was a bit out of place.
(PC 13.12)

Film-makers should understand that a close-up is understood as an
explicit pointing. They should therefore ensure that the use of the pointing
corresponds to their design intentions for that sequence of the film.

2.3.4.6 Specific Film Aspects Sound (SFA-SOUND)

This category consists of utterances where participants specifically
mentioned the use of sound effects, as opposed to sound as related to
music. This category was coded as SFA-SOUND, with a + or prefix to
show response tone.

It should be noted that the responses in this category do not refer to the
type of sound effects used to mimic reality. These responses relate to a
specific non-diegetic (i.e., non-storyworld) sound used by the film maker to
cue a particular scene by hinting in advance about its response tone. There
were only three segments (from three participants) in this category. All
commented on the use of a sound effect (described as a ching effect by
78
participants) to introduce a film sequence where the main character thinks
literally from a comment made to her, which prompts her to imagine
putting blocks of ice-cream into a safe. One participant felt that this was a
positive technique (PE 5.1), one was negative (PH 5.2) and one was
neutral, with the sound effect partially correctly prompting the
understanding of one participant as to what was immediately to follow in
the film. The negatively coded segment was as follows:

Didnt like the silly little sound effectsthought it was silly.
(PH 5.2)

The full break down of numbers and response tone of this category are as
follows.

Table 2.13 Coding frequencies for category Specific Film Aspects-Sound
(SFA-SOUND)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
1

Neutral
(0)
1

Negative
(-)
1

Total 3

The small amount of responses limits the design lessons that can be
drawn. It may be that non-diegetic sounds have to stand out perceptually
more than other sounds in the ambient soundscape, to effectively prompt
viewers responses. Further research might reveal more about the effective
use of such sounds, with a first step being an investigation of such sounds
in existing commercially successful feature films. Some such sounds
would, due to usage, be schematic (such as a boing sound for an act of
stupidity by a film character).

79
2.3.4.7 Specific Film Aspects Hair (SFA-HAIR)

This category consists of one utterance where the participant specifically
mentioned an aspect of the hair of an actor, this segment being coded as
negative:

I was also thinking that, thats a huge fringefrom the top of her
head to the eyebrows, its absolutely humungous [laughs]. PL 9.5/
9.7

illustrated below.

Table 2.14 Coding frequencies for category Specific Film Aspects-Hair
(SFA-HAIR)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
0

Neutral
(0)
0

Negative
(-)
1

Total 1

It may be that this coding category, with a larger group, might still prove
to be idiosyncratic. Film makers need to be careful about moving beyond
the range of normal hairstyles, unless something is intended to be signified
by this. This relates to the principle that for viewers, a deviation from what
is normal is often assumed to be intentional and therefore have meaning
for understanding the film world. If meaning cannot be assigned, as in this
case, viewers may report the film element as ridiculous, a response which
may interrupt the flow experience of the film.

2.3.4.8 Specific Film Aspects Cast (SFA-CAST)

This category consisted of one utterance where a participant specifically
80
mentioned an aspect of the casting of a particular actor in a role and was
coded as negative:

Um, I thought, why is the little boy always so cute?...why do they,
like cast really cute attractive, like, people for roles like that? Its a
bit annoying.
(PG 3.2/ 3.4)

With only one response in this category, no schematic or design
implications can be drawn. The full break down of numbers and response
tone of this category are illustrated below.

Casting (SFA-CAST)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
0

Neutral
(0)
0

Negative
(-)
1

Total 1

2.3.4.9 Specific Film Aspects Dreams (Identity) (SFA-DREAM ID)

Comments in this category referred to a sequence in the film which
involves the little girl falling asleep and dreaming that she is a highly
successful ice cream vendor with her own brand of ice cream which is
nationally famous. The sequence includes a section where her ice-cream is
featured on television winning a prize, in a news report. Nine of the ten
participants commented about elements of the dream sequence that
prompted them to infer what they were watching was a dream sequence.
Accordingly, this category is defined by participants talking about the
aspects of the film related to the night time dream sequence, coded as
referring to the identifying characteristics of dream sequences.

81
There were sixteen responses in this category, with three clusters
altered reality, visual effects and music. The music was described as
weird and funny. This category was coded as SFA-DRE ID, with a + or
prefix to show response tone, when the participant indicated this
explicitly.

In the altered reality cluster there were eleven coded segments, from
seven participants. These focused on the fact that reality is altered in dream
states. An example segment illustrating this is:

Yeah. I mean, if it was all, if it was all, like, realistic then it would
be an unrealistic dream in a way, because dreams tend to be a bit
weird, arent they, like all the kids crowding round the van, you
know, that was fine as well, because that was, is a dream.
(PI 12.7)

In the visual cluster of responses there are seven coded segments from
five participants from the first viewing. The main signifier in this cluster
was that colours were blurry, shimmery or psychedelic. A typical
response was as follows:

The first thing that sort of said that it wasnt like a conscious state,
like it was a dream, or something was like the weird music and the
blurry like, [visuals].
(PC 9.2)

illustrated below.

82
Dreams (Identity) (SFA-DRE-ID)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
1

Neutral
(0)
14

Negative
(-)
1

Total 16

The main design lesson for film-makers is that viewers have conceptions
of how dreams are conventionally signified in film. Film-makers can use
these conventions but heavy handed use of conventions could be regarded
negatively, judging by the comments of one participant. In this film, the
film makers approach seemed to successfully tell participants that this was
a dream sequence. Temporal continuity also plays a part in this film the
little girl is seen falling asleep, which provides the strong inference that
was immediately follows is a dream sequence, which can then be
confirmed by the identifying characteristics that participants commented
on.

One participant commented that she did not like dream sequences
generally. It may be that a significant minority of filmgoers feel the same
way. Further research dream sequences could form a suitable follow on
research step to the work reported in this thesis.

2.3.4.10 Specific Film Aspects Dreams (Transitions) (SFA-DREAM-
TRANS)

This category is defined by participants talking about the aspects of the
film related to the night time dream sequence, coded as referring to
identifying transitions within and from the dream sequence. This category
was coded as SFA-DRE (TRANS) and all four segments were coded as
response neutral. There were four segments from four participants, two
83
about the transition to waking and two about a transition within the dream
(being signified by the appearance of the alter ego character and by a brief
return to the little girl in her bedroom respectively). A segment about
waking which also references a schematic element to signify the transition
from a dream to real life, ran as follows:

Yeah, I was thinking, oh I bet her Dads going to be waking her up
and its going to come into her dream. Because Ive seen that
before in a film.
(PC 12.6)

illustrated below.

Dreams (Transitions) (SFA-DRE-TRANS)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
0

Neutral
(0)
4

Negative
(-)
0

Total 4

A focused investigation on effective dream transitions in commercially
successful films would give a richer and more robust picture of any design
implications.

2.3.4.11 Specific Film Aspects Credits (SFA-CREDITS)

This category is defined by participants reflecting on the end credits of
the film (which excludes the end of the actual film story, which is
separately coded, see below, 2.3.4.12). There were eighteen segments in
this category but no discernable clusters. Four participants mentioned a
personal tendency not to watch end credits, one said she generally liked
84
credits. Participants idiosyncratically picked up on a range of issues from
the credits, with a preponderance of statements coded as negative when the
participants reported that the credits had raised questions in their minds.
So, for example, participants were irritated or puzzled by the use of
American spelling for Mom (instead of spelling it Mum, as might have
been expected in a film set in the U.K. with English characters), the use of
a Spanish word in the credits, why IKEA was present in the credits and the
fact that the child actors had chaperones. Typical of the comments was this
participant, who was also using the credits to confirm an issue that had
been raised by the films content, concerning Jon Snow:

Id looked for Jon Snow, saw his name, I um, thats the sort of
the thing I look for(PL 17.2)

illustrated below.

CRE)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
1

Neutral
(0)
5

Negative
(-)
12

Total 18

There are no clear clusters here and the responses are idiosyncratic. It
should be noted that Ice Cream Dream had end credits with colorful
pictures of seaside objects and ice creams. It may be that more formal end
credits would not have generated the negative responses. A question for
further research would be to understand the specific nature of end credits,
whether viewers see them as purely informational or whether credits form
an opportunity to experience in a lingering way some response resonance
85
from the film itself as it finishes, as is explicitly done in some commercial
feature films with bloopers (mistakes during filming) interspersed with
the end credits.

2.3.4.12 Specific Film Aspects Starts and Ends (SFA-S/E)

This category is defined by participants considering the start and end of
the film story (i.e., excluding the opening and closing credits). This
category emerged from further consideration of the material in the
category, General film expectations. There are eleven segments in this
category, from six of the participants. The code used for this category is
SFA-S/E. The largest cluster related to film endings, with seven segments
from four participants expressing satisfaction with the happy ending, for
example:

the thing I just thought oh, that story has got a happy
endingonce Id seen the fact that its coming up I seen that was
the end and I thought, oh thats quite nice. (PA 16.2)

The segments outside this cluster related to endings included a participant
commenting about a twist and, from the other participant, that the ending
in this film was clear. There were two unclustered segments related to the
start of the film. So, for example, one participant reflected:

it was quite a bright, obviously light happy kind of feel to the
music, for example, [I] started to kind of, I suppose, almost trying
to pre-empt what it was going to be about.
(PE 1.4)

The numbers and response tone are shown below (Table 2.19).

86
Table 2.19 Coding frequencies for category Specific Film Aspects- Starts
and Ends (SFA-S/E)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
7

Neutral
(0)
4

Negative
(-)
0

Total 11

There were no clear design implications in this category. Future research
using commercially successful movies could investigate three issues.
Firstly, how openings and closings of the film story are carried out.
Second, whether one form of sequence is to be preferred above others by
film makers and participants (this could be set in the context of a
descriptive taxonomy of opening credits with research on how these have
developed over time in the film industry). Thirdly, if the end of the film
functions as a goodbye to the film world and its story, how can this
process be most efficiently designed by film makers. It may be a staple in
commercial film making circles that happy endings for the main
protagonist are preferred. This could be further researched using
quantitative measures, related to the final enjoyment ratings of film.

2.3.5 Intentions, Expectations

This category grouping is composed of comments about the intentions of
the film makers and general film expectations. With the exception of the
category following this (see below, 2.3.6) it is therefore a pragmatic
categorisation of two categories into one grouping, to avoid the complexity
of multiplying analytic structures.

87
Table 2.20 Intentions, Expectations

Category name
and code

Definitions (total number of coded
segments)

Subject clustering
(segments/number of
participants)

Film Makers
Intentions

General film
expectations
GFE

Talk about the intentions of the people
making the film (13 segments)

Talk about elements of the viewed film
referencing types of film that participants
were familiar with (14 segments)

No clusters.

Two clusters:
childrens (10/5); horror
(4/3)

2.3.5.1 Film Makers Intentions

This category is defined by participants speculating about the intentions
and limitations of the film maker in managing the film content as they did.
There were thirteen segments from five participants, with no clusters. In
this category phrases such as an impression theyre trying to get across,
showing, introducing indicated that participants were referring to the
intentions of the film maker. Three segments related to music and how this
was perceived as giving a message from the film makers to the viewers,
about for example how you should feel.

Typical of this category is the following neutrally coded segment, with
the intention just to represent standing metonymically for the film
makers intentions in relation to the design and inclusion of the daytime
reverie sequence of putting ice cream in the bank:

I feel that this is just to represent her childish thoughts, that shes
taking what her Mum says really literally and just sort of relaying
that
(PC 6.2)

An example of a negatively coded segment related to the use of a
particular external scene is:

88
But the fact that it was on a sort of cloudy day, just means that, it
just didnt really add to the scene, as much as it could it, didnt
enrich the scene as much as it could, it was more like theyd filmed
it on that day because theyd had to, rather than thinking, so it
looked like the weather had been overlooked rather than um adding
to the story.
(PI 2.11)

illustrated below.

Table 2.21 Coding frequencies for category Film Makers Intentions
(FMI)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
1

Neutral
(0)
7

Negative
(-)
5

Total 13

No clear design implications from this category emerge. It may be that
participants start thinking about the intentions of the film makers because
the actual content at that point in the film is not engaging. One participant
commented that the part of the film in question added nothing to the film
and another used the phrase about a character in the film, its introducing
you to comment on the intentions of the filmmaker:

He was just sort of third character wasnt he, in, in, its introducing
you to a new character.
(PI 3.2)

2.3.6 General Film Expectations (GFE)

This category is defined by participants speaking about aspects of the
film in relation to other types of film they were familiar with. This
category consisted of fourteen segments, from six participants. The two
89
main clusters in this category were related to the types of films and
television programmes for children (ten segments) and horror films. Both
of these clusters focused on elements of the film such as the music and
visual texture that referenced these two genres ( childrens films, horror).
Typical was the following response:

I thought, oh no, it looks like a Playschool programme.
(PG 1.5)

Participants who talked about the horror aspect referenced certain genre
conventions:

Its that sinister, like the second personality thing. Again, it was
the music and the slow motion, slow blinking and that something
bads going to happen, or, just that, I dunno, like theres a ghost or
something
(PC 14.2)

Two participants, when considering the horror elements in the film, also
commented on the mismatch between the elements of a film for children
and horror films:

the silly [cheerful, childrens programme like] music to start off
with, you cant really imagine it turning into a horror film or
anything.
(PK 4.12)

illustrated below.

90
Table 2.22 Coding frequencies for category General Film Expectations
(GFE)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
1

Neutral
(0)
11

Negative
(-)
2

Total 14

In terms of design implications, it was clear that participants reports
indicate that they found the referencing of both types of film elements
(children and horror) in the same film to be cognitively disturbing. The
design implication therefore that emerges from this category is that film
makers should reference a single group of conventional genre signifiers and
not confuse viewers by sending mixed messages as to the type of film they
are watching, unless the film is of a mixed genre such as spoof-horror, in
which case this should be appropriately signaled.

2.3.7 Character Observations (CHAR-OBS)

This category is defined by participants making observations about the
characters and was coded CHAR-OBS. It comprises diffuse observations
about the characters, including their relationships to each other. A cluster
of ten segments (seven participants) comprised talk indicating clarity about
the relationship between the father and daughter, or, more usually,
uncertainty about the relationship of the girl to the alter ego and the woman
in the house:

I was actually thinking about her family, in that her mother was
white and thinking, whether it was really her mother
(PH 5.2)

The rest of this category comprised diffuse talk about the characters and
was not readily codeable into further subcategories. Examples include:
91
I thought, oh, shes copying her Dad
(PA 11.2)

And then I thought, nice of him to ask um, if she wants to
meethis friends
(PG 15.4)

illustrated below.

Table 2.23 Coding frequencies for category Character-Observations
(CHAR-OBS)

First viewing

Positive
(+)
36

Neutral
(0)
110

Negative
(-)
56

Total 10

It is not clear what design implications follow from this material. As
with most of the material, the active nature of participants is shown. The
cluster on relationships may suggest that film makers need to provide
enough context material to enable viewers to quickly understand key
relationships in the film.

2.4 Concluding discussion and further research

This section first discusses report structures and their link to schemas
(research questions one and two, section 2.1, above). Then an overview of
the design implications is given (research question three, section 2.1,
above), before six design implications are discussed. Finally, the issues
arising for further research within this research project are outlined.

92
2.4.1 Report structures and schemas

Participants in this investigation used language that suggested that they
were accessing schematic representations of films, film elements and
genres (e.g., Bordwell, 1985). The language of the participants also
suggested that they were constructing mental representations of Ice Cream
Dream, then comparing their ongoing understanding of the film with these
schematic representations, a developing cognitive structure that enabled
participants to understand the film and engage with it, a situation model
(Graesser et al., 2002). Underlying this process is the effort after
meaning (Bartlett, 1932) and constructionist activity (Graesser et al,
1994), with participants reporting cognitive work to try and understand
parts of the film. This research has revealed that in addition to the three
factors that Graesser et al. (1994, pp. 371-372) suggest underlie
constructionist activity, usability problems can derail this activity,
resulting in neglected processing of immediately following events and
therefore disruption of enjoyment.

Participants had a schema for what constituted an appropriate and
effective summary. This is illustrated by the fact that participants
routinely, in summarizing the film, omitted parts of the film that visually or
dramatically seemed highly memorable, but which were not central or
critical to the film story, thereby going beyond breakpoints as structuring
summaries (Schwan and Garsoffky, 2004) to include/exclude summary
items on the basis of saliency in relation to the films story, a more
complex series of mental operations than perceptually and cognitively
determining breakpoints (e.g., Zacks et al, 2009). Further work on this
phenomena is needed but if this finding is subsequently confirmed and
delineated, this could be very significant for understanding word of
mouth phenomena, which is related to the success of movies in
commercial terms. Understanding this phenomena might also shed light on
how people enjoy movies after the movie is finished: Do they remember
their actual experience and its enjoyment or does the summary organise
93
those parts of the movie that fit into a mental schema of summary,
thereby structuring the memory of the enjoyability of the film? This would
suggest that some of the more dramatic moments of the movie might be
forgotten in the longer term if not tightly integrated into the mental schema
of what constitutes an appropriate and effective summary. Issues related to
summary will be revisited later (Chapter Five, below).

Other coding categories revealed distinctive and unique facets of
schemas, related to salience, optimum levels of novelty and issues of
mixing schemas. These issues may currently be neglected in schema
theory. Rather, there is a focus on efficiency and related parameters
(Abelson, 1981) or emotion is excluded entirely (Bordwell, 1985). This
leaves salience which may turn out to be a highly contextualised, multi-
dimensional emotional-cognitive construct under researched as an issue
in applied schema theory. Some schemas do not seem to have a range of
slots for content but rather may function in an on-off manner. Perceived
failures in the film related to usability a normative set of expectations and
hence a schema on Abelsons definition (Abelson, 1981, pp. 717-718)
may be a breakdown in a usability schema for commercial films or may
just represent breaks in the immersive affective experiences
(Douglas and Hargadon, 2001) of the film.

Some categories that may be schematic in terms of peoples reported
experiences of films generally are not salient in terms of the type of film
studied in this research. The Real Life Reflection group of results are
omitted. This is because in Ice Cream Dream there seemed to be no overt
self-help content where real life reflection might form part of the design
intent for the film. So this group of results cannot be used to generate
design implications, since the effects reported by viewers seem unintended
by the designers (i.e., the filmmakers). It may be that there are schematic
aspects to the categories in this coding group that would feature more
prominently in an analysis of media artifacts where self-help is prominent,
such as television programmes about effective parenting. In research on
94
such programmes this category would then become a prime target for
exploration and analysis.

Segments coded as related to the dream sequence (Specific Film Aspects-
Dreams (Identity)) were highly schematic threads of experience
(McCarthy and Wright, 2004), with participants comments indicating how
the bounded experience of this dream sequence extended beyond the
sequence and the film itself (see the concluding comments to Chapter Four
of McCarthy and Wright, 2004). The dream sequence was a discrete
identifiable stage for participants. The move into the schematic dream was
marked by transitions (Specific Film Aspects-Dreams (Transitions), with
one participant reporting the transition out of a dream as involving the
sound of a cheering group of children in the dream becoming the sound of
someone waking the main character from the dream, which she said she
had seen in other films. One participant mentioned a dream sequence
where the transition to waking (i.e., the transition event itself) was a key
indicator that what had gone before was a dream, which was not otherwise
signified (in design terms, this is an after the event explanation by the film
makers). The three main slots identified for dream sequence are altered
reality, visual effects and associated music. A full investigation of the
schema for dream sequences would involve repeating the investigation with
other films containing dream sequences, including investigating the
phenomenon where the presented material seems to prompt experiences
that remain linked to yet spread beyond both the presented material and the
film within which the presented material occurs (McCarthy and Wright,
2004). If other participants in future investigations were to show a
preference for a more subtle series of schematic markers (slot content) than
used in Ice Cream Dream this would relate well to the suggestion that the
optimal configuration for slot content may not be strongly prototypical
(which in the case of the dream signifiers in Ice Cream Dream seems by
some participants to have been perceived as too obvious) but balanced at an
optimum position of novelty, within a prototypical framework. The
identification of slots for dreams that include transitions suggests, more
95
generally, that there may be other subtle and as yet unidentified schemas
whose function is to mark transitions, beyond widely used conventional
optical effects such as dissolves or wipes.

Another category with schematic structuring is that of General Film
Expectations, referencing schemas related to genre. In this category
participants referenced schemas related to genres of childrens film and
horror film. This category reveals the importance of establishing and
conforming to expectations that have been set up at the start of the film as
to its content and texture, whilst not conforming too closely to prototypical
genre expectations. Different genres may have their own audiences and the
range of deviation from the prototype may differ for different genres (there
may be less flexibility within horror than comedy, for example). In this
research, the schema childrens film reported by the participants had slots
for bright, cheerful music and graphic design with uncomplex structures.
The schema for horror film had slots for dark music, slow motion and
slow blinking, all of which suggested bad things and ghosts to
participants. The fact that the film evoked two contrasting schemas caused
processing difficulties for some participants, who were erroneously
prompted by horror markers to expect a range of events that did not
occur. In other words, disparate and competing slot content invoked two
different schemas, interrupting the cognitive flow of schema processing,
creating an impasse and attempts at repair (Van Lehn, 1989). The
unsuccessful mixing of schemas in this film also suggests that the director
had moved beyond the point as which novelty was beneficial. Clearly, in
other commercial films mixing genres has been a successful strategy (e.g.,
schlock horror and spoof horror films which have become a new genre).

Some elements in Ice Cream Dream seemed to interrupt the trance
(Sturm, 2001) or flow (Csikszentimihalyi, 1990) of the film experience
because it focused attention on real world aspects of the film (such as an
actors acting). Such breaks represent a diversion of cognitive resources
from the storyworld of the film. In instances related to the usability of a
96
film (such as the convincing nature of the acting), all related schemas
would function normatively and invisibly, only being noticed in the
fracturing of a schema by the absence, for example, of expected slots. In
any such schemas related to realism or convincing content there is no room
for novelty the slots may not be a sliding set of values from prototypical
through novel to incomprehensible, rather they may be binary on-offs.
Acting (Specific Film Aspects-Acting), hair and costume all have to
conform to the expectation of the default binary setting on. Unconvincing
acting draws attention to itself and away from the storyworld of the film.
The binary switch is now in the off position, with cognitive resources
diverted to processing this break in the convincing nature of the acting. It
may also be possible that in fact no such schemas for realism exist: rather
than switches going to off from the default setting of on, all that is
happening is a diversion of attentional resources and a concomitant
breaking of the film experience. Such an issue is beyond the scope of this
investigation. However, such examples do show that participants can give
verbal flags to non-verbalisable events: people can identify bad acting even
if in the more subtle examples of bad acting people cannot exactly verbalise
why the acting should fail to convince. There may also be subtle schemas
related to good acting, functioning at a semi-verbalisable level.

A key issue that has emerged from this investigation for further research
is the importance of studying actual exemplars of coded phenomena from
viewers talk, across a wider range of occurrences (e.g., a range of dreams
in a range of films), both in terms of developing the analytic approach but
also in terms of extending and deepening the explanation and analysis of
viewers talk on these range of occurrences. This is important because
prototypicality may have an observable measurable artifactual quality in
many cases. It has been suggested (Abelson, 1981, pp. 726) that internal
coherence and external similarity might be two aspects which could be
operationalised, though in this account only on efficiency (ibid.), which
would seem too narrow a basis for cognitive-emotional film phenomenon.
Prototypicality also (in the designer-artifact-viewer dialogue) has a
97
psychological quality, both as to individuals and as to groups of
individuals, where categories and therefore slot content are identified
by family resemblances or differences to other categories (Abelson, 1981).

2.4.2 Overview of design implications

Film design implications will now be listed. It should be noted that these
implications apply most strongly where story and characters are important,
in other words where users start to engage with the material at a cognitive
and emotional level. Some of these implications may already by known by
expert film designers.

Six of the coding categories (see Table 2.24, below) presented no design
implications. This was primarily because participants reports were mostly
idiosyncratic and referenced real life events rather than film events (e.g.,
the Real-Life Reflection grouping). It should be noted that further research
beyond the scope of this current project may identify possible design
implications from these coding categories, particularly if larger numbers of
participants take part.

Table 2.24 Coding categories with no design implications

Category

Design implications

Real-life reflection- film

Real-life reflection- personal

Real-life reflection- general

Specific film aspects- dreams
(transitions)

Film makers intentions

Specific film aspects- starts and ends

No design implications from this category






The remaining thirteen coding categories (Table 2.25, below) presented
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possible film design implications, with the first seven of these categories
being more provisional than the remaining six, as indicated by the use of
the word, may. Further research may identify design implications from
these categories if larger numbers of participants take part or if empirically
grounded research frameworks are developed which give credibility to
design implications suggested by only a few participants.

Table 2.25 Summary of design principles from coded segments

Category

Design implications

Real-life reflection- actors

Specific film aspects- location

Specific film aspects- costume

Specific film aspects- sound

Specific film aspects- casting

Specific film aspects- hair

Specific film aspects- credits

Specific film aspects- acting

Specific film aspects- properties

Specific film aspects- camera

Specific film aspects- dreams
(identity)

General film expectations

Character observations

Viewers may enjoy the appearance of well-known
people from other domains

Locations may benefit from being prototypical

Costumes may benefit from matching character

Schematic but subtle sound effects may work well

Casting good looking children may not work well

Hair styles may benefit from being normal

Credits may benefit from being schematic

Ensure that competent actors are used

Balance visual interest with visual clarity.

Set up symbolic use by explicit pointing, ensure that
the use of pointing by camera corresponds to design
intentions for that sequence

In dreams, ensure that effects match expectations but
in novel ways. Time passing can also be used.

Reference conventional genre signifiers, be
careful mixing incommensurate genres

Provide enough context material to enable
viewers to quickly understand key relationships
in the film

2.4.3 Six design implications

Six film design implications are now suggested. Some of these are
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related specifically to film design, others to the professional context of film
designers.

Firstly, the use of schemas and the issue of matching the individual
slots to the schema needs to be handled carefully. If a movie features
selling ice cream from a van, it may be that the most usual context for this
is the van travelling round the streets (as is done in Ice Cream Dream). Yet
selling ice cream from a van by the seashore on a sunny day might make
for a more interesting film, by using a more novel series of slots that still
fits the known schema. Film designers should not make the mistake of
deploying schema theory only to choose the most typical slots for schemas.
Rather, film designers should pick interesting slots that still function within
the well known schema, thereby gaining the advantages of speed of
processing due to the familiarity of the schema and interest due to the
schemas novel slots.

Secondly, film designers should strive for clarity. Every visual and sonic
element needs to be unambiguous and totally clear to users (unless being
unclear as to the nature of a particular element is necessary). Lack of
clarity disrupts processing and therefore disrupts the immersive nature of
the experience.

Thirdly, film designers should understand that potentially everything has
meaning for users. So, because of the profound sense-making that users
engage in, everything must drive the filmic experience forward. Failure to
consider the possible prompting of spurious meanings in a viewer may
result in that viewers attention being diverted from the immersive
experience, to the detriment of that experience.

Fourthly, priming effects should be explored. It may prove possible to
evoke a more intense experience by presenting viewers with a smaller
mental model of a particular experience beforehand, thereby priming
users for the larger experience. In connection with this, making strong use
100
of the grammar of the shot in the film being designed could have benefits
beyond the visual clarity that this grammar promotes (for example, in a mid
shot not cutting on the knees but above or below), such as subliminally
eliciting mental models of film enjoyment linked to past intensely film
enjoyable experiences.

Fifthly and more generally, film designers need to increase the reflective
stance to their design activities (see on reflection in design, Schn, 1991).
It cannot be assumed that film experiences can be totally designed or cued.
Since viewers are actively making sense of what they experience (effort
after meaning, Bartlett, 1932), film designers need to consider the range
and individuality of the viewer and aim to design prompts for experiences
that take into account the variability of viewers.

Sixthly and finally, film designers need to build their research awareness,
both individually and collectively. It may be that film can be researched at
a level of granularity that corresponds to an individual experience
moment (a single time-bounded moment or element in a strand of visual,
cognitive and emotional time-bounded moments, McCarthy and Wright,
2004). This might eventually facilitate the building of a detailed grammar
of film experience. Such a project would require that film designers move
to a model of film design practice incorporating a professional culture of
research, including the qualitative investigation of verbal reports on film,
within a soundly based psychological framework of film.

2.4.4 Conclusion and issues for further investigation

Film is a structured sequence of events (e.g., Boorstin, 1995). This
research has revealed underlying structures in viewers talk about a short
film, Ice Cream Dream. It has also taken a first step in developing a
schema based set of design implications.

The first limitation of investigation one related to the method used and
101
what information was potentially being missed. The method involved
showing participants the film Ice Cream Dream in its entirety then asking
them to reflect on their reactions from the first viewing, after each segment
of the film was shown a second time as a recall prompt. This meant that
other material in the film that was not being reported might also provide
valuable analytical insights, such as material on story. A solution to this
could be found in a close schematic analysis of film content, which might
reveal other critical aspects related to film content that might link to
viewers talk findings from investigation one and with the framework being
developed over the course of this research. This first limitation argues
generally for an investigation of film structure to be undertaken in further
investigations.

The second limitation was the lukewarm rating given to the stimulus film.
Ice Cream Dream was rated by the ten participants at 3.2 (average of all
scores) out of a possible score of 5, indicating that the film was not
perceived as either strongly good or bad by the participants. Ice Cream
Dream also prompted many negative comments related to aspects such as
lack of clarity and believability. Because of the relative lack of positive
comments about Ice Cream Dream, the resulting theorisation was one-sided,
focused on negative and neutral issues. This second limitation argues
generally for a further viewers talk investigation using a film that would
likely be highly rated by participants, to bring greater balance to the
framework being developed in this research.

The third limitation is the possibility that the semi-structured interviewing
of investigation one might be shaping some of the responses, an issue
relating to the context of the investigation. This limitation argues generally
for a non-interview based viewers talk investigation. Additionally, a
research investigation based on online viewers talk unshaped by the
interview context, for example, might provide the opportunity to investigate
whether the framework being developed was applicable to other contexts of
viewers talk, as well as offering the opportunity to deepen the framework
102
with new research findings.
In the light of these limitations (immediately above), it was therefore
decided to undertake a structural schematic analysis of the neutrally rated
Ice Cream Dream (addressing limitation one, above) and the highly rated
short film The Wrong Trousers (addressing limitation two above, in relation
to structure), with a further viewers talk investigation on The Wrong
Trousers, drawing on material in the Internet Movie Database (addressing
limitation two in relation to viewers talk and limitation three, above). It
was also decided to undertake the schematic analysis of The Wrong
Trousers (the investigation reported in the next chapter) before the
schematic investigation of Ice Cream Dream, in the expectation that a
schematic analysis of a successful film first would give greater analytical
depth to the schematic analysis of the less successful Ice Cream Dream.
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Chapter 3. Investigation two schematic analysis of
short film The Wrong Trousers

3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 Issues arising

In the first investigation (Chapter Two), viewers talk about the short film
Ice Cream Dream was examined, to see how viewers talked about the film and
what categories of talk could be discerned, how these categories might map
onto schema theory and what design implications could be developed. Two
limitations arose from the first investigation that informed the current
investigation.

The first is that little was said by the participants about story structure.
Therefore investigation one has not yielded much information on schemas in
story, though the finding on summaries (section 2.3.3, above) is tangentially
related to this. There is therefore a need for a schematic and closer analysis of
film structure beyond the level of detail in the segmentation used in
investigation one, which was not a schematic analysis. Such a schematic
analysis would link the findings from the first investigation to a detailed
schematic analysis of the film content. The second issue relates to the rating of
the film itself. Overall Ice Cream Dream was neutrally rated, a negative
outcome in terms of film enjoyment. The findings from the first investigation
were therefore skewed towards the negative, raising the need to examine a
positively rated film.

To address these two limitations, it was decided to do a second investigation
involving the schematic analysis of a successful film, the highly rated and
Oscar
TM
winning The Wrong Trousers. Such an analysis might reasonably be
expected to give clues from the structure of The Wrong Trousers as to why that
film was so successful.
104
Specifically, investigation two sought to answer three questions. The first
question was, what are the content structures that organise the film? (research
question four, section 1.7 above). The second question was: do these content
structures map onto schema theory? (research question five, section 1.7 above).
The third question related to the design of film content: can a set of design
implications be developed from the investigation of structure in film content?
(research question six, section 1.7, above). This last question comprises an
identification of possible design implications for film from the schematic
analysis.

3.1.2 Methods of analysing film content and problems

There are a number of approaches to recording or inspecting the content of
any particular film. In this section four approaches are briefly examined
(segmentations, screenplays, MPEG7 and automatic content logging),
considering the problems with each. This investigation developed and used a
method of schematic analysis, as discussed below (section 3.2.2).

The first approach to film content could be to create a segmentation of the
film (Bordwell, 2001; Bordwell, 1985, see also an example in Table 3.1,
below). Such segmentations do not explicitly promote any structural
understanding of the film based on schema theory.

The second approach would be to use the screenplay of the film, the
principal design document in the early stages of creating a film. The script
contains a verbal description of the content of the film, indicating whether the
action takes place inside or outside (INT. or EXT), where the action takes
place and an approximation of time (e.g., DAY or NIGHT etc.,). It also
indicates what the characters in the film are saying and doing.

There are a number of problems with using the screenplay. Firstly, the
screenplay and any script variants record full dialogue but little shot
information, representing too low granularity on the one hand (it represents the
105
totality of all planned speech) and too high granularity on the other hand (little
information about shots). Secondly, the final film is invariably different from
the screenplay as actors and directors often change lines after the screenplay
has been written and in the version released may have altered or removed
elements delineated in the screenplay, when it becomes clear from the filmed
version that these elements are superfluous (on DVDs such elements can often
be found under the menu item, Deleted scenes). Screenplays are therefore
not sufficiently reliable documents to work from.

Reliability is a point which also applies to other documents from the film
making process such as shooting scripts and continuity reports (which are not
generally available for purchase in the way screenplays are). Documents used
later in post-production such as the edit decision list which lists all shots as
edited in the final film come too late in the film making process to have any
design ramifications, are not usually available in the public domain and do not
contain useful descriptive material of the content of shots.

The third approach is to use the MPEG-7 specification standard for describing
media content, a rich set of tools for completely describing multimedia
content (Martinez, Koenen and Pereira, 2002, p. 78). Such tools are
focused on different aspects of the content of any film or video, such as visual
descriptors related to colour, texture, shape, motion and location (ibid.) or
audio descriptors related to aspects of timbre, signal and speech content (ibid.).

Fourthly, automated and semi-automated film content analysis and logging
approaches could be used (e.g., Wang, Liu and Huang, 2000; University of
York, 2005). Such approaches are highly technical and focused on the task of
exhaustive content logging and analysis, meaning they are not suitable for non-
specialists and that the level of granularity will be too low to be suitable for a
schema based research and design approach. They are also systems which
require purchase systems which may still be under development and therefore
are not totally reliable (Wang, Liu and Huang, 2000; University of York,
2005).
106

Because of the problems with the methods detailed above for this research, a
systematic method of analysis was developed in this research called schematic
analysis. This is detailed below (section 3.2.2).

3.2 Method

A short film, The Wrong Trousers, was systematically structurally analysed.
An iterative approach to the development of methods and generation of results
was used, with content systematically analysed, iteratively identifying mid and
higher level structures. The research included developing methods for testing
the boundaries of schemas, with a descriptive nomenclature for research and
design.

3.2.1 Materials

The film The Wrong Trousers is a 29 minute short film (Park, 1993). A
segmentation is now shown, written to capture the emotional tone of the film
(Table 3.1, below).

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Table 3.1 Segmentation of The Wrong Trousers


Gromit is eating breakfast, waiting to see if he will have any birthday cards or
presents. Wallace wakes up and gets ready, using machines he has built.
Gromit gets his presents. Wallace gets bills and realizes that he is in financial
straits, partly because of the cost of the presents he has bought for Gromit,
including a pair of NASA techno trousers. As a financial solution, Wallace
takes in a lodger, the penguin who steals Gromits bedroom and turn out to be
a bad lodger. Whilst the spare room is being decorated, the penguin sees the
techno trousers in operation. He then worms his way into Wallaces heart and
drives Gromit out of the house, gaining access to the techno trousers. The
Penguin alters the techno trousers and traps Wallace in them, exhausting him by
making the techno trousers walk, run and jump all around town at the end of it
all Wallace falls asleep.

Gromit is looking for accommodation and at first doesnt see Wallace in the
background being bounced around in the techno trousers. He looks at a
wanted poster of a chicken, seeing something familiar in the face of the
criminal (it is the penguin wearing a red rubber glove on his head, like a
chickens cockscomb). Gromit sees Wallace, who calls to him for rescue and
Gromit realizes the penguin is controlling the techno trousers. Gromit follows
the penguin, spying on him to try and work out what he is up to, eventually
seeing his plans for stealing a diamond. Wallace is asleep due to exhaustion
and Gromit has got trapped in the getting ready in the morning machines that
Wallace has built. That night the penguin uses the techno trousers to break into
the local museum and steal a diamond being exhibited there. Back at the house,
Wallace is locked in a wardrobe by the Penguin. Gromit confronts the Penguin
with a rolling pin, but the Penguin has a gun and locks Gromit into the
wardrobe and starts to make his getaway.

Gromit manages to rewire the techno trousers to stamp Wallace and Gromit free
of the base of the wardrobe. Gromit gives chase on the toy train that threads its
way around the ground floor, with the penguin sitting in the fuel carriage at the
front of the train. Wallace trips the train on which the penguin is sat on, the
penguin goes flying through the air, ending up squashed into a milk bottle, from
where he is returned to jail, the zoo. The film ends with the reward money that
Wallace and Gromit have received resolving the financial crisis and Wallace
reaffirming his friendship for Gromit. The trousers walk off into the sunset

CLOSING TITLES AND CREDITS

This segmentation incorporates the three act structure and major schematic
turning points. It should be noted that the segmentation is not just descriptive
it also seeks to represent the emotional texture of the film in its language.

108
3.2.2 Analysis and coding procedure

The film was analysed using a computer based DVD player, running the
software PowerDVD. The version of PowerDVD and the hardware used did
not permit time-frame accurate logging timings of shots are accurate only to
plus or minus one second. The timing of shots are therefore not used in this
research for reporting purposes, only for facilitating the logging process. The
shot number is used as the unambiguous means of indexing shots.

Since schematic analysis is a new approach, it was necessary to develop the
approach and identify and resolve substantive issues as they arose, to create a
robust procedure that could be used by other researchers and film practitioners.
The process has the following components: factual logging for production of a
Shot Description Document, schema analysis via the production of the schema
map (which comprises the schema structure table for the whole film and
schema slot tables for each aggregate schema).

3.2.2.1 Factual logging and the Shot Description Document

Since film is a constructed and sequential artifact, the shot is the basic
building block. Schematic analysis started with factual logging (i.e., describing
and writing down the film content). This is done at a mid-level of granularity
sufficient to give the sense of the shot.

This logging is done in a document called the Shot Description Document
(SDD), with the aim to factually describe the content of each shot, but also to
capture the emotional essence of a shot. An extract of the SDD now follows,
below (Table 3.2, a more extensive extract can be seen in Appendix Three):

109
Table 3.2 Sample extract from the Shot Description Document for The
Wrong Trousers

Start

End

Shot
number

Textual description

14:44

14:53

177

Very long shot. Towards the end of the street, the
penguin takes his notes in the lit area of a narrow alley,
buildings on either side. The camera focus is pulled
back to Gromit in the foreground. There is a moment of
silence, a dog barks in the distance. Gromit looks
around, spots a solution, puts the cardboard box over
himself and starts to move forward, totally covered by
the box.

From the SDD of the film, the schematic analysis is constructed: the analyst
can go higher or lower for useful analytical information, as will be seen below.
Complete speech segments are recorded, but the meanings of visual material is
abstracted and reported in abbreviated form where necessary to understand the
scene and represent the emotional texture of shots.

The SDD expedites the schematic analysis of the film and minimises the
need to revisit the artifact the actual film once the SSD has been completed,
resulting in a substantial time saving to the analyst. It soon became apparent
during the logging of The Wrong Trousers that in the creation of the SSD the
analyst needs to be aware that constant schema activation in his or her mind as
the film is watched causes logging inaccuracies. This is because the analyst
fills in gaps in what is shown in one shot with content correctly anticipated yet
only shown in the next shot, due to his or her pre-existing knowledge of the
film. This results in shots being attributed to schemas incorrectly, since a new
viewer of the film would not yet have been prompted for a particular schema.
This process results in errors in the SDD, usually anticipation errors such as,
erroneously for shot 6, Gromit goes to get the post (the completion of the
schema is actually shown in the following shot) as opposed to the correct a
single flap sound. Gromit looks roundhe moves out of frame (shot 6),
then picks up the mail with his paws in the following shot (shot 7). The entire
logging of the film in the SDD was therefore re-checked on a shot by shot basis
110
to remove any such errors.

3.2.2.2 Schematic map schema structure table and schema slot tables

Working from the SDD, the schematic analysis is systematically built up,
looking for boundaries between adjacent phenomenon or entities (e.g., Tversky
et al., 2002) normally a chronological, physical or thematic boundary to
identify the schemas. These schemas can then be built into higher order
schemas and linked into story structure schemas. Each level incorporates in
abbreviated form the levels below it, a vertical link which provides the route
from shots to story. Working the analysis up and down in this way allows the
structure of the overall film to be seen and systematically and factually logged,
resulting in a schema structure table of the film. Schema slot tables identify the
slots in the individual schemas, noting whether the slots are prototypical or
associated. As a result of this process, higher than shot level schemas emerge
from the data, with the output of an interlinked and detailed analysis of the film
in relation to what are here called aggregate schemas (see below).

Structural schemas (genre, summary, story and three act structure) are top
level entities. In the current investigation, the focus was only on the structure
of the in-film content, so issues of genre (a meta-category arising from in-film
content, compared with other films sharing similar schematic markers) and
summaries were not dealt with.

3.2.2.3 A structuring schema

In this investigation a new type of schema, called here aggregate schemas,
emerged as being important in structuring the film, acting as a structural spine.
Aggregate schemas are meaningful and nameable sequences of actions carried
out by characters which together make up a known sequence, such as having
breakfast. These are reported in the following section (section 3.3).

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3.3 Results and discussion

3.3.1 An expanded typology of schemas

This investigation has identified a new class of integrating schemas, focused
on aggregates of action schemas. These were called aggregate schemas and
consist of nameable mid to large scale actions. It should be noted that temporal
sequence is not necessarily implicit in the slots for these schemas as it might be
with other related structural entities such as scripts for behaviour (e.g.,
Abelson, 1981), where the slots follow in broad temporal sequence (such as, in
a restaurant, following the restaurant script consisting of elements such as
being greeted by staff, being given a menu etc.,). Scripts of this nature are a
subset of aggregate schemas. As the SDD was worked through, the schemas
were identified and work proceeded iteratively on defining each schema, with
the SDD being referred to as a means of testing and developing how aggregate
schemas were identified and whether the slots consisted of prototypical content
(content defining the schema) or associated content (content which often
occurs within the schema but does not define the schema) when the schema is
in play. The opening and closing credits were not analysed.

Then the identifying principles for aggregate schemas are listed (section
3.3.2), followed by an overview of these schemas and the schema map for the
film (section 3.3.3). The sections after that (3.3.4 to 3.3.28) define and
delineate the slots for each aggregate schema, showing links to adjacent
schemas where relevant and discussing design implications as these arise.

3.3.2 Nomenclature and identification of aggregate schemas

3.3.2.1 Nomenclature of aggregate schemas

In what follows, the term schema is used for aggregate schemas, unless
otherwise indicated or is clear from the context. Twenty-five schemas were
identified. The schemas Having breakfast, Financial crisis, Captured and
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Faithful pet dog had two instantiations, with four instantiations of Getting
ready in the morning. New instantiations are shown with a number in braces.

In reporting the analysis of each schema, slots are divided into two
categories (prototypical and associated). Prototypical slots are those slots
which are central and necessary to identifying and naming the schema under
consideration. Associated slots are elements which by cultural habit or
physical necessity have become linked to the schema. To avoid excess
verbiage, the presence of a character is not logged as a specific slot (as it might
be with breakfast, which requires someone to eat the meal) since the name of
the character is identified in the slot table for each aggregate schema and the
text explaining it. As the analysis proceeded it became clear that there was a
third category, where the schema is delivered complete to the viewer in a
statement (either verbal or written). This category was called, statement of
schema. Slots are presented in the temporal order in which they occurred in the
film, unless there are repeated elements, in which case the element is only
mentioned once at its first occurrence.

3.3.2.2 Identification of aggregate schemas

Although dictionary definitions can provide the starting point for some
aggregate schemas and their prototypical slots, because dictionary definitions
are purely linguistic they may not incorporate the richness of the schema in
actual use (for an example: Blake, Bisogni, Sobal, Jastran and Devine, 2008).
In instantiated form in the physical world, associated slots can also be
identified. Associated slot may be implicit in the dictionary definition and
necessary for it to be instantiated, or may be generically associated with the
schema in the way it is instantiated in the real world. So, for example,
particular places (a dining room or kitchen, for example) are associated with
breakfast (and are therefore treated in this research as associated slots in the
schema) but do not feature in the dictionary definition of breakfast.

Human analysts can often readily identify common aggregate schemas such
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as having breakfast without needing heuristics or a dictionary to do so.
Principles are needed for identifying the starts and ends and levels of analysis
of aggregate schemas, to ensure consistency of identification and to provide a
means of handling difficult cases. A number of test principles for identification
were developed in this research, as now indicated.

The first test relates to granularity: aggregate schemas are mid level schemas
made up of lower level fast actions, therefore aggregate schemas are
temporally slower than action schemas. This first test is a speed test related to
the length of time for completion of the schematic set of actions or events. So
getting out of bed is an action schema, not a aggregate schema, since it is
temporally a fast action. Aggregate schemas may also be of relatively
extended temporal duration (see below), such as in the case of a robbery.

The second test is related to boundaries, where one aggregate schema ends
and a new one starts. This test is that the scenes in the film are not
immediately contiguous with each other in time, location or theme. Because
actual schemas are often well known in western culture, the answer is often
obvious: in having breakfast someone has finished once they are no longer
eating or drinking the meal and it is no longer morning. At the level of fine
detail it may be objected that some participants might report including the food
and drink preparation at the start and the washing up at the finish in their
schema of breakfast, whilst other participants may only include the actual
eating and drinking. In actuality, if the film content included a shot of washing
up after breakfast, this could be included in the having breakfast schema as an
associated follow on activity, since it represents the total completion of having
breakfast, that is to say once everything has been washed up and put back in
cupboards that is normally a conclusive indication that having breakfast is
finished.

The third test of whether a schema is a aggregate schema relates to
aggregates of slots. If the analyst asks, what action is Gromit doing in a shot
where Gromit is pouring himself a cup of tea in the morning whilst seated at
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the dining table, there are two possible answers. The first is an answer at the
action schema level, Gromit is pouring a cup of tea. Yet consideration of the
slots and the context within which they occur brings the analyst to a second
answer, which is a description at the level of the entire sequence of actions,
with the slots filled in to activate having breakfast, prompting delivery of the
complete schema.

It should also be noted that some aggregate schemas may be extended over
greater periods of time than having breakfast. For example, the birthday
schema may be extended over most of the day (receiving birthday cards in the
morning, having a birthday party in the afternoon etc.,) and other schemas such
as a undertaking a heist may be extended over longer periods still (planning
the heist may take place weeks before the actual robbery, for example). The
tests (above) are applied to ask at what point the activities that a person is
engaged in are no longer related to the heist i.e., the activity on screen is
unrelated to any slots for the aggregate schema of undertaking a heist. This
also applies to aggregate schemas temporally or spatially embedded in other
longer aggregate schemas. So for example, if the penguin has breakfast on the
day of the heist, the breakfast falls within a breakfast schema and not the heist
schema, since this breakfast is normally neither prototypically or causally
linked to the actual heist as it unfolds.

Finally, schemas can be changed retrospectively, usually indicated by a
reveal (a shot revealing something previously hidden, note the commentary on
McTiernan, 1999). In The Wrong Trousers, there is a reveal that the penguin is
planning a robbery, when Gromit sees the penguins map of the museum with
the location of the diamond written on it. This reveal then reinterprets the
previous schemas, such that they are seen in a new light, in this case a heist
schema which will likely be of extended duration.

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3.3.3 Schema map for The Wrong Trousers

Working from the SDD, the analysis proceeded up from the shots, with
aggregate schemas emerging as a new category that structures the film. The
start and end point of each schema was recorded in line with the principles
above (section 3.3.2.2). This process has as its output, a schematic map of the
film.

The schema map has two components. The first of these is the schema
structure table (below, Table 3.3), which shows how the schemas play out
throughout the film and how, on a shot by shot basis, they are related to each
other. The second output comprises a collection of schema slot tables, which
were created by using the SDD to identify the slots for each schema and their
type (prototypical, associated) and whether there was a statement of schema.
This material comprises the second part of the schematic map, the schema slot
tables (as reported for each aggregate schema below, sections 3.3.4 to 3.3.28).
From the schematic map (structure table plus schema slot tables) supplemented
by the SDD when necessary, the design implications were identified.

In a large scale project involving many films, the schema map together for
the SDD of each project would form a schematic record of each film, with a
separate schema map document for each film. This first part of the schema
map, the schema structure table, now follows (Table 3.3, below), with the three
act shown, to facilitate comparison with the segmentation (above, Table 3.1).
The numbers in brackets indicate the instantiation of the schema, i.e., first,
second, third or fourth. Following that, the second part of the schema map, the
schema slot tables, are reported (sections 3.3.4 to 3.3.28).

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Table 3.3 Schema structure table for The Wrong Trousers (numerals indicate
number of instantiation of schema)

Name of schema (instantiation)

Start
(shot)

End
(shot)

ACT ONE: Status quo
Having breakfast (1)
Having a birthday
Getting ready in the morning (1)
Financial crisis (1)
Getting a lodger
Decorating a room
Bad lodger
Getting ready in the morning (2)
Having breakfast (2)
Faithful pet dog (1) subverted
Leaving home
Antagonists plan equipment
Getting ready in the morning (3) subverted

ACT TWO: Hero takes action, reversal, antagonist
wins
Lodger seeking accommodation
[Re-interpretative] Antagonists criminal plan
equipment
Spying
[Re-interpretative] Antagonists heist plan
Getting ready in the morning (4) subverted
Captured (1)

Escape
Chase
Captured (2)
Faithful pet dog (2) restored
Financial crisis (2) resolved
Walking off into the sunset

2
3
5
27
28
84
93
103
104
105
117
125
128

139
142

156
200
217
308

315
325
401
406
408
416

25
66
16
83
83
92
102
111
107
125
125
127
138

147
195

216
300
225
314

346
401
405
415
411
416

Each schema is now reported and discussed. Design implications follow.

3.3.4 Having breakfast schema

3.3.4.1 Identification

The start of this schema is indicated by Gromit pouring a cup of tea (shot 2).
The end of the schema is indicated by the last shot which contains a clearly
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identified slot for the breakfast schema, in this case Wallace swallowing a
mouthful of toast (shot 25). This schema begins with the character of Gromit
and then, later, it encompasses Wallace as he joins Gromit.

The viewer of the film knows that Wallace and Gromit live together, fitting
the combined Wallace and Gromit schema of friends and pet and pet owner, so
are primed in advance to expect that Wallace and Gromit will have breakfast
together. This schema overlaps the schemas, birthday and Getting ready in
the morning.

The dictionary definition of breakfast is That with which a person breaks
his fast in the morning; the first meal of the day (OED, 2009). The necessary
slots are therefore a person and a meal which is the first meal of the day. In the
implicit category of additional slots there is location: a physical action requires
a place for it to take place. In common use in the west breakfast is usually
taken in a specific location such as the kitchen or dining room. In the category
of associated slots, a drink of some sort is often imbibed, since human beings
find that eating is easier when accompanied by fluids, though the choice of
drink may be shaped by cultural or habitual factors (see Chapter Two, above).

This schema encompasses the schema, Getting up in the morning, where
Wallaces alarm clock shows the time of 9:00, with a morning quality of
ambient light. There is also a servants sign in the kitchen/dining room with a
flashing light and buzzer which is operated by Wallace from his bed displaying
the word Breakfast in the dining room for Gromit to see, a clear statement to
the viewer about what meal this is. The schema Having breakfast is
summarised overleaf (Table 3.4).

3.3.4.2 Design implications

In The Wrong Trousers, the schema having breakfast and its overlapping
schema of getting up in the morning reinforce each other in a feedback loop
the viewer is prompted to think that eventually (as happens) Wallace will join
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Gromit at breakfast. This results in a design implication that is here called
parallel schema reinforcement, whereby schemas related temporally, causally
or thematically can be run in parallel in the film, mutually reinforcing each
other.

Table 3.4 Instantiated schema slot table, Having Breakfast

Instantiated schema
description

Gromit has breakfast, joined later by Wallace

Type of slot, slot
name and slot content

(Prototypical slot) Morning time of day, signified by
morning music and morning quality of ambient light
(Associated slot) Cup of tea
(Associated slot) At the table
(Associated slot) Toaster
(Prototypical slot) Food, slice of bread
(Statement of schema) Control panel says, Breakfast
(Statement of schema) Wallace uses word Breakfast
(Prototypical slot) Food, jam flicked into air
(Prototypical slot) Food, toast shoots up from toaster, gets
jam on, lands of plate
(Associated slot) Plate

The actual context of the schema also offers design possibilities. So, for
example, the extension of the breakfast schema into breakfast for a married
couple offers film makers the opportunity to show whether the relationship of a
couple is healthy or not by having one member of the couple responding to
attempts at conversation with grunts from behind a newspaper. This is used in
The Wrong Trousers, with Gromit seemingly upset at having not got any
birthday presents from Wallace and reading a newspaper. This design
implication will be called slot context exposition, where the context (visual,
sonic and verbal material) around a slot or other content is used to introduce
additional story insights unrelated to the schema at hand.

3.3.5 Having a birthday schema


The start of this schema is indicated by a shot of a wall calendar with the day
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circled in red and a line of days preceding it each neatly crossed out (shot 3),
with Gromits hand holding a pen and putting a cross on the circled day. This
is a precise and unambiguous indication of the identity of the schema that is
about to be played out.

This schema follows the start of the having breakfast schema and
encompasses the outworking of the breakfast schema, also overlapping the
getting ready in the morning schema. The schema ends (shot 66) on Gromit
shaking his head in disbelief at Wallace asking him, How were the techno
trousers?, Wallace obviously (and fatuously) expecting a positive response.

This birthday schema also forms the context of the inciting event in the film
(the event which makes the rest of the film possible) due to the costs incurred
in buying the gifts, which initiates the financial crisis schema. This in turn
brings the penguin into the house and provides him with the means the
techno trousers of carrying out his diamond robbery.

The dictionary definition of birthday is The anniversary or annual
observance of the day of birth of any one (OED, 2009). This definition
indicates three slots: a person, an annual observance and the fact that this
observance relates to the day of the persons birth. There is no specified slot
for location, though there is an assumption that the location would be the place
where the person having the birthday is (not coded here, since this is explicit in
the use of the name of the character).

An issue of relevance to the viewer (as opposed to the character) is that
knowledge of a birthday for the viewer could come in a number of ways,
including a calendar on the wall, a birthday card, wrapped presents, and a
party: all potential associated slots. In this instance, the character (Gromit)
also gains knowledge of the birthday (and has been counting down the days to
it) on his calendar. Film makers can choose to have the viewer informed about
a particular event or story fact in the story world of the film, without one or
more of the characters being aware of this event or fact, which puts the viewer
120
in a privileged position, creating empathetic suspense as the protagonist moves
forward unsuspecting into danger (as with Wallace in the heist later in the
film). This instantiated schema and its slots are as follows (Table 3.5, below):

Table 3.5: Instantiated schema slot table having a birthday

Schema Description

Gromit has a birthday and gets cards and a two presents

Type of slots, slot

(Statement of schema) Calendar, a day circled and marked
Gromits [sic] birthday
(Associated slot) Calendar
(Statement of schema) Gromit puts cross on circled day
(Associated slot) Musical birthday card
(Associated slot) Wallace uses word, presents
(Associated slot) Present One wrapped in coloured paper
(Associated slot) Birthday greeting, Happy birthday from
Wallace to Gromit
(Associated slot) Present unwrapped by Gromit
(Associated slot) Present One is inappropriate, Gromit frowns
at dog collar and lead, discomfort when collar put on
(Associated slot) Present Two wrapped in coloured paper
(Associated slot) Present Two given to Gromit, it walks
towards him
(Associated slot) Present Two is inappropriate, Gromit recoils
in fear
(Associated slot) Present Two, wrappings, small card on
present, ribbon, paper
(Associated slot) Present Two is inappropriate, Gromit uses it
for a different purpose, pulling toy dog along on wheeled trolley
in park
(Associated slot) Present Two is inappropriate, Gromits
reaction of I dont believe it, when asked by Wallace how he got
on with the techno trousers

The presents slots takes place in three stages (availability, giving,
judgement of presents as inappropriate). Availability of presents is signaled by
a comment from Wallace. Both presents are inappropriate: Gromit is puzzled
at the dog collar which is put on too tight; the techno-trousers are given to
Gromit in another room, walking towards Gromit whilst still wrapped,
terrifying him.


Since it is a common experience that some presents are inappropriate or
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unwanted, this offers design possibilities for novel slot content that will be used
later in The Wrong Trousers to comic and dramatic effect.

Three design points should be noted. The first is that the slots content for
presents are not just inappropriate, they are strongly negative, provoking a
strong response in the recipient. This makes the gifts and reactions more
dramatic and therefore more interesting, which invests the scenes with more
emotional power: schemas are not just cognitive entities but often come
bundled with a range of potential and characteristic emotions. This is therefore
called slot polarity intensification.

The second design point is the series of responses from Gromit that signal a
range of negative reactions to the present of the techno trousers. These
reactions are given progressively viewers are prompted by the first reaction
and the power of the reaction is deepened by successive and different
expressions of it. This design implication is called intensification by
progressive reaction.

The presents are given in different locations: the dog collar is given at the
table (after it is plucked from the back of the train, which constitutes novel slot
content) but the techno-trousers are not walked into the dining room but left
stationary in another room. Gromit can see the trousers as he enters the other
room but the viewer only sees Gromits reactions of increasing fear quite late
in the sequence (shot 38 is the first reaction shot to the techno trousers), with
the techno trousers fully shown later (shot 45). This maintains viewer
hypothesising and interest. The distinctive silhouette of the trousers links to
the opening title shot, setting up the hypothesis for the viewer that this present
is in fact the wrong trousers of the title. This is a design implication of visual
retardation (retardation, Bordwell, 1985, p. 38) intensification, where the
holding back of the reveal of the trousers intensifies interest.

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3.3.6 Getting ready in the morning(1) schema


The start of the schema is indicated by Wallace lying in bed asleep, the hint
that it is time for him to get up given by the fact that the alarm clock is showing
9:00 a.m. (shot 5). This schema finishes when Wallace falls into his place at
the table and is dressed by one of his invented machines (shot 16). The actual
waking (which might be regarded as the prototypical start to the schema) is not
seen at all, the next indication that Wallace is now awake is the electronic sign
for breakfast flashing in the kitchen, before a visual cut to Wallace in bed
pressing the button to operate this sign. The dictionary definition of ready is
Properly dressed or attired; having finished one's toilet (OED, 2009).
Elements include: morning time, waking, getting out of bed, washing, dressing,
A precursor is that the sleep is the main sleep, not a nap. The slot content for
this schema is now summarised below (Table 3.6):

Table 3.6 Instantiated schema slot table Getting ready in the morning(1)

Schema Description

Wallace gets ready in the morning

Type of slot, slot name
and slot content

(Prototypical slot) Morning time of day, Wallace is asleep, an
alarm clock indicating 9:00
(Prototypical slot) Getting out of bed, Wallace tipped by his
invention out of bed towards trapdoor
(Prototypical slot) Dressing, Wallace falls through trapdoor
and two machines dress him
(Associated slot) Ready for breakfast


This schema omits a prototypical slot (getting washed) but successfully
marks the transition from being asleep to awake and ready for the day. In
design terms, this is an example of the prompting of a schema by a slot,
without showing the full range of expected slots, called here reduced slot
prompting. Additionally, the speed of the action at this point means that the
123
viewer probably does not have cognitive resources available to critique the
selective presentation of the slots of the schema, even if they were aware of
aggregate schemas as a structuring element and were assessing the film
material for schema slots. This suggests an additional design implication,
called here speed-hide: fast moving elements offer the film maker the
opportunity to not present slots that might in real life be highly desirable (i.e.,
washing oneself), due to the allocation of cognitive resources. If more time
were available for viewers processing, the thought that washing had been
omitted might have come to some viewers minds, disrupting the film
experience. In The Wrong Trousers this design implication would allow the
film makers to avoid animating a washing sequence that might have been very
difficult and time consuming to animate with plasticine figures.

3.3.7 Financial crisis schema


The start of this schema is indicated by Wallace opening brown envelopes,
which are all bills (shot 27). This schema terminates with the penguin
accepting the room (he actually steals Gromits room, a novel and sinister
variation on the standard slot of acceptance). The penguin as the lodger will
now pay rent, therefore the solution to the financial crisis is prompted for the
viewer to infer at this point in the film. Acceptance of the room by the penguin
is indicated by the penguin unpacking his suitcase in Gromits room on
Gromits bed, with Wallace fussing ineffectively in the background, before
saying Seems pleasant enough, as he leaves the room, which constitutes
Wallaces acceptance of the new arrangement (shot 83), whereupon this
schema of financial crisis ends.

Since taking a lodger is Wallaces solution to the financial crisis, this schema
is almost totally contiguous with the schema Getting a lodger (below). This
other schema brings the penguin directly into Wallace and Gromits life with
the (false) promise of the rent sorting out the financial crisis (the crisis is in fact
124
solved at the end of the film by the reward that the pair get for putting the
penguin back behind bars). The slot content for this schema is shown below
(Table 3.7).

Table 3.7 Instantiated schema slot table for Financial crisis

Schema Description

Wallace faces many bills and has almost run out of money

Type of slot, slot
name and content of
slot

(Prototypical slot) Bills, Wallace opens his mail, it is all bills
(Prototypical slot) Plan for remedial action, Wallace talks of
economising, letting the spare room out
(Prototypical slot) Low money, Wallace shakes three coins
from his piggy bank
(Prototypical slot) Over expenditure, Wallace blurts out to
Gromit that the presents werent cheap
(Associated slot) Plan for remedial action, to let sign

3.3.7.2 Design principles

This is a key sequence in the film, because it brings the penguin into the
house, where he will see the techno trousers in operation. Four of the five slots
for this schema are prototypical, suggesting a design implication that at key
structural turning points in a film the film makers should use prototypical slots
for clarity, understanding and impact. This design implication will be called
emphasis by prototypical pivoting.

3.3.8 Getting a lodger schema


The start of the schema is indicated by Wallaces stated intent to let a room
(shot 28), a statement of the schema in play. The schema ends with Wallace
concluding the agreement to let the room by commenting that the penguin
seems pleasant enough and leaving him in Gromits room as the new lodger
(shot 83).

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The dictionary definition of lodger is One who resides as an inmate in
another person's house, paying a certain sum periodically for the
accommodation (OED, 2009). Typical slots would include advertising for a
lodger, interviewing the lodger, discussing rules and rent. All of these slots
feature in the film, although the slots are varied, with the penguin unilaterally
moving in to Gromits room and Wallace just accepting the penguins action
(see comment above, section 3.3.7.1). This schema is now summarised below
(Table 3.8).

Table 3.8 Instantiated schema slot table for Getting a lodger

Schema Description

Wallace gets a lodger

and slot content

(Statement of schema) Wallace says, rent room out
(Associated slot) Advertising, Wallace puts Room for let sign
in window
(Prototypical slot) Potential lodger
(Prototypical slot) Rent, Wallace indicates
(Associated slot) Benefits, breakfast included
(Associated slot) Show, Wallace shows penguin the room
(Associated slot) Rules, Wallace says, no pets
(Associated slot) Room dingy
(Prototypical slot) Lodger moves in [to Gromits room] and
unpacks
(Prototypical slot) Agreement, Wallace accepts the penguin in
Gromits room

As indicated above, this schema terminates at the same point as the previous
schema, Financial crisis. This is because the successful completion of getting
a lodger is also, by inference, the resolution of the financial crisis, since
schematically the lodger will pay rent.


Comparing the actual characters involved in the outworking of the schema as
it is instantiated in the film with the expected generic slot content may offer
opportunities for novelty. In The Wrong Trousers the slot for rules is
expected, with slot content of no pets a well known rule in the west. The
film makers have Wallace state this particular rule because pets are animals
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and Wallace is talking to a lodger who is an animal a humorous juxtaposition.
This design implication is called, counter expectation slot content.

The second design implication relates to the single action that the penguin
takes which is a violation of the schema. That is, he moves into Gromits
room. This is slot polarity intensification the viewer is prompted by the
penguins negative action to be annoyed on Gromits behalf. A third design
implication will be called slot signaling, when a slot is filled with content that
hints strongly at something yet to be revealed, building up anticipation. The
act of stealing Gromits room opens up the possibility that the lodger is the
antagonist (already hinted at in an earlier shot when the penguin stops and
stares at Gromit when he first is invited into the house by Wallace, shot 72).

The fourth design implication is a false resolution of schema: getting the
lodger seems like the solution to the financial crisis, but is not. This is
common in film and other story forms, leaving the protagonist unaware of the
danger he or she is in. Due to long familiarity with this dramatic move, a
viewer would both understand that this is a false resolution and be disappointed
if it were not.

3.3.9 Decorating a room schema


This schema starts in the middle of the action (shot 84) with Wallace
hanging wallpaper, the use of a single slot of sufficient potency to immediately
prompt the schema for the viewer. It ends with the penguin watching Gromit
(shot 92). The slots for this schema are shown below (Table 3.9):

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Table 3.9 Instantiated schema slot table, Decorating a room

Schema Description

Decorating a room

Type of slot, slot
name and shot
content

(Prototypical slot) Dilapidated room
(Prototypical slot) Ladder
(Prototypical slot) Strip of wallpaper, hanging
(Prototypical slot) Wallace says, lick of paint
(Prototypical slot) Brush
(Associated slot) Equipment, techno trousers
(Prototypical slot) Paint roller
(Prototypical slot) Painting

The film makers have already prepared the viewer implicitly for the
decorating activity of this schema, since the room being decorated is the
dilapidated room that earlier was offered to the penguin, with Wallace
commenting about the positive effects of a lick of paint (shot 76). This
connection is reinforced by Wallace repeating this phrase, this time to Gromit
(shot 84), since they are now decorating the dilapidated room together for
Gromits use. The end of this schema was coded at the penguin watching
Gromit decorating (shot 92) because this is the completion of this sequence in
time (i.e., a response by the penguin to the schematic actions of decorating the
room by Gromit). The next shot indicates a temporal shift to night time.


In this schema, the prototypical slots are filled with expected content, except
that the techno trousers are used as a novel slot as an aid for painting (the
suction on the boots allowing Gromit to hang upside down while he paints the
ceiling). This prepares the viewer for the subsequent use that the penguin will
put the trousers to using the suction facility of the trousers to climb walls and
hang from the ceiling as he robs the museum. There is also the second of two
comments by Wallace, about the value of a lick of paint, a phrase already used
when Wallace was showing the room to the penguin (see section, 3.3.8 above).
This design implication will be called repetition prompting and it can either be
verbal or visual.
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3.3.10 Bad lodger schema


This schema temporally follows the Getting a lodger schema, and, like bad
presents, is one of the possibilities inherent in the schema for taking a lodger.
People in the west would describe slots for a bad lodger as, for example,
noisy, messy, with associated references to the effect of this behaviour on
the landlord or other lodgers, such as upsetting.

This schema starts with a shot indicating temporal change it is now night
time (shot 93) and Gromit is trying to sleep in the wallpapered but bare spare
room, with loud Wurlitzer organ music coming from the penguins room. The
schema concludes with Gromit bursting into tears, having been denied sleep
and now forced outside into the doghouse (shot 102). The slots for this schema
are now summarised (Table 3.10, below):

Table 3.10 Instantiated schema slot table, Bad lodger

Schema Description

Bad lodger

and shot content

(Prototypical slot) Loud music at night
(Prototypical slot) Causing sleeplessness
(Prototypical slot) Causing annoyance
(Prototypical slot) Unresponsive to complaints
(Prototypical slot) Causing tears


This schema consists only of prototypical slots. This facilitates the viewer
clearly understanding the story at this point. This use of such slots may also
prompt the viewer to a brief but fast build up of emotion. This design
implication is therefore called emphasis by prototypicality. This form of
emphasis is used repeatedly in The Wrong Trousers, perhaps because the use of
prototypicality can only be sustained for relatively short periods of time,
129
prompting intense brief emotion that cannot be extended in the absence of any
cognitive subtlety that might arise by a more nuanced presentation of
associated slots. At key points in the film the use of this technique will recur.

3.3.11 Getting ready in the morning (2) schema


This is the second (new) instantiation of the earlier identically named
schema, this instantiation of the schema occurring on a new day. It starts with
a shot of Gromit waiting outside the bathroom, with bags under his eyes (shot
103). In design terms, this is sufficient to invoke the whole schema and locate
the individual viewers developing sense of the story and its time and place
after the previous concluding night time shot (102) with the fact that Gromits
sleep was disturbed. The schema ends with Wallace in his dressing gown,
Gromit responding to the penguins subversion of the faithful dog schema (see
next schema, below). This marks the conclusion of this morning sequence
temporally (shot 111), the shot following this being at night time. This schema
is instantiated as follows (Table 3.11, below).

Table 3.11 Instantiated slot table, Getting ready in the morning (2)

Schema Description

Getting ready in the morning

and shot content

(Associated slot) Waiting for bathroom, Gromit
(Prototypical slot) Cleaning teeth, sound
(Associated slot) Drying hair, Wallace, bald


In this instantiation of the schema the first slot is different from the earlier
instantiation, consisting of waiting to get into the bathroom. This still
prompts the familiar schema but invokes interest with the different slot content,
as compared to the first instantiation of this schema. The start of this schema is
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the design principle of reduced slot prompting the schema can be prompted
by the shot of Gromit waiting to go into the bathroom (in this instance the
sequence also includes material concerning Wallace, though the viewer already
has the schema of getting ready in the morning prompted).

This sequence also illustrates the speed-hide design implication, since
Wallace walks past Gromit fully dressed as Gromit is waiting outside the
bathroom but is then seen subsequently in a dressing gown. This is a
continuity error pointed out on the DVD (Park, 1993) but is not noticed by the
viewers, since the focus is on Gromit, with Wallace moving rapidly past
Gromit as Gromit waits outside the bathroom.

A final design implication is that of counter expectation slot content. This
arises because the schema of washing could extend to a slot for washing hair,
which would lead to drying hair. Counter expectations slot content offers the
opportunity for humour, as Wallace is using a hair dryer (his ears flapping) on
his bald head. This is a double enjoyment: Wallaces ears flapping and the
incongruity of someone using a hair dryer on their bald head.

3.3.12 Having breakfast (2) schema


This schema is named, Having breakfast (2), being the second and new
instantiation of the breakfast schema. This instantiation starts with Gromit
chewing food, his cheeks bulging (shot 104) indicative of eating a meal, one of
the prototypical slots for this schema. Temporal continuity (this meal comes
after getting ready), the ambient quality of the light and the quiet introductory
music to a news programme on the radio all indicate morning time. The
breakfast is uncompleted, the sequence ending with Gromit still at his
breakfast, looking upset as the penguin subverts Gromits schematic role of
faithful pet dog by bringing Wallace his slippers (shot 107), this being the last
shot to reference this particular breakfast.
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This schema overlaps with the next schema Faithful pet dog - subverted.
The slots are as follows (Table 3.12, below):

Table 3.12 Instantiated schema slot table, Having breakfast (2)

Instantiated schema
description

Gromit has breakfast for a second time

and slot content

(Prototypical slot) Food, eating and swallowing
(Prototypical slot) Morning time of day: signified by morning
music and introduction to news on radio, morning quality of
ambient light
(Associated slot) At the table


This sequence presents a design implication linked to the schema that the
viewer has developed of the penguin, which includes a sonic identifier. The
sequence opens with Gromit eating, then his attention being diverted by a
sound off screen, a padding sound that the viewer can recognise as the sound of
the penguins feet. This design implication is called sonic preparation if the
film maker has already presented a particular element in the film with a
noticeable sonic marker, that marker can be used prior to the shot of the
element as a slot to suggest to the viewer what is to come. This builds viewer
hypothesising and interest at a low level of granularity.

3.3.13 Faithful pet dog subverted schema


This schema is named, Faithful pet dog - subverted because the whole
schema is subverted by the penguin taking over Gromits role as faithful pet
dog and friend. This schema starts (shot 105) with the penguin bringing
Wallace his slippers (not shot 104 where the padding sound of the penguin is
heard but the penguin himself is not seen: the viewer cannot be certain it is the
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penguin until shot 105). The schema ends with the penguin clapping his fins
together in satisfaction (shot 125) as Gromit leaves the house, an indication that
the penguin has wormed his way into Wallaces affections, has driven a
wedge between Wallace and Gromit and that Gromits leaving is the
culmination of the penguins actions.

It should be noted that the schema faithful pet dog includes the notion of
friendship and in the instantiation of the schema in the film this friendship
takes on a human texture, because of Gromits human characteristics
(excluding the power of speech). Because friendship comes bundled in with
the pet dog schema, the end of the schema is taken at the point where Gromit
has left home (representing the final severance of the friendship) and the
penguin watches him leave, clapping his fins together in satisfaction. This
explains the addition of subverted at the end of the schema description until
this final shot of the penguin it is still possible (if not very probable) that the
penguin is only being helpful and that the shift in Wallaces friendship is by
chance. This final shot (shot 125) is a clear explanation that the subversion of
roles has been deliberate and, by implication, for a purpose this shot also
forms the starting point of the schema, The antagonists plan.

This schema encompasses the following schema (see below) of Leaving
home. The slots for Faithful pet dog subverted are as follows (Table 3.13,
below):

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Table 3.13 Instantiated schema slot table, Faithful pet dog/friendship
subverted

Instantiated schema
description

Faithful pet dog subverted

and slot content

(Prototypical slot) Pet dog brings slippers to owner, penguin
(Prototypical slot) Pet dog brings newspaper to owner, penguin
(Associated slot) Friendship meal of pet dog and owner
together, music, laughter, wine, cheese, penguin


The closing shots of the sequence are a significant indication of the
subversion of the faithful pet dog schema (in the context of the film, the
friendship between Wallace and Gromit). The viewer sees a silhouette of
Wallace offering the penguin a large triangular block of cheese with large holes
in it (i.e., a prototypical and schematic version of a slice of cheese) asking,
More cheese, penguin, eh?, with a laugh (shot 115). Since cheese has a
special place in the Wallace and Gromit storyworld representing the shared
meal of friendship this potentially prompts intensified sympathy in the viewer.
The design implication is that film makers can take an existing schema and add
in a new element that becomes a signifying element of the schema, then re-use
that element in a different way, to intensify feelings surrounding that schema
e.g., it is now Wallace and the penguin who are sharing a cosy meal with
cheese, not Wallace and Gromit. This principle will be called intensification
by signifying element.

3.3.14 Leaving home schema


This schema is named, Leaving home, using the now dated slot content of
leaving home by walking out with a stick slung over the shoulder, having a
spotted handkerchief holding ones worldly possessions at the end of it. This
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instantiation may fit the indeterminate 1950s where the Wallace and Gromit
stories take place, though it is likely an exaggeration of real life behaviour.

The schema starts with a locational shift, Gromit is outside and moves from
peering at Wallace and the penguin to the inside of the doghouse (shot 117)
and a thematic shift because Gromit has started a new behaviour (leaving
home). The schema concludes (shot 125) with Gromit leaving through the
garden gate, turning for one last look at the house. This schema is totally
embedded in the faithful pet dog-subverted schema. The slots for Leaving
home are as follows (Table 3.15, below):

Table 3.14 Instantiated schema slot table, Leaving home

Instantiated schema
description

Leaving home

and slot content

(Prototypical slot) Red spotted handkerchief
(Prototypical slot) Pole for handkerchief on end of pole
(Prototypical slot) Pole over shoulder
(Associated slot) Personal belongings put into handkerchief
(Prototypical slot) Leaving, through the garden gate


It is noteworthy that this schema, together with the previous schema, consists
mostly of prototypical slots. This is a key point in the film since Gromit has to
leave Wallace exposed to the penguin and Gromit has to be given sufficient
motivation to leave home. Thus these two schemas both consist largely of
prototypical slots, meaning that the content is unambiguous. The prevalence of
prototypical slots across both these schemas results in the design implication of
emphasis by prototypicality, already identified earlier. It suggests that at key
points film makers should use prototypical slots when it is important that the
viewer should be left in no doubt about what is going on, a cognitive
requirement.

The two schemas are also bound together into a strongly affective unit by the
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music, which has a sad texture, rising to a peak as Gromit looks at a
photograph of him together with Wallace, his eyes wet. This results in a third
design implication of schema binding, where two schemas are explicitly drawn
together, not just because of temporal or thematic contiguity, but also by music.

A third design implication is the use of prototypical slots to free up mental
resources for the rise of emotion. This suggests a design implication of
emotional freeing, where cognitive demands of a sequence are kept low to
facilitate increase of emotional response in the viewer in an emotional scene.

3.3.15 Antagonists plan equipment schema


The schema starts with the shot of the penguin clapping his hands together in
satisfaction (shot 125). This fact that the antagonist has a plan is schematically
part of the conventional dramatic structure of films, though at this stage the
viewer still doesnt know what is being planned. Because of their schematic
knowledge of films generally viewers expect that the antagonist will have a
plan, the clapping together of the penguins fins in satisfaction as Gromit
leaves is a clear indication that there is a plan. The viewer now knows there is
conscious plan, but little more than this at this stage of the film.

The final shots (shots 126 and 127), reveal that the penguin has possession
of the techno trousers. These shots reveal he intends to modify the trousers in
some as yet unknown way (the penguin holds a book on electronics and an
electric drill, a lightening bolt lights up the sky and adds to the foreboding of
the scene).

The viewer knows schematically that the penguin is getting and modifying
the equipment for a purpose which has not yet been revealed (retardation,
Bordwell, 1985). This schema is separated from its next instance because of
the time gap and because the viewer has no overarching framework as yet to
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understand what the penguin is planning to do. The slots are as follows (Table
3.15, below):

Table 3.15: Instantiated schema slot table, Antagonists plan - equipment

Instantiated schema
description

The penguin prepares to modify equipment

Type of slot, slot
name and slot
content

(Prototypical slot) Gain possession of the equipment
(Prototypical slot) Get manual or information
(Prototypical slot) Get tools


The schema ends with the penguin clapping his fins in satisfaction. Because
this is at the end of the schema it is visual retardation intensification.

3.3.16 Getting ready in the morning (3) subverted schema


This is the third instantiation for this schema, focused firstly on Gromit, then
Wallace, temporally parallel with each other. The schema starts with an alarm
clock ringing and the lid of a metal dustbin under the arches of a bridge
shaking (shot 128). The sound of an alarm clock is familiar and an associated
contextual slot in getting ready in the morning, which starts with waking up.
The next shot (shot 129) reveals that Gromit has been sleeping in the bin. This
is followed by a cut to a different location within this same schema and in the
same temporal time frame, focused on Wallace. Wallace has started the getting
ready process by waking but then his machines seemingly take over and deliver
him to the breakfast table, not for the prototypical breakfast but for insertion
into the techno trousers. The schema slots are as follows (Table 3.16, below):

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Table 3.16 Instantiated schema slot table, Getting ready in the morning (3)
subverted

Schema Description


and shot content

(Associated slot) Waking, Gromit
(Prototypical slot) Getting out of bed, Wallace
(Prototypical slot) Getting dressed, Wallace
(Associated slot) Ready for breakfast, subverted


The prototypical slots for the familiar schema of getting ready in the
morning had been filled with novel content in the first instantiation. In this
schema this novelty is repeated, but with a final and more novel twist
Wallace is delivered to and trapped in the techno trousers. The viewer can
reasonably infer that the penguin is responsible, though confirmation of this is
held back till later (shot 154). Since the previous schema had already
suggested that the penguin has modified the wrong trousers (the modifications
are shown in the current sequence the controls on the trousers have been
replaced with a blank panel, so they can only be operated by the penguin), the
viewer infers that the penguin is responsible. This is the design implication of
slot novelty, used so often that not all instances are reported.

A second implication is called parallel schema reinforcement. This schema
is a single schema of getting ready in the morning with two characters in
different locations. It starts with Gromit waking (an associated slot which
contains a novel and complete action Gromit sticks his head out of a rubbish
bin then drops his head down again). From then on, the schema unfolds for
Wallace. The associated slot with the completed action for Gromit has been
sufficient to prompt the whole schema, the prototypical slots for Wallace with
novel slot content run the schema back at the house for Wallace.

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3.3.17 Lodger seeking accommodation schema


This schema starts with a sign in a shop window advertising a room to let
(shot 139), with Gromit looking at the sign. The schema ends with a temporal
and locational termination as Gromit moves off camera and away from the
shop window (shot 147). The slots are as follows (Table 3.19, below):

Table 3.17 Instantiated schema slot table, Lodger seeking accommodation

Schema Description

Lodger seeking accommodation

Type of slot, slot
name and shot
content

(Prototypical slot) Looking in shop window for
accommodation advertisements
(Associated slot) No pets, in the film No Dogs


This sequence uses the slot of looking at accommodation advertisements to
reveal a wanted poster of the penguin disguised as a chicken, indicating that
he is a wanted criminal. The viewers previously activated schemas about the
penguin choices amongst different hypotheses are becoming progressively
narrowed down since the poster suggests to the viewer that the penguin is
currently engaged in a criminal plan, with the heist schema becoming
available as one of the choices of explanation held for confirmation later on.
(the design principle of slot context exposition, see above, section 3.3.4).

3.3.18 [Re-interpretative] Antagonists criminal plan schema


This schema starts with a reveal of the penguin as a criminal (shot 142),
which reinterprets all that has gone before and sets up a new schema, the
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antagonists criminal plan. The schema ends (shot 195) with the penguin
moving off frame, having almost discovered Gromit spying on him. As a re-
interpretative schema, this takes as its slots the earlier schemas, together with
the specific slot in this schema, to be a criminal (Table 3.18, below):

Table 3.18 Instantiated schema slot table, Antagonists plan equipment

Instantiated schema
description

The penguin has a criminal plan

Type of slot, slot
name and slot
content

(Associated slot) Bad lodger
(Associated slot) Faithful pet dog subverted
(Associated slot) Antagonists plan equipment
(Associated slot) Gain possession of the equipment
(Prototypical slot) Be a criminal

Once this schema starts, the viewer is shown the penguin operating the
techno trousers (shot 158). This fact then becomes available for the viewer to
use in hypothesising what the penguin will do as he outworks his criminal plan.
As the schema unfolds, the viewer is shown the penguin taking notes and
measurements of a building some viewers may begin hypothesising about the
capabilities of the techno trousers for getting into buildings at this point.


Currently all that the viewer knows is that the penguin is engaged in a
criminal plan and that he has access to some very sophisticated technology to
carry out this plan. The film makers withhold the exact identity of the criminal
plan (stealing a diamond from a local museum) until later in the film,
maintaining viewer hypothesising. The design implication here is of retarding
re-interpretative schemas, holding back re-interpretative schemas till late in the
film. The other implication is the stepwise reveal of re-interpretative schemas
the viewer is taken on a journey in The Wrong Trousers where the penguin
starts with an unknown plan, which is narrowed down to a criminal plan (as
opposed to, for example, a philanthropic plan for elderly penguins in the area),
which in a further schema (below) will finally be revealed as a plan for a heist.
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3.3.19 Spying schema


This schema starts at the shot where Gromit decides to start spying on the
penguin (shot 156), when a determined expression is shown on his face.
Gromits behaviour of spying is extended in time, the sequence ending with
Gromit spying on the penguin from under the bed clothes of Wallaces bed, as
the penguin leaves (shot 216). The sequence includes a montage of
thematically linked sequences in different locations, occurring on the same day.
Shots in this montage include Gromit following the penguin and spying from
behind a newspaper. The slots for this schema are as below (Table 3:19):

Table 3.19 Instantiated schema slot table, Spying

Instantiated schema

Gromit spies on the penguin

Type of slot, slot

(Prototypical slot) Covert observation
(Associated slot) Hiding behind objects or disguises,
darkened alley, behind dustbins, disguised by box


It is noteworthy that this schema is less strongly typed than the previous
schemas, the schema is defined by a single slot of observing someone
covertly (OED, 2009), with a degree of flexibility as to how this slot is
implemented i.e., the time of day or methods used are not specified in the
schema. This weaker typed schema offers the film maker freedom to be
interpretative as to slot content and novelty. The film makers make use of this
freedom in a variant on being disguised to covertly observe someone, when
Gromit puts a box on his head and cuts out a two eyes shape to watch through.
The disguise is revealed as being a dog biscuit box: there is a printed graphic of
a dog on the outside of the box and Gromits cutout through which he is
looking matches where the eyes would be on the graphic, a late reveal in the
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sequence. The design implication will be called stretch slots for weakly typed
schemas take the core of the slot (covert observation) and extend it and
stretch it beyond the commonplace.

A second design implication is that weakly typed schemas are very suitable
for montages, where theme may be the integrating factor in a rage of disparate
shot sequences. This design implication is called montage slots for weakly
typed schemas.

3.3.20 [Re-interpretative] Antagonists heist plan outworked schema


This schema starts with the reveal that the penguin has been planning a heist
all along. This is done by using a statement of schema shot the viewer is
shown the floorplan of the museum that the penguin has left on his desk in
Gromits room, with the diamond marked on it (shot 200). The re-interpretive
prompting of this schema means that all previous schemas related to the
penguins criminal plan are now re-interpreted as part of the penguins heist
plan. The schema ends with the penguin, having locked up Wallace and
Gromit in a wardrobe, making his escape with the diamond (shot 300). The
next shot in which the viewer sees him is when he is being chased, which is
excluded from the heist schema since it is not schematic of a heist (though a
chase is common in the story form of films with a heist, typically occurring, as
is done in The Wrong Trousers, after the heist). Note that temporal and
physical constraints are in operation with this schema: the penguin cannot
break in to the museum without first getting there, for example. The slots for
this schema are shown below (Table 3.20):

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Table 3.20 Instantiated schema slot table, [Re-interpretative] Antagonists
heist plan outworked

Instantiated schema

The penguins heist plan outworks

Type of slot, slot
name and slot
content

Re-interpreted (Associated slot) Antagonists plan
equipment
Re-interpreted (Associated slot) Antagonists criminal plan
equipment
(Associated slot) Get to location
(Associated slot) Break in to building
(Associated slot) Get to goods to be stolen, diamond
(Prototypical slot) Steal goods, diamond
(Associated slot) Get out of building
(Associated slot) Get away from building
(Associated slot) Discard equipment
(Prototypical slot) Escape with stolen goods, diamond


In this schema, the slots are precise, perhaps because of the structure
imposed by temporal and geographical constraints involved in the outworking
of the schema. The entry to the building is somewhat novel, incorporating the
use of the techno trousers, as is the use of a small claw descending out of the
motor bike helmet that the penguin has put onto Wallaces head, to get the
diamond. The viewer has seen the techno trousers in operation, not the claw.
The viewer is therefore prevented from undue cognitive interference due to
working out many new elements, with cognitive resources free for allocation to
the moment, another example of emphasis by prototypicality (see 3.3.10.2,
above). Non-slot content includes almost dropping the diamond.

3.3.21 Getting ready in the morning (4) subverted schema


This is the fourth instantiation for this schema, focused only on Gromit. The
schema starts with a shot of the consequences of the penguin slamming the
door as he leaves the house (shot 217). Gromit is still under the bed clothes
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and the jolt of the door sets Wallaces getting ready machinery into operation.
The sequence ends with Gromit getting jam in his face at the breakfast table,
there being no toast in the toaster for the jam to land on, because it is not
breakfast time (shot 225). The slots are as follows (Table 3.21, below):

Table 3.21 Instantiated schema slot table, Getting ready in the morning (4)
subverted

Schema Description


and shot content

(Prototypical slot) Getting out of bed, Gromit
(Prototypical slot) Getting dressed, Gromit
(Prototypical slot) Ready for breakfast, subverted


The workings of the getting ready machinery are known to the viewer and
are used to prevent Gromit being able to stop the penguin before the penguin
has completed his heist, which would deny the viewer the drama inherent in the
actual robbery. This is therefore a design implication of repetition pivoting,
where familiar elements are re-used to secure a pivot point in the storyworld.

The instantiation of this schema also repeats the speed-hide design
implication. In this sequence the speed of events diverts viewers cognitive
resources away from considering the fact that Gromit could easily escape from
his predicament and move forward to stop the penguin. Thinking about this
could interfere with the acceptance of the realism of the scene, representing a
possible break in the story world experience for the viewer.

3.3.22 Captured(1) schema


The schema starts with a shot of Wallace being locked into a wardrobe by
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the penguin (shot 308), with Gromit being locked in shortly thereafter (shot
314). The definition of captured is, to make a capture of; to take prisoner; to
catch by force, surprise, or stratagem; to seize as a prize in war (OED, 2009)
and the slots are as follows (Table 3.22, below):

Table 3.22 Instantiated schema slot table, Captured

Schema Description

Captured

and shot content

(Prototypical slot) To take prisoner
(Prototypical slot) Force, the penguin uses the techno trousers
to control Wallace
(Prototypical slot) Force, the penguin uses a gun to control
Gromit
(Prototypical slot) Place of holding, wardrobe


There are three design implications to this schema. The first is slot novelty,
where the holding place for the captured people is, in The Wrong Trousers, a
wardrobe.

The second design implication is speed-hide. In this shot, the speed of the
action where the penguin closes the door and decisively locks it is a fast action
which diverts cognitive resources away from consideration of the effectiveness
of the wardrobe as a prison in all likelihood it would be easy to physically
break out of.

The third design implication is that with careful choice of slot content (the
wardrobe) one can have a visually satisfying resolution later on (this will be
discussed in the following schema where the resolution occurs, section
3.3.23.2, below).

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3.3.23 Escape schema


The schema starts with Wallace commenting on their predicament (shot
315), the next shot being of Gromit starting to rewire the techno trousers. The
schema concludes with the wardrobe moving out of the room and the door
bursting open, freeing Gromit to chase the penguin, with Wallace getting free
later (shot 346), the end of the schema. The definition of escape is, To gain
one's liberty by flight; to get free from detention or control, or from an
oppressive or irksome condition (OED, 2009). Because this schema leads
straight into the chase schema, the flight aspect of the definition is not fully
instantiated. The slots for this schema are as follows (Table 3.23):

Table 3.23 Instantiated schema slot table, Escape

Schema Description

Escape

and shot content

(Prototypical slot) Place of holding, wardrobe
(Prototypical slot) Flight, stamping with techno trousers
(Prototypical slot) Gain liberty, Gromit
(Prototypical slot) Gain liberty, Wallace


The use of the techno trousers to stamp the base of the wardrobe out as it
moves forward is visually arresting more so than escape by picking the lock,
for example. This design implication is called downstream slot visuality and
refers to choosing a slot instantiation that will lead to a later slot instantiation
that is particularly visually satisfying. The second design implication is the one
of nearness the means of escape from being captured is near to the characters
(it is the techno trousers, with functionalities that the viewer already knows
about). The final design implication is narrative smoothness for action the
working together of downstream visuality and nearness leads to narrative
smoothness, with the result that the cognitive demands of the material is
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lessened, freeing up cognitive resources to enjoy the visual action in its
physical and sonic intensity. This visual action is the high effort of the heroes
and is the precursor to their eventual victory, according to the generic story
structure.

3.3.24 Chase schema


The schema starts with Gromit leaping to try and catch the penguin (shot
325). The chase finishes with the penguin being captured in a milk bottle (shot
401).

The dictionary definition of chase is To pursue with a view to catching
(OED, 2009). Implied is the fact that there are at least two parties (a chaser
and a chased). Pursuing denotes a topographical relationship, the chaser is
following the chased and the greater the danger, the greater the drama (the
penguin is armed, so Gromit is potentially at risk). This chase in The Wrong
Trousers is a true jeopardy chase, not a play chase such as tag. The action of
chasing implies speed, but the means of achieving the speed are not specified
by the schema it is common in heist films to use cars, helicopters and other
powerful machinery. In The Wrong Trousers the main machinery is a toy train,
with the techno trousers playing a subsidiary role. The slots for this schema are
as follows (Table 3.24, below):

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Table 3.24 Instantiated schema slot table, Chase

Schema Description

Gromit and Wallace chase the penguin

Type of slot, slot
name and shot
content

(Prototypical slot) Pursuers
(Prototypical slot) Pursued, penguin
(Prototypical slot) Pursuit, Gromit and Wallace chase
(Prototypical slot) Intent to catch, Gromit and Wallaces
intention
(Associated slot) Speed, sliding down banisters, leaping,
flying through air, toy train set, dinner trolley
(Associated slot) Catch, criminal apprehended


The first implication is the use of speed-hide. The pace of the action means
that the filmmakers can alter the laws of reality: Gromit can start laying down
railway track in front of the carriage he is riding on as he heads towards a wall,
taking out curved sections of track from a straight box for straight sections.
The second design implication is real behaviours, the film makers alter reality
for Gromit but the behaviour of the toy train is realistic at this point in the
film new information must be sparingly introduced, with cognitive resources
allowed to focus on the fast action and sonic cues. Yet there is room for fast
novelty if the objects involved are clearly identifiable and familiar: Wallace has
a net and seeks to capture the penguin but snags the net on the antlers of a wall
mounted moose head, pulling him off the dining trolley and onto the train (shot
368).

3.3.25 Captured (2) schema


The schema starts with a shot of the penguin falling into a milk bottle that
was dislodged from the kitchen top and caught by Wallace (shot 401). It ends
with the penguin in prison, which in the film is the zoo (shot 405). The slots
for this schema are as follows (Table 3.25, below):
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Table 3.25 Instantiated schema slot table, Captured

Schema Description

Captured

and shot content

(Prototypical slot) Force, the penguin falls into the milk bottle
(Prototypical slot) Place of holding, milk bottle
(Prototypical slot) To take prisoner, penguin stuck in milk
bottle
(Prototypical slot) Force, the penguin bound with ropes is
pulled along on the toy dog trolley by the techno trousers
(Prototypical slot) Place of holding, police station
(Prototypical slot) Place of holding, zoo as prison


This schema encapsulates the central identifiers for captured. It also
includes the extended identifiers for criminal captured (by virtue of the fact
that the viewer has already been told that the penguin is an escaped convict,
shot 142). The viewer is therefore not surprised when the penguin is pulled
into the police station, with Wallace and Gromit in attendance. The design
implication here relates to the fact that schemas as instantiated are blended
entities, including specific material from the context of their instantiation as
well as the core meanings and slots for the generic schema. This design
implication is accordingly called, blended extension, where the schema as
instantiated is blended with the context in which it occurs, being extended to
include this larger meaning. In this case captured can readily and without
cognitive strain be assimilated as criminal captured because the viewer
already knows that the penguin is a criminal, though this wouldnt necessarily
be the case with the generic form of the schema not everyone who is captured
is a criminal. Blended extension suggests that the film makers use an extended
form of the schema to supply dramatic material that may not strictly be
necessary: in The Wrong Trousers the film makers could have cut from the
capture of the penguin in the milk bottle (shot 401) straight to the shots of
friendship restored, with the comment by Wallace, together with the newspaper
headline (FEATHERS MCGRAW BACK INSIDE, shot 408) being sufficient
indication of the fate of the penguin. This ending, by not following the
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extended slots for criminal captured, would have lacked drama. It would also
have lacked the twist on the jail slot the jail is the zoo.

3.3.26 Faithful pet dog restored schema


This schema is named, Faithful pet dog restored because the schema
restores Gromits role as faithful pet dog and friend, as against the spurious
friendship of the penguin. This schema starts (shot 406) with Gromit bringing
Wallace his slippers, with the linkage of faithful pet dog and friend highlighted
both by this action and Wallaces comment, Thank you, old friend. The
schema ends with a sunset glow filling the room, the eating of cheese, the
dismissal of the penguin (Wallace comments, No more lodgers, shot 409).
The trousers, thrown out in the bin, walk past the window outside (with Gromit
wondering what the noise is), with this dismissal of the techno trousers
forming the last shot in this schema (shot 115). This schema fully
encompasses the following schema (see below) of Financial crisis resolved.
The slots for Faithful pet dog restored are as follows (Table 3.26, below):

Table 3.26 Instantiated schema slot table, Faithful pet dog restored

Instantiated schema
description

Faithful pet dog subverted

and slot content

(Prototypical slot) Pet dog brings slippers to owner,
(Associated slot) Pet dog and owner, meal of cheese and
crackers, gentle laughter


This is the first great resolution schema the friendship is restored. There
are three design implications. The first is the principle of resolving the issues
outstanding. This is commonplace in films and this research does not seek to
turn this into a design implication it already forms a widely used design
150
principle. The second is the use of intensification by signifying element, which
was used to heighten the impact of the fractured friendship (section 3.3.13,
above) and is now heightening the impact of the restoration of that friendship,
focused on the prototypical Wallace and Gromit meal involving cheese. The
third design implication follows from the second, the use of cheese is a
deliberately repeated element from the fracturing of the friendship, as is the
bringing of the slippers. This is the use of repetition prompting, re-using
familiar elements to link to what has gone before, in this instance elements
used previously in the negative context of the fracturing of the friendship.

3.3.27 Financial crisis - resolved schema


This schema is named, Financial crisis - resolved because the schema
restores Wallaces financial situation by means of the reward for the capture of
the penguin. This starts with a statement of schema, as Wallace says, That
reward money paid off all our debts (shot 408). The schema ends with
Wallace filling his piggy bank with money (shot 411). This schema is
encapsulated entirely in the previous schema. The slot content for this schema
is shown below (Table 3.27):

Table 3.27 Instantiated schema slot table for Financial crisis - resolved

Schema Description

Wallace can settle all his debts and has enough money

Type of slot, slot
name and content of
slot

(Prototypical slot) Wallace comments, paid off all our debts
(Prototypical slot) Own money, put into piggy bank


This is the second great resolution schema the financial crisis is resolved.
The design implication here is parallel schema reinforcement schemas run in
parallel reinforce each other (see section 3.3.4.2, above). The current schema
151
gains power by its integration into the more emotionally charged schema of
Faithful pet dog restored, with its re-establishment of friendship. The
resolution of debt, particularly to young viewers, is not something whose
emotional dimension can be readily shown without a great deal of material
devoted to the negative emotional experience of debt, which The Wrong
Trousers does not depict. This means that this schema may lack impact
emotionally all that can be done is show money being put into a piggy bank,
plus have a statement that the debts are paid off. Because this emotionally cool
schema takes place in parallel with the warmer schema of friendship restored,
the positive emotions carry over into this schema, strengthening what is largely
a schema involving mere transmission of information with little emotional
content.

This schema together with the previous one form the conclusion of all the
major issues of the film. The fate of the techo trousers is suggested by the fact
that they are upside down in the rubbish bin outside, though in fact in the final
shot the techno trousers will walk off into the sunset. Resolving the
outstanding issues is commonplace in commercial films and this research does
not seek to elucidate this into a design implication, since it already is a widely
used design principle.

3.3.28 Walking off into the sunset schema


This schema is named, Walking off into the sunset. It consists of one shot
(shot 416) before the final credits (not analysed in this research) of the techno
trousers walking off into the sunset.


The main design implication is that of minor subversion of ending where a
prototypical ending is subverted for humorous effect or to maintain interest.
152
For this subversion to work it must have been prepared for (the twitching leg
suggestive either of death throes or life remaining in the techno trousers upside
down in the bin). Also, the subversion must not be of too great a magnitude,
else the disjunction between the range of acceptable expectations and what is
on screen will be too wide, resulting in a cognitive jolt rather than a satisfactory
ending. This particular minor subversion is effectively a visual quip on the
happy ever after ending, typified by the phrase walking off into the sunset
although the schema is subverted because it is the techno trousers walking off
into the sunset instead of Wallace and Gromit.


In what follows, the first section (3.4.1, below) discusses the schematic
structuring in The Wrong Trousers, (research questions four and five, see
section 1.7, also 3.1.1). The second section (3.4.2, below) discusses the design
implications at two levels: within schema design implications and between
schema implications (research question six, see section 1.7, also 3.1.1). The
chapter concludes with issues for further research.

3.4.1 Schema structures

This investigation has identified that The Wrong Trousers is structured
around schemas, with these schemas functioning structurally as a type of
abstracting skeleton of story (Figa and Tarau, 2003, p. 2). The research has
named these schemas aggregate schemas (mid level aggregate sequences made
up of prototypical and associated slots and slot content) and re-interpretative
schemas, which reinterpret earlier aggregate schemas. Whilst each piece of
information in a film can be expected to update the situation model (Graesser et
al, 2002), a series of causally interlinked schemas with internal coherence and
external distinctiveness (Abelson, 1981, see p. 726) might do this efficiently
(ibid.). Aggregate schemas seem similar to schemas known as scripts (e.g.,
Abelson, 1981 (Bordwell talks of action schemas, which may be similar,
2008, p. 48). One difference is that for Abelson, scripts are hypothesized
153
cognitive structure[s] (Abelson, 1981, p.717), but this research has shown
how aggregate structures are instantiated concretely in a media artifact (the
film, The Wrong Trousers) and that these aggregate schemas structure that
media artifact. Also, there is a difference in terminology that may affect the
design usefulness of the two conceptions: this research has drawn on accounts
of schemas for terminology (e.g., VanLehn, 1989, with the exception of the
phrase slot content instead of fillers), resulting in a simple structural
conception of aggregate schema name, slots, prototypical and associated slot
content. Abelson has a more complex terminology, with script name, scenes,
variables (or events), tracks (scripts variants), events differing from each other
in terms of their centrality, with some events indispensable (see Abelsons
1981 summary paper), though it is not clear how these elements fit together.

Each act of The Wrong Trousers has a characteristic texture in the way the
schemas are instantiated. Across the three acts of the film, these schemas build
up a comprehensive story, Aristotles wholeness of plot (Bywater,
1920/1929) with no elements revealed that fail to integrate with the story and
which would divert cognitive resources away from processing the story, as was
the case with elements reported in investigation one, the viewers talk
investigation of Ice Cream Dream. These are now discussed.

3.4.1.1 Schema structures in Act One

Act one is typified by two patterns of schemas. The first of these is single
instantiations of six schemas, the second is repeat instantiations of two
schemas.

Single instantiations of aggregate schemas reflect unique occurrences within
the film. There are six single schemas in this act (Having birthday; Getting a
lodger; Decorating a room; Bad lodger; Leaving home; Antagonists plan -
equipment). It is noteworthy that these schemas are, within the temporal and
story limitations of the film, necessarily single events. Gromit can only have
one birthday within the time span of the film, only one lodger can enter the
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house, the room can only be decorated once in the time span of the film,
Gromit can only leave home once, the antagonist can only get the equipment
once. Each of these schemas has a higher emotional valence than most of the
repeated schemas, excluding the two high valence schemas that are instantiated
in the first act then resolved at the end of the film (Financial crisis, Faithful pet
dog-subverted). There are two repeat instantiations of schemas in this act
(Having breakfast, two instantiations; Getting ready in the morning, three
instantiations). There is one instance (the fourth instantiation) of Getting
ready in the morning in Act two, where this schema is subverted (as it is in its
third instantiation in Act one). These mundane schemas are cognitively
accessible, with novel slots. It is noteworthy that each schema instantiation is
distinct, that is each aggregate schema, whether in relation to type of schema or
content of the instantiation, seem to have internal coherence and external
distinctiveness (Abelson, 1981, p. 726), which could be expected to lead to
clearer distinction by viewers as a series of breakpoints, meaning that the
information would be more efficiently processed (Zacks et al., 2009; Tversky
et al., 2002; and Zacks et al., 2001). This act is therefore typified by
preparation for the higher drama of act two. This act ends negatively (Gromit
has left home, Wallace is stuck in the techno trousers), Arisotles reversal
(Bywater, 1920/1929; Butcher, 1885).

Causality is strong in this act, with the parts being causally related and not
able to be removed, Aristotles wholeness (Bywater, 1920/1929). Breakfast
is tied to birthday because the birthday post comes at breakfast time. The
birthday has led to Wallace overspending and thereby getting into a financial
crisis. One of the presents is a pair of techno trousers which can climb walls
and hang from ceilings. The financial crisis in turn brings the penguin into the
house. The penguin then sees the techno trousers in operation and realises he
can use them in his heist. Causality can be also be found at lower levels than
schemas, for example, Gromit is waiting outside the bathroom with bags under
his eyes because the penguin has kept him awake with his organ music.
Conversely, participants in investigation talked about causal story issues (such
as key relationships, section 2.3.6, above) that were unclear to them.
155
3.4.1.2 Schema structures in Act Two

This act is typified by the two major re-interpretative schemas ([Re-
interpretative] Antagonists criminal plan equipment; [Re-interpretative]
Antagonists heist plan equipment;). These are in turn buttressed by two
single schemas (Lodger seeks accommodation; Spying). Act two concludes
with two schemas: the final instantiation of Getting ready in the morning -
subverted this being causally linked to and followed by the first Captured
schema (1). This concluding schema leaves the viewer at the end of the act
with the stage set for the hero (Gromit) to get free, rescue Wallace and capture
the penguin. This act is therefore typified by a substantial increase in drama
and suspense, with the re-interpretation of the key schemas from act one being
revealed in act two as a criminal plan of the antagonist, then a heist plan. This
act ends with Gromit and Wallace captured and the antagonists heist
seemingly fully successful.

Causality is also strong between schemas in this act. Gromit is looking for
accommodation, having been forced out of the house in the last act. Whilst
looking at notices in a shop window, he sees a wanted poster for the penguin.
Causality then is re-interpretative as the viewer can gain further perspective on
what the penguin is planning from this reveal. This understanding that the
penguin is a criminal in turn leads to Gromit spying on him, which in turn leads
to the reveal of the penguins plan as involving a heist. In turn, the gaining of
the techno trousers facilitates the outworking of the penguins plan. The end of
this plan leads to Wallaces capture (in the wardrobe), followed by Gromit as a
consequence of Gromit being faced off with a pistol held by the penguin.

3.4.1.3 Schema structures in Act Three

This act can be conceptualised as being split into two. The previous act
ended with Wallace and Gromit at their lowest point, captured. The major part
of act three sees them escape (the first schema), then chase the penguin (the
second schema). These two schemas are not strongly typed (that is, the
156
defining slots are high level fast actions which do not specify behaviour within
the schema in detail). This allows the film makers to move to action and fast
suspense which typifies most of act three, building on the prompting that has
taken place in act two. The end of act three after the fast action resulting in
the penguins capture consists of the resolution of the two crisis schemas
from act one (Financial crisis; Faithful pet dog - subverted) plus a concluding
indication of the fate of the techno trousers.

Causality in act three is slightly different from the first two acts, comprising
the physical causality of cause and effect in the first part of this act. The final
part of the act demonstrates causality in the resolution of the schemas related to
the financial crisis and the fracturing of the friendship between Wallace and
Gromit from act one. The film The Wrong Trousers is at every stage strongly
and causally integrated around aggregate schemas.

3.4.2 Design implications

Twenty nine design implications were identified. These are divided into
two: within schema design implications and between schema design
implications.

3.4.2.1 Within schema design implications

Within this category, there are five implications of a general nature (Table
3.28, below) and eleven implications related to slots (Table 3.29, below).
Before this, a prose outline is given, indicating how these design implications
might be applied by film makers as a sequence of design choices at the within
schema level (design implications are listed in italics). Then summarised
design implications are presented (Tables 3.28 and 3.29, below).

Schemas are instantiated in films, often taking other material from the films
story world (such as owner-pet taking aspects of friendship). This offers the
film maker the opportunity to take slots from this other aspect and use them in
157
the main schema (Blended extension). Elements of the film can be suggested
to the viewer before they are seen, if sonic markers are established to signal the
imminent presence of an element (Sonic preparation). It is likely that this
technique should not be overused, else it will create cognitive load, as well as
diluting the effectiveness of the first sonic marker. When revealing objects
over a sequence of shots, the full reveal can be held back, to increase interest
(Visual retardation intensification). It is likely that this technique should only
be used with objects of high saliency, else the technique will draw attention to
itself and/or create additional cognitive load with little concomitant increase in
emotional power if the objects are mundane and peripheral to the story.
Matching this progressive reveal of high saliency objects, characters reactions
can also be presented progressively as they deepen (Intensification by
progressive reaction), prompting the identification of the characters response
for the viewer and then progressively deepening the potential impact of the
sequence. Also, the context (in story terms and visually/sonically) can be used
to present additional story material that can be absorbed without cognitive
effort, as connected to a slot for a schema (Slot context exposition). A slot can
also be used to signal that later on something will be revealed (Slot signaling).
Schemas can be prompted by a single high saliency slot (Reduced slot
prompting) and viewer reaction can potentially be increased by picking
strongly negative or positive slot instantiations (Slot polarity intensification) or
by using an instantiation that goes counter to expectation in a structured way
(Counter expectation slot content) or just by the use of novel content (Slot
novelty) for the slot. If emphasis and clarity are required such as at key
moments in the story then prototypical slots should be used since these
closely match the slots for the generic schema (Emphasis by prototypicality).
Failures in continuity or realism can be hidden by using fast visual events in
the shots (Speed-hide). Finally, schemas where the definition does not specify
sequence and the actual elements (such as Chase) are particularly suitable for
extreme slot content (Stretch slots for weakly typed schemas) or montage
sequence based around slots (Montage slots for weakly typed schemas), due to
the high level definition of the schema and the freedom this gives as to its
instantiation. The table below shows the general design implications for the
158
within schema level (Table 3.28, below).

Table 3.28 General design implications at the within schema level

Design
implication

Explanation

Section

Intensification
by
progressive
reaction

Visual
retardation
intensification

Sonic
preparation

Real
behaviours

Blended
extension

Have characters react progressively in different
and deepening ways

Hold back full reveal of objects to intensify
interest

Establish sonic markers to prepare viewers in
advance of a reveal, maintaining viewer
hypothesising and interest

When elements that have not been previously
introduced are used, maintain the real
behaviours of these elements, to avoid
disrupting cognitive processing

Schemas are instantiated specifically in films,
taking other material from the films story
world, facilitating the use of slots linked to this
story world in the original generic set of slots

3.3.5

3.3.5; 3.3.15

3.3.12

3.3.24

3.3.25

Design implications can also be identified for slot design at the within
schemas level. These are shown in the Table below (Table 3.29, below).

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Table 3.29 Slot design implications at the within schema level

Design
implication

Explanation

Section

Slot context
exposition

Slot
polarity
intensify

Reduced
slot
prompting

Speed-hide

Emotional
freeing

Emphasis
by proto-
typicality

Counter
expectation
slot content

Slot
signaling

Slot
novelty

Stretch
slots for
weakly
typed
schemas

Montage
slots for
weakly
typed
schemas

Context around a slot used to introduce
additional story insights unrelated to slot

Pick strongly negative or positive slot
instantiations for emotional impact

Prompt a schema with a minimum of slots

Use fast moving visual elements to hide slot
omissions

Use prototypical slots to release cognitive
resources to process the emotional context

For emphasis, clarity and at key story pivot
points, use prototypical slots

Use counter expectation slot values, including
reversing, for humorous or other effects

Use slot content to hint at something further to
be revealed

Fill slots with novel content, using speed of
well known schemas with interest of novel slot
content

Weakly typed schemas, where the definition
only encompasses high level elements such as
movements, can be filled with extreme slot
content, maintaining viewer interest

Weakly typed schemas are particularly suitable
for montage sequences in the slots

3.3.4; 3.3.18

3.3.5; 3.3.8

3.3.6; 3.3.11

3.3.6; 3.3.11; 3.3.21;
3.3.22; 3.3.24

3.2.14

3.3.7; 3.3.10; 3.2.14;
3.3.20

3.3.8; 3.3.11

3.3.8

3.3.16; 3.3.22

3.3.19

3.3.19

3.4.2.2 Between schema design implications

There are thirteen design implications related to between schema design
implications. These are presented below (Table 3.30).
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Table 3.30 Design implications at the between schema level

Design
implication

Explanation

Section

False
resolution of
schema

Parallel
schema
reinforcement
(same schema
or related)

Embedded
reinforcement

Verbal/visual
repetition
prompting

Schema
binding

Retardation of
re-interpreta-
tive schemas

Stepwise
reveal of re-
interpretative
schemas

Repetition
pivoting

Downstream
slot visuality

Nearness

Narrative
smoothness

Minor
subversion of
ending

Intensification
by signifying
element

For key schemas that drive the story, set up a
false resolution with a true but different
resolution at the end of the film

Related schemas run in parallel reinforce each
other

Embedding a schema with primarily cognitive
content in a schema with primarily emotional
content reinforces the first schema

Use verbal or visual repetition to introduce,
preparing for facilitation of understanding later
instance

Different schemas can be bound together for
greater intensity

Hold back the occurrence of re-interpretative
schemas to maintain viewer interest and
hypothesising

Reveal the final re-interpretative schema in
steps, to maintain viewer interest and
hypothesising

Use familiar elements in new way to make a
pivot point immediately accessible, yet maintain
interest
This implication involves choosing the slot in a
set-up in a first schema for its visual power in
the second schema that resolves the set-up

Use familiar and proximal elements to resolve
set-ups

Downstream slot visuality and nearness lead to
narrative smoothness

Introduce novelty into a stereotypical ending

Establish an element as symbolising a key
relationship, then re- use element to subvert

3.3.8; 3.3.28

3.3.4; 3.3.16.; 3.3.27

3.3.27

3.3.9; 3.3.26

3.3.14

3.3.18

3.3.18

3.3.21

3.3.23

3.3.23

3.3.23

3.3.28

3.3.13

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In using schemas as part of the design process for a film, there is a general
design implication that schemas following each other can work together for
greater intensity (Schema binding), with two structural possibilities. The first
of these is where one schema is completely embedded in another (Embedded
reinforcement). The second is where two schemas that are related in time,
location or theme are run in parallel to each other (Parallel schema
reinforcement). The prompting of a schema which is then re-used in a new
form later in the film may be facilitated by verbal or visual repetition: showing
elements in the first instantiation then exactly repeating them in the second
instantiation (Verbal/visual repetition prompting). Also, familiar elements can
be re-used in a new way to make a pivot point in the story cognitively
accessible whilst maintaining viewer interest (Repetition prompting). Schemas
that are temporally close to each other in their instantiations in the film can be
shaped by choosing slot instantiations (elements) in the first schema that offer
strong visual impact in the second schema in which they also appear it is
better to choose the dramatic over the mundane (Downstream slot visuality).
Additionally, familiar and proximal elements that have already been introduced
to the viewer can be used to resolve issues set up in one schema then resolved
in another (Nearness). The combination of these last two design implications
(Downstream slot visuality and nearness) is narrative smoothness (Narrative
smoothness), where the viewer is free to concentrate on the storyworld without
unnecessary cognitive load. A specific entity in the film can be linked to a
relationship between characters, then re-used between an existing character and
a new character, to prompt a schema related to the fracturing of the original
relationship (Intensification by signifying element). For key schemas that drive
the story, a false resolution can be set up, with the true resolution occurring at
the end of the film (False resolution of schema).

In relation to endings and to re-interpretative schemas, three design
implications can be suggested. Firstly, in relation to endings, any prototypical
ending can be subverted by slot substitution, with an expected slot value
changed to the value of an entity already introduced in the film (Minor
subversion of ending), adding cognitively understandable novelty at the end of
162
the film. Secondly, re-interpretative schemas should be held back (Retardation
of re-interpretative schemas). The third design implication impacts on this, the
final terminus of the re-interpretative schemas should be revealed
progressively, to maintain viewer hypothesising and interest (Stepwise reveal
of re-interpretative schemas).

3.4.3 Further research

The systematic investigation of schematic structure in The Wrong Trousers
has revealed that the film is structured around the two schema types identified
in this research, what have been called aggregate schemas (sequences of
actions) and re-interpretative aggregate schemas (which re-interpret earlier
aggregate schemas), with these two types of schema constituting the first two
acts and with loosely typed schemas, where slot information is not pre-
specified (not the same as weak scripts lacking information about sequence to
structure peoples expectation, Abelson, 1981) outworking in fast action with
vivid slot content in the third act, together with the resolution (Aristotles
untying, Else, 1957) of two crisis schemas occurring at the end of the film.
This investigation has also delineated twenty nine design implications arising,
focused on within schema elements (five general design implications, eleven
design implications related to slots, for a total of sixteen) and between schema
design implications (thirteen implications). The story structure in The Wrong
Trousers emerges from the schemas and their interplay and causal
interconnectedness, as indicated above.

In investigation one, most participants in their summaries of the overall
neutrally rated Ice Cream Dream correctly identified the main character, the
pivotal issue and the start and end states. Yet some material of a dramatically
striking nature was omitted. It was not clear why this was so, but it may be
related to content which prompted negative reactions, thereby interfering with
the processing of the films story. Since it would seem maladaptive to have
viewers experience repeatedly interrupted by trivial onscreen events and
elements which require a disproportionate amount of cognitive work relative to
163
their importance in story terms, it seems plausible to suggest a general schema
for a professionally produced film of managed cognitive flow (which would be
one desired goal of the design implications being build up over the course of
this research). That is, a film displaying managed cognitive flow proceeds
without the unplanned need for the viewer to divert cognitive resources to
trivial on screen elements, with the concomitant disruption of story processing.
What is noticeable from the current investigation is how The Wrong Trousers,
in contrast to Ice Cream Dream as indicated by the viewers talk (investigation
one), embodies managed cognitive flow: all the events are comprehensible,
there are no disconnected or unclear events and the entire film is highly
causally connected. The viewers in investigation one queried certain on screen
elements, thereby reporting cognitive disjunctions at points in the film,
suggesting that cognitive resources were diverted away from the films content
and the enjoyment of the content, to trying to understand onscreen elements.

What might schematic analysis reveal of the structure of Ice Cream Dream
and how would it compare with The Wrong Trousers? And how would the
findings from such a schematic analysis of Ice Cream Dream mesh with the
findings from the viewers talk on Ice Cream Dream in investigation one
(Chapter Two, above)? To find out, a schematic analysis of Ice Cream Dream
was conducted, using the methods developed in this investigation (see Chapter
Four, below).

A limitation of this investigation is that the findings about the structured and
highly interconnected content of The Wrong Trousers can only be suggestive
about problems in less successful films generally and Ice Cream Dream
specifically. This could result in an unbalanced framework (though the
viewers talk reports from investigation one do dovetail suggestively at shared
points in the structural issues reported in investigation two, suggesting
problematic issues in Ice Cream Dream). Accordingly a schematic structural
investigation of Ice Cream Dream was deemed necessary to build a balanced
framework.
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Chapter 4. Investigation three schematic analysis of
short film Ice Cream Dream

4.1 Introduction


The first investigation (investigation one, Chapter Two, above) comprised a
viewers talk investigation of Ice Cream Dream. Of interest was viewers talk
about the film and what categories of talk could be discerned. That
investigation identified five main categories of talk (Real-Life Reflection,
Specific Film Aspects, Film Makers Intentions, General Film Expectations and
Character Observations). Twenty nine design implications were also identified.

A major concern from investigation one was that much material related to the
structure of Ice Cream Dream was potentially not being reported by
participants, resulting in the loss of valuable insights. Additionally, participants
were reporting story issues largely in negative terms elements or events were
unclear and diverted cognitive resources from the story itself. A close
schematic analysis of the films content might give insight into the problems
expressed by participants in investigation one, by offering the opportunity to
supplement the viewers talk on Ice Cream Dream with structural insights
gained from a structural analysis of the same film.

The previous investigation (investigation two, Chapter Three, above) was a
structural analysis of The Wrong Trousers that resulted in the identification of
the importance of common and therefore familiar aggregate schemas with novel
slot content. The investigation also identified sixteen design implications at the
within schema level (such as, visual retardation intensification, where the full
reveal of objects is held back, intensifying interest) and thirteen design
implications at the between schema level (such as, parallel schema
reinforcement, where related schemas are run in parallel, potentially
165
reinforcing each other). These design implications seem to demonstrate good
design practice for film, with an explainable rationale in terms of schema
theory. There was a concern that a positively skewed set of insights was being
developed. With the development of schematic analysis (Chapter Three,
above), a comparison of Ice Cream Dream with The Wrong Trousers (the first a
neutrally rated film, the second a highly rated film) at the structural level could
therefore deepen and balance the framework and the design implications,
overcoming the limitation of findings focused only on the positive side of filmic
structure. Since it was expected that greater analytic depth to the analysis of Ice
Cream Dream would result by undertaking the analysis of The Wrong Trousers
first, using The Wrong Trousers as an exemplar of good design practice, this
was done in investigation two (above). The current investigation reported here
now takes the findings from the investigation of schematic structure for The
Wrong Trousers and compares them with a schematic analysis of Ice Cream
Dream.

4.1.2 Research questions

The current investigation, as with the investigation of The Wrong Trousers
that preceded it, sought to answer three questions. The first question was, what
are the content structures that organise the film? (research question four, section
2.4.6 above). The second question was: Do these content structures map onto
schema theory? (research question five, section 2.4.6 above). The third question
related to the design of entertainment content: Can a set of design implications
be developed from film content structures findings? (research question six,
section 2.4.6, above). This third question comprises an identification of
possible film design implications from the analysis. From the results of
investigation two (Chapter Three, above), two further research questions were
asked in this investigation. The fourth question was therefore, do aggregate
schemas exist in Ice Cream Dream? The fifth question was, do these aggregate
schemas structure Ice Cream Dream as they do in The Wrong Trousers?

166
4.2 Method

The short film Ice Cream Dream was systematically structurally analysed
using schematic analysis (see Chapter Three, above). This included
indentifying any schematic or non-schematic elements at a mid-level of
granularity, plus identifying design implications as these arose.

4.2.1 Materials

A short film Ice Cream Dream (Walia, 2003) of nine and a half minutes
duration, was analysed using a computer based DVD player. The description of
the film is re-presented below (Table 4.1), to aid reader comprehension.

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Table 4.1 Segmentation of Ice Cream Dream in three act form


A girl (Luna) is in the ice cream van with her Dad. She is worried about the other
children. A boy (Harry) goes past on a scooter. Luna watches him go. Her Dad
suggests Luna go out and play. Luna sees her sinister alter ego outside the van,
through a cracked van window, and shakes her head to her Dad, no, shell stay in
the van.

At home, her mother asks, how many sales did you make? And is delighted at the
answer of 300, adding to Luna that you should put that in the bank. Luna has a
day dream about bars of ice-cream being put into a small safe in a bank. The
mother and father do the accounts with Luna watching, Luna is sent to bed. Her
Dad comes in and encourages her to make friends, then leaves. Luna has two
dreams. In the first dream her alter ego successfully stops her making friends by
suggesting that Luna will have nothing to say to them and will be laughed at. In
the second she is announced as a prize winning ice cream maker on television, is
seen selling the ice cream from the van and dealing with a rude boy by putting
chilli sauce on his ice-cream, to cheers from the crowd of children waiting to buy
ice cream.


The next day Luna and her Dad start to go out in the van, then Luna changes her
mind and gets out, intending to meet the other children. Her alter ego watches as
Luna walks towards Harry to talk to him, and the alter ego realizes that she has lost
the battle to prevent Luna making friends. Luna talks to Harry and is invited to
meet his friends. From the van, Lunas Dad smiles happily as he sees this and
drives off, playing the vans ice cream chimes.

CLOSING TITLE AND CREDITS

This description (above) is presented in three act form as with The Wrong
Trousers (Chapter Three, above). Each of the three acts have been assigned to
the different locations used in the film (the van, the home, the street).

4.2.2 Analysis and coding procedure

The film was analysed using a computer based DVD player, running the
software PowerDVD. As with the previous investigation, the version of
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PowerDVD and the hardware used did not permit time-frame accurate logging.
Timings of shots are therefore not used for reporting purposes. The shot
number is used as the unambiguous means of indexing shots.

The method of schematic analysis as used in the previous investigation was
used here. This comprises factual logging for the creation of the Shot
Description Document; schematic logging and the creation of the schema map
for the film (comprising the schema structure table for the film and schema slot
tables for each aggregate schema or other structuring element, see Chapter
Three, above).

4.2.2.1 Factual logging and the Shot Description Document

Schematic analysis starts with factual logging at the shot level, giving the
extracted sense of the shot. This material is recorded in the Shot Description
Document (SDD). An extract from the SDD for Ice Cream Dream is shown
below (Table 4.2, a more extensive extract can be seen in Appendix Four):

Table 4.2 Sample extract from the Shot Description Document for Ice Cream
Dream

Start

End

Shot number

Textual description

01:48

01:50

39

Head and shoulders of Luna looking back over the seat at her
Dad, she shakes her head, no to fathers question, then she
looks away

As in the previous investigation, complete speech segments were recorded.
Issues relevant to the practice of schematic analysis for film have already been
discussed (section 3.2.2, above) and no more will be said here. As with the
previous investigation, the SDD was carefully checked to ensure accuracy and
the avoidance of anticipatory schema identification.

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4.2.2.2 Schematic map schema structure table and schema slot tables

As with the previous investigation (Chapter Three, above), the schematic
analysis was built up on the basis of boundaries of a temporal, physical or
thematic nature, working from the SDD (see Appendix Four). In both this
investigation and the previous investigation, the focus was only on the structure
of the in-film content material related to genre and summaries was not dealt
with.

4.2.2.3 Aggregate schemas a structuring schema?

It was not assumed a priori that Ice Cream Dream used aggregate schemas.
The three tests (3.3.2.2, above) were used to identify structuring elements.

The results of the analysis for each sequence of Ice Cream Dream are
reported below (section 4.3), working through the film in chronological order.
When participants comments are reported, these comments come from
investigation one (Chapter Two, above).


4.3.1 An expanded typology of schemas

The previous investigation (Chapter Three) had identified aggregate schemas
in The Wrong Trousers as primary structuring elements. The primary
structuring elements of Ice Cream Dream are now considered. The opening and
closing credits were not analysed. The nomenclature and identifying principles
of aggregate schemas are briefly summarised, then each aggregate schema or
related entity delineated, showing its links to the adjacent schemas where
relevant and discussing design ramifications as these arise.

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4.3.2 Nomenclature and identification of aggregate schemas

4.3.2.1 Nomenclature of aggregate schemas

The nomenclature follows that used in the previous investigation (Chapter
Three, above). The term schema is used for aggregate schemas. Other elements
not conforming to this description are identified as they arise. The identification
of slots as prototypical (linked to the schema by definition) and associated
(linked to the schema as instantiated in particular cultural or individual
circumstances but not by definition) is retained. The presence of a character is
not normally logged as a specific slot, to avoid excess verbiage. As the analysis
proceeded, other structures identified in the analysis of The Wrong Trousers
such as statements of schemas or re-interpretative schemas were logged as and
when they occurred.

4.3.2.2 Identification of aggregate schemas

Test principles were as investigation two (aggregate schemas are temporally
slower than action schemas; schemas are marked by boundaries in time,
location or theme; description takes place at the level of entire and nameable
sequence of actions). New instantiations of a repeated schema are shown with
numbers in braces after.

4.3.3 Schema map for Ice Cream Dream

Working from the SDD, the analysis proceeded up from the shots. This
identified aggregate schemas and other non-schematic elements as structuring
the film. The start and end point of each schema or sequence of elements was
recorded in line with the principles above (section 4.3.2.2). As with the
previous investigation, this process results in a schematic map of the film,
comprising the schema structure table and the collection of schema slot tables.
From the schematic map of Ice Cream Dream (structure table plus schema slot
tables) supplemented by the SDD when necessary, the design implications were
171
identified.

The schema structure table the first part of the structure map now follows
(Table 4.3, below), with the non-schematic elements indented. Then the second
part of the structure map, the schema slot tables, are reported (sections 4.3.4 to
4.3.13, below), with design implications linked to viewers talk.

Table 4.3 Schema structure table for Ice Cream Dream (non-schematic
elements indented)

Name of schema or element

Start (shot)

End (shot)


Selling ice cream from van (1)
Harry/alter ego (1)

ACT TWO: Hero acts, reversal, antagonist wins

Valuables into bank - daydream
Concerned parent talk
Harry/alter ego (2) - dream
Selling (prize winning) ice cream from van (2)
dream
Parent wakes child


Selling ice cream from van (3)
Harry/alter ego (3)
Child makes friends

2
25

44
59
82
93

128

132
133
144

57
40

52
81
92
127

131

154
143
154

4.3.4 Selling ice cream from van (1) schema


The word sell means hand over [to buyer] in exchange for money (OED,
2009), the selling ice cream indicates what is sold, the van indicates from
where. In the U.K. it is common in summer to see children and adults buying
ice cream from vans.

The start of this schema is analysed as being the first shot of cars and other
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traffic seen in the side window of an unidentified vehicle. This sequence will
become identifiable to the viewer as selling ice cream from van (shot 7) when
the viewer sees ice creams cones in the back of the vehicle. The end of the
schema is indicated by Luna (the girl protagonist) going to bed, at the
conclusion of a sequence where the parents are counting the days takings from
the ice cream selling and doing the accounts (shot 57). This schema is
interrupted (shots 25-40) by a sequence that does not constitute an aggregate
schema, where a boy (Harry) appears, with a following and linked appearance
of an unidentified girl who looks a little like Luna (section 4.3.5, below). The
term interrupted is used because this sequence is causally unconnected to the
current schema in play. The instantiated schema slot table is as follows (Table
4.4, below):

Table 4.4 Instantiated schema slot table, Selling ice cream from van

Instantiated schema
description

A father and his daughter sell ice cream from a van

Type of slot, slot

(Prototypical slot) Van, inferred from interior
(Prototypical slot) Ice creams, cones stacked up
(Prototypical slot) Customers, children
(Prototypical slot) Van, it pulls up and stops
(Associated slot) Selling site
(Prototypical slot) Customers orders
(Prototypical slot) Ice creams, lollies and ice cream in cones handed
over
(Associated slot) Sales figures, about 300
(Associated slot) Put money in bank, mentioned but not actually done
(Associated slot) Reckoning up, money counting and accounts

4.3.4.2 Design implications and integration with viewers talk

The first issue relates to how the first schema in a film is prompted. The
schema selling ice cream from van is not immediately prompted in Ice Cream
Dream (in shots 1-6 there is no clear prompting). Participants from
investigation one expressed confusion about what was going on in the first shots
of this schema that is, they had not identified the schema in play. Ice cream is
only prompted at shot 7, when the viewer sees a box of ice cream cones in the
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van. It might be objected that the title, Ice Cream Dream ought to prompt the
relevant schemas. Judging by participants comments, this did not occur in all
cases. Two points seem apposite. The first is that participants were coming to
Ice Cream Dream without any previous expectations, unlike the film The
Wrong Trousers which features the well known characters Wallace and Gromit.
Therefore viewers had no context within which to prepare a range of schemas
for activation. Secondly, since the title was unfamiliar, it is not clear that the
title would have been well internalised by viewers, fostering a degradation of
the potential priming of the subject of ice cream from the title. Thirdly,
although the title mentions ice-cream, it adds dream. This might be expected
to only weakly prompt the relevant schema of selling ice creams, due to
interference from the word dream, since no-one can specify the content of a
dream or how it is used in a film, meaning that participants might have had a
very broad range of schemas potentially available for activation. In addition,
participants comments from investigation one suggested that they were
diverting cognitive resources to identifying the context of what they were
seeing, as well as having extraneous thoughts prompted by on-screen content
related to the real life contexts of the film, therefore they would have been less
able to hypothesise meaningfully about the films content. The first design
implication therefore is to strongly prompt the first schema in a film by using a
clear identifying and prototypical slot or slots in the first shot (The Wrong
Trousers uses a number of prototypical slots at the start of the first schema in
the film, at shot two).

The second issue relates to the choice of schema within the class of desired
schemas. The schema Selling ice cream from a van is less familiar than the
alternative schema, Buying ice cream from a van. This is because fewer
people have a familiarity with selling ice cream (which they might have
acquired by, for example, helping out in an ice-cream van), compared to buying
ice cream from a van. The second design implication is therefore to use the best
in class schema, the most accessible schema to the widest number of people. A
number of the participants in investigation one commented adversely about the
urban setting, suggesting that the setting was having a negative effect on their
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enjoyment of the film. Film makers need to choose the best in class schema and
think how to invest it with as much intrinsic interest as possible. The full
version of this second design implication should therefore be, use the best in
class schema (considering accessibility and interest), where interest might be
either spread across many visual or sonic elements or focused on a few.

A third issue relates to music at the start of the film. In Ice Cream Dream,
viewers would have been more orientated to the films content had schematic
music associated with ice cream been used, such as O Sole Mio, which is widely
used by ice cream vans in the United Kingdom. Because the film makers chose
to start with music which refers in its lyrics to happy teamwork, they lost an
opportunity to make the opening of the film fully and immediately
comprehensible to viewers. The design implication here is to consider whether
the opening music needs to support the orientation of the viewer at the start of
the film, whether for the opening schema or the whole film.

The fourth issue relates to omissions in prototypical slot content. For this
schema, the money handling was seemingly omitted (the father asking for
money and the customers handing money over) in the ice cream purchases.
This was an omission that participants from investigation one commented on. It
may be that had the film makers omitted the physical handing over of the
money but retained the asking for money, the speed-hide principle would have
worked to obscure this omission, since handing over money is a fast action
involving small physical elements (cash). However, the film makers omitted
both parts of the transaction, causing participants to perceive a breakdown in
reality in the film at this point. It is also possible that because some participants
were not fully engaged in the film at the start (because they were diverting
cognitive resources to understanding what was going on) this lack of
engagement was still in operation at the point where children were buying ice
creams. This might lead to greater awareness of the omission of a cash
transaction at this point, since the viewers were not fully engaged in the film
story. The fourth design implication is not to omit all reference to a prototypical
slot merely having the father asking for a monetary amount during the selling
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part of the sequence might have been sufficient to avoid the negative comments
expressed in investigation one.

The last scene in the outworking of this schema (selling ice cream from
van) is not causally linked to the previous sequence and only concludes the
schema Selling ice cream from a van in the extended sense that counting the
money earned from the selling of the ice cream is one of the concluding actions
in an extended form of the schema. This scene comprises one shot, elevated
and looking down on father, daughter and mother seated at a table in an
undefined space that is presumably meant to prompt the schema dining room.
In fact, this scene is irrelevant to the film because it adds nothing of
informational or dramatic value. The scene seems to function solely as a means
of explaining how the daughter gets to bed, in readiness for the parental chat.
There is a further disconnected shot of the van drawing up outside the house
before the day dream sequence. The fourth design implication is therefore to
make use of informational shots (such as shots of clocks to show that the
character is somewhere else at a later time) where these offer the opportunity to
remove superfluous scenes or shots that are not slots in aggregate schemas, do
not add additional story information and are not causally linked to preceding or
following shots efficiently.

4.3.5 Causally unlinked elements [Harry/alter ego]


This sequence of elements take place wholly within the above schema,
Selling ice cream from van. The sequence is not made up of aggregate
schemas so nothing can be said about slots and slot content and is causally
unlinked to the Selling ice cream from van schema. The sequence starts with
a shot of a boy, Harry, on a scooter, coming towards the group of children
buying ice cream (shot 25) before going past them. This is followed by the
father offering the daughter the chance to go out and stretch your legs, as Luna
watches the disappearing Harry (who does not buy an ice cream or engage with
176
the other children). Luna watching Harry is causally linked within this
sequence to the appearance of the alter ego that comes next: Luna watches
Harry disappear in the wing mirror then looks down, there is a white flash, a
whoosh sound and sinister chords of music. A girl who looks somewhat like
Luna is watching her, below the wing mirror. Following this, Luna turns to her
father and shakes her head, no to his offer, the fathers concerned look at her
forming the conclusion to this sequence (shot 40).

4.3.5.2 Design implications and integration with viewers talk

The first design implication relates to causality. It is not enough to have
filmic elements in temporal and geographical contiguity to main characters
(such as Harry is to Luna) these elements need to be causally linked.
Participants from investigation one commented negatively about Harry and
were confused by the alter ego. Since the aggregate schema in play concerned
selling ice cream, it seems strange not to have Harry or the alter ego buy or start
buying an ice cream. This would have provided causality to this sequence,
integrating both Harry and the alter ego with unfolding events in the story world
of the film. The design implication from this sequence is therefore to always
have relevant elements integrated causally with the schemas in play.

The second design implication relates to using informational shots.
Participants from investigation one reported confusion about the alter ego was
she an evil twin? Subtle differences may have made the identification of the
second girl as Lunas alter ego more difficult (since it was a different child
actress). The alter ego could have verbally identified herself, saying for
example, My name is Luna. Luna could have protested, then the alter ego
could have said, Were both Luna and Im going to be your only friend
forever!. This would also set up a strong dramatic context against which Luna
as the protagonist can then struggle. The design implication is therefore to
make use of informational shots when these can aid immediate understanding of
who important characters are and what their role is.

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4.3.6 Putting valuables into bank - daydream schema


This sequence is identified as putting valuables into bank. The sequence is
schematic in two ways. The first way is that the presentation uses filmic
devices such as distorted colour and sonic effects to indicate a daydream (see
section 2.3.4.9, above, from investigation one). Secondly, the sequence is a
aggregate schema of putting valuables in a bank, except that this instantiation of
the schemas has novel slot content (ice-cream). This schema takes place wholly
within the schema, selling ice cream from van (section 4.3.4 above). This
schema is not linked causally to the following sequence, the conclusion of
selling ice cream from van schema, where the money is counted and the
accounts done. The instantiated schema slot table is as follows, omitting
daydream signifiers (Table 4.5, below):

Table 4.5 Instantiated schema slot table, Putting valuables into bank

Instantiated schema
description

Putting valuables into bank

and slot content

(Prototypical slot) Bank, indicated by sign for bank manager
and person of bank manager
(Prototypical slot) Customer
(Prototypical slot) Valuables, bars of ice cream
(Prototypical slot) A safe
(Prototypical slot) Place valuables into safe
(Prototypical slot) Close safe
(Associated slot) Contractual agreement, hand shake

This sequence is the only daydream in the film (the appearances of the alter
ego are not so classed). It is an aggregate schema because it relates to the
schematic sequence of putting valuables in a bank, with possible slots including
meeting a bank official, filling in paperwork and so forth. There is a weak
causal link to the preceding sequence because the adult female in the house
responding to the report about the sales made that day by saying to Luna,
Three hundred ice-creams! We should put that in the bank!, which initiates
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Lunas daydream of her father handing over bars of ice-cream (not ice-creams
per se as presented earlier in the film) to a bank manager, with the shot of the
bank managers sign on a desk and the camera raising to show his face being the
start of this schema (shot 44). The schema ends with a close up of the fathers
hand grasping the bank managers hand in a handshake in front of the locked
bank safe (shot 52).

4.3.6.2 Design issues linked to viewers talk

The use of bars of ice cream instead of ice cream in cones or ice lollies
proved problematical to participants from investigation one (with the wrong
schema active, some thought the ice cream bars in this sequence were bars of
gold). This was because the bars of ice cream were a deviation from
expectations prompted by the adult females comment (Three hundred ice-
creams! We should put that in the bank!), suggestive of the ice creams that
were actually sold rather than bars of ice cream such as would be bought at a
supermarket. This suggests a first design implication of precise matching of
slot content when that slot content is repeated the form of the ice creams
should visually conform to the earlier usage otherwise confusion may result.

A schema for putting valuables into a bank could have slots such as meet
up with a bank official, fill in paperwork, large wall safe, loading valuables
into safe. A schema doesnt need all the slots to be prompted Ice Cream
Dream needs only to show us the sign on the bankers desk, which together with
the adult females preceding comment locates the viewer exactly, as is done in
the film. However, the substitution of ice cream bars for valuables proved
problematic for some participants from investigation one, as already indicated.
Since the intent at this point seems to be humour, exaggerating the slot content
could facilitate the humour. For instance, Luna could sweep into the bank with
her father at her side, ostentatiously holding a tray with ice-creams piled on it.
People could turn to stare awestruck as the they approach the main desk. The
bank manager could meet them, looking amazed at the ice-creams on the tray,
then deferentially lead them to a huge high-tech safe set into a wall, have an
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elaborate opening sequence with special keys, high tech control panels and so
on. Such an approach would follow the schema of putting valuables in a bank
but intensify it in two ways: through exaggeration of each of the slots and also
through the varying of the slot content for valuables by replacing what would
be expected schematically (items of high value) with items of little monetary
value, offering comedic contrast in slot content, the pleasure of enjoying the
little girls daydream and the exaggeration that is inherent in her imagination.
Such an approach would have added considerable richness to the content but
might have required a larger budget than was available to the film-makers,
especially if digital effects were not as readily available when the film was
made as are available now. It also leaves unaddressed the issue that the
daydream is of no causal relevance to the film story, except that with heightened
comedic effect this concern would become less important, since viewers would
derive great enjoyment from the sequence. The second design implication is
therefore to exaggerate the slot content for humorous effect, a design
implication also identified in investigation two (Chapter Three, above).

4.3.7 Causally unlinked elements [Concerned parent talk]


This sequence take place immediately after the schema, Putting valuables
into bank-daydream. The sequence is not a aggregate schema so nothing can
be said about slots and slot content. The sequence starts with a shot of Luna in
bed awake, the lights out, her father coming in to have a talk with her (shot 59).
The content of the sequence relates to a discussion about Luna coming the next
day to help the father in the van with selling the ice creams, the father
expressing concern and encouragement to the daughter to make friends. The
sequence ends (shot 81) with the father having just left, the door closed and
Luna putting her head down to sleep.

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4.3.7.2 Design implications linked to viewers talk

This sequence is difficult to characterise. The notion of a parent having a
serious talk with his or her child is common, but not schematic in that it tells us
nothing about the time, place or content of such a discussion. Refining the
notion to a bedside chat merely gives purchase on the location and time with
still no indication of content. Had the issue of making friends been set up
clearly for the viewer earlier, a weakly typed (i.e., not strongly structured)
schema might have been deployed by the film makers about trying to make
friends, which could have been invested with slot content related to attempts at
friendship, rebuffs and eventual success, with the protagonist strongly seeking
success. In Ice Cream Dream the daughter seems retrospectively from the start
of the film to be weakly engaged with this quest (once the quest is understood)
and participants from investigation one were not clear as to what Lunas
problem was until this parental chat scene. It is clear that in some films the
protagonists drive comes from the actions of the antagonist after the film has
started in the previous investigation (Chapter Three) Gromit wants to rescue
Wallace and have his normal life and friendship restored. In Ice Cream Dream
the film opens with the protagonist having a problem (she has not been able to
make friends) but the viewer is given insufficient insight into this problem until
the current sequence. Since this problem that the protagonist will face and
eventually overcome is the key dramatic motivation for the film, it is important
that it be understood early, especially when it is a pre-existing condition before
the start of the film, in the films story world the film makers needed to create
an overarching schema of trying to make friends. The design implication is
therefore that of fitting the protagonists actions and motivations into a clearly
accessible aggregate schema.

4.3.8 Causally unlinked elements Harry/alter ego (2) dream


This sequence is stylistically schematic of a dream, in that it has pastel
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coloured distortions of scenes and cranky music. It is counted as one dream
because of the close association of Harry and the alter ego with each other and
also because the film makers insert a transition between this dream and the next,
consisting of a shot of Luna asleep, new material appearing over, indicating that
what follows is a second dream. The content of the sequence is not schematic
and starts with the boy Harry coming towards the camera on his scooter (shot
82). Then Luna is challenged by her alter ego, the sequence ending with Luna
changing her mind about going to talk to Harry as a result of the alter egos
taunt to Luna that she will have nothing to say to Harry and that he will laugh at
her (shot 92). This sequence links to the preceding sequence because
temporally dreaming is part of being asleep and usually follows a character
falling asleep, which is what happens at the end of the previous sequence.
Importantly, this activity is not causally linked to the rest of the story and is not
therefore causally necessary, weakening its dramatic impact and value. It might
seem that dreaming is part of a aggregate schema sleeping, yet such a schema
is actually quite sparse in content, including the act of dreaming without any
specification as to the content of the dream.


The first design implication relates to goal clarity. In this dream Luna, in
response to the alter egos challenge of, why would [Harry] want to play
with you?, responds, Because hes just like me. At this point Luna cannot
face down the alter egos further challenge, Dont blame me when youve got
nothing to say and he laughs at you. This implies a goal of talk to Harry, yet
the previous sequence seems to indicate that Lunas goal is make friends.
Though talk to Harry is potentially a subset of make friends, it is not
necessarily so. It is easy to retrospectively infer that the one is a subset of the
other, but in the flow of the film for the viewer the additional cognitive work
required to put these two elements together in this logical relationship may
result in a lack of clarity, especially since some participants in investigation one
had already inferred a particular connection between Luna and Harry, whereas
in the film Harry seems to stand for friends generally. He is also the most
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popular boy, a further element that requires cognitive work by the viewer to
clarify. The character of Harry is actually confusing, he is not connected
necessarily to Luna for most of the film. He functions opportunistically for
Luna at the end of the film, through the device of Luna asking Harry if she can
have a go on his scooter (which one participant in investigation one found
unbelievable), with Harry then offering to introduce her to his friends. Harry
would seem therefore to be only a means to get Luna to her desired end state of
making friends with other children. Any effort to understand causality and
clarify fundamental structuring items such as the protagonists goal all add
cognitive load. The design implication is therefore, make characters goals
clear.

4.3.9 Selling (prize winning) ice cream from van (2) - dream schema


This is the second dream, it is schematic and is entitled, selling (prize
winning) ice cream from van (2), since it is the second instantiation of a
selling ice cream from a van schema, though it takes place in a dream. It starts
with a shot of Luna asleep (indicating the start of a second dream), with children
in a playground fading into the same shot, the start of this schema (shot 93).
The sequence continues with advertising flyers for Lunas ice cream falling
from the sky in a playground, a section with a newscaster reading the television
news and announcing that Lunas ice cream has won a prize, then a schematic
section of children buying ice-cream and Luna handling the customers well this
time, using her fathers behaviour from the first instantiation of this schema as a
model. The schema ends with Luna giving a rude customer an ice-cream with
chilli sauce on it, resulting in cheers and a chant of Lunas name going to echo
(shot 127). The slot table is now shown (Table 4.6, below), omitting dream
signifiers. Additional slots arise as a result of the modifying phrase, prize
winning.

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Table 4.6 Instantiated schema slot table, Dream selling (prize winning) ice
cream from van

Instantiated schema
description

Luna dreams of selling (prize winning) ice creams from the van

and slot content

(Additional slot) Advertising flyers, falling from sky
(Statement of schema), Advertising flyers, content
(Prototypical slot) Announcement of prize
(Prototypical slot) Customers
(Prototypical slot) Vendor, girl
(Prototypical slot) Prize holder
(Additional slot) Trumpet blast for prize holder
(Associated slot) Rude customer
(Additional slot) Chilli sauce onto ice cream
(Additional slot) Popularity chant for Luna

4.3.9.2 Design implications and link to viewers talk

This sequence is somewhat novel, as it takes place in a dream and also
because it incorporates prize winning. In fact, on the third shot in (shot 95)
the viewer is shown what is written on the advertising flyers falling from the
sky LUNAS ICE CREAMS HERE, a statement of schema, which is
followed by a dissolve to a television newsreader announcing that Lunas ice
cream has been voted best in the country (shot 96) a statement of the
additional prize winning element. The temporal contiguity of the selling and
prize winning statements suggests that viewers would be readily able to
comprehend and enjoy the modified schema. This is the use of the design
implication parallel schema reinforcement (investigation two, sections 3.3.4.2
and 3.3.16.2, above), whereby similar or related schemas run in parallel
potentially reinforce each other in their effect on the viewer.

The next design implication arises from the section in the schema where Luna
deals with a rude customer by putting chilli sauce on his ice-cream, resulting in
cheers from the assembled crowd of customers. This element was
problematical for many of the participants in investigation one, resulting in
comments questioning the presence of chilli sauce in an ice-cream van and the
suitability of Lunas action in business terms. Thinking about this as a childs
184
dream was not a valid framework for understanding, perhaps because such an
understanding requires additional cognitive work on the sequence that
participants were unable or unwilling to undertake. Such questioning diverts
cognitive resources away from the enjoyment of the film content at this point.
The presence and use of chilli reveals the limitations of novelty per se as to slot
content, resulting in a design implication that slot content must be realistically
novel, with realism defined by the context of the film and its story world.

The final design implication touches on both dream sections (this section and
the preceding section, 4.3.8). With reference to the goals of Luna, some
participants from investigation one were unclear how having these two dreams
would lead necessarily to a change of behaviour in Luna for her to achieve her
goal of making friends. These dreams only have weak causality with this goal,
since the dreams show nothing of any struggle, growth and eventual victory
against the odds only the enjoyment of all the fruits of victory (news
announcement on television, new competence at dealing with customers). It
seems that viewers are being invited to believe that having a dream of being
confident can result in being confident in real life, a weaker causality, even
assuming that viewers accept this and some of the participants in investigation
one did not. It might be argued that the title of the film, Ice Cream Dream,
suggests just such a process, but any connection between dreams and victory
would seem to be tenuous and requiring the sort of cognitive work for which
people may not have cognitive resources available whilst attending to the real
time flow of events in a film. The design implication here is to strongly develop
and outwork the protagonists intense exertion to solve his or her problem.

4.3.10 Causally unlinked element Parent wakes child


This sequence is an action schema, not a aggregate schema, so no slot
information is presented. It also adds no information to the story, seeming to
serve only as a transition to the next day and Luna and her father leaving the
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house to sell ice cream from the van. The sequence starts with the father
flinging open the curtains of Lunas bedroom (shot 128) and ends with the
father asking Luna in voice over if shell be ready in an hour, with a camera
shot of Lunas head and shoulders in bed (shot 131).

4.3.10.2 Design implication

The use of dreams instead of real world struggle to solve the protagonists
problem then creates a need to mark her transition from dreaming to waking.
Simplest would have been to have a single shot of Luna waking after her final
dream, a big aha! smile on her face (which would have primed viewers to
think that the dreams might have some effect in the real world), then cutting on
the action of her getting out of bed. The following shot could then have been of
Luna and her father leaving the house, perhaps waving goodbye to the adult
female in the house (participants in investigation one were unsure of the status
of this female in relation to the father and daughter). The main design
implication is that of nearness, identified in investigation two (section 3.3.23.2,
above). A dream can only be a distal solution to a problem even if an insight
into the solution of a pressing problem comes to someone in a dream, that
solution still needs to be worked out in real life. Nearness, in combination with
a full struggle process for the protagonist would result in a more organic (and
therefore believable and potentially more dramatic) resolution of the
protagonists problems. Using this design implication would have resulted in a
direct confrontation and struggle between the protagonist and the antagonist,
with the protagonist winning out against all the odds at the very end by using
means available to her. This would have avoiding the questions raised by
participants in investigation one about dreams as solutions at this critical point
in the film.

The use of this dream as a means of the protagonist changing her life could
have been improved, so using the design implication, verbal/visual repetition
priming (investigation two, Chapter Three, above) Luna could repeat exactly
the form of her words and gestures to introduce herself used in the dream, when
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she moves forward to make friends at the end of the film. This would use the
viewers recognition of identical visual and sonic elements to prompt the original
context and therefore to understand that the dream had provided a practice arena
for successful real life performance. This technique is actually deployed in this
dream when Luna reuses her fathers form of words and intonation to
effectively manage all the children crowding around the vans serving window.
Use of the design implication verbal/visual repetition priming focused on
making friends would establish a stronger causality for the dream and therefore
greater clarity for viewers, as well as increase the drama at that point.

4.3.11 Selling ice cream from van (2) schema


This is the third instantiation of this schema. The sequence starts with a shot
(shot 132) of the father and Luna walking towards the van. This instantiation
only touches on the earliest stages of the schema the viewer sees Luna and her
father enter the van, Luna holding a red money box. The schema is not played
out further for Luna because Harry goes by, causing Luna to ask her father for
permission not to go out with him in the van and then exiting the van once her
father has given permission. The rest of this schema plays out with the father,
after watching Luna join the other children and start playing happily with them,
looking around at the red money box then starting the vans engine and driving
off, playing the vans chimes (154). This schema encompasses two sequences
(Harry/alter ego and Child making friends). The end of Child making
friends is co-terminus with the end of this schema. The instantiated slot table
for this schema is as follows (Table 4.7, below):

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Table 4.7 Instantiated schema slot table, Selling ice cream from van (2)

Instantiated schema
description

A father and his daughter sell ice cream from a van

Type of slot, slot

(Prototypical slot) Van, parked outside house
(Prototypical slot) Vendors, father and girl
(Associated slot) Money box


The partial nature of this schema, focused as it is on the earliest stages of the
schemas outworking, does not matter, the shot of the father and Luna going out
to the van being sufficient to prompt the whole schema (reduced slot
prompting, from investigation two, Chapter Three). Viewers are now familiar
with the sequence of actions for selling an ice cream, if not from their own
familiarity with the related schema buying ice cream from van. The first
design implication is that of reduced slot endings a film can end on a single
slot prompt for a full aggregate schema and it is not necessary to show the
whole schema being played out.

The second design issue relates to a research limitation of analysing films
from schemas alone viewers talk studies can provide additional information
that structural analysis might not identify. From investigation one it was clear
that the participants felt that the link of the red money box to Luna had not been
clearly established (they commented that they did not understand why the father
looked at the red money box in this sequence, a failure of pointing (see, 2.3.4.5,
above). Also, structural analysis might not have identified that the close up of
the door and its creaking acted as pointing for some participants in investigation
one, making this shot seem sinister. It should be noted that once such issues as
these have been identified there is no reason in principle why they cannot be
integrated into a method of schematic analysis of film at the action schema level
in this instance the additional design implication would be, ensure that
pointing the use of close ups by directors to point to something is
intentional and explicit.
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4.3.12 Causally related elements [Harry/alter ego]


This element is not strongly causally linked with the previous schema. It
starts with a shot of the boy Harry drawing near on his scooter (shot 133). Luna
then asks her father for permission to not join him that day, which is granted.
She gets out of the van, walks past the alter ego whilst giving her a brief look,
then moves forward to Harry, her voice over starting to greet him, the shot held
on the alter ego, who realises that she has lost (shot 143). This sequence takes
place within the previous schema, selling ice cream from van and is also
followed by child making friends.


Because of viewers general knowledge of films and the typical endings of
films, with the protagonist usually but not always successful and victorious
over the antagonist, viewers understand this relationship. Having seen the
dream in which Luna is popular and knowing that many British short films are
ten minutes or so long, viewers are probably able to infer that the resolution is
near. This is hinted at more strongly once Luna asks her father for permission
not to join him, at which point the viewer can have an expectation that Luna
will shortly be making friends (some participants in investigation one were
distracted at this crucial point in the film by the close-up of the van door
creaking open, which suggested to them an unhappy ending). Once Luna has
walked past the alter ego, virtually ignoring her (i.e., the alter ego is defeated),
the viewer can infer that Luna will shortly make new friends. The alter ego and
Harry are integrated into the film by virtue of their repetition the viewer can
infer suitable meanings for them even if these meanings were not previously
made clear. The design implication is that repeated but unexplained elements
can be correctly interpreted at the end of the film, though this is not a
recommendation to let psychological processes do this work without explicit
design intention.
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4.3.13 Child making friends schema


This schema is weakly typed, because there are many different ways in which
a child might make friends. Nevertheless, it is not unexpected that one way of
doing this will be to join other children who are playing. This schema starts
with a shot of Luna saying hello to Harry (shot 144). It then continues with
Luna asking to try Harrys scooter, then being asked by Harry if she would like
to meet his friends. The sequence ends at the same point as the closing of the
second selling ice cream from van schema, with a long shot of the van driving
past the group of children playing happily (shot 154). This schema is so weakly
typed that no slot table is presented.

4.3.13.2 Design implication and link to viewers talk

Consideration of the schematic ways in which humans interacts might have
suggested that Lunas request of Harry to try his scooter was premature, in
relation to the stage of the relationship between Luna and Harry. This sequence,
the emotional climax of the film, still caused a problem. One participant from
investigation one thought that Harry acceding to the request was unrealistic
Luna might have run off with his scooter. Such thoughts interfered with his
enjoyment of the climax of the film. In fact, the scooter is an unnecessary
device, as is Harry. A simpler way for Luna to make friends is simply for her to
introduce herself, repeating her behaviours from the dream sequence, which acts
as a prompt for the viewer in this sequence, the design implication of
verbal/visual repetition priming (see also 4.3.10.2, above). Although this is not
as visually interesting as riding on a scooter, drama can be increased by
suggesting that the other children are about to reject her overtures. Luna could
then repeat her overtures in exactly the same way as in the dream, for eventual
success (struggle, overcoming and eventual victory).

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Firstly, schema structures within the context of the three act structure of Ice
Cream Dream are discussed (research questions one, two, four and five, see
section 4.1.2, above). Then the design implications arising from the current
investigation are discussed (research question three, see section 4.1.2, above).
Finally, issues for further research are discussed.

4.4.1 Schema structures

Comparison of the schema structure tables (sections 3.3.3 and 4.3.3) for the
two films used in this research is instructive. The film The Wrong Trousers
(investigation two, above) is marked by an exclusive use of aggregate schemas
(including two re-interpretative aggregate schemas in the second act), all of
which are causally connected there are no causally disconnected sequences.
By contrast, Ice Cream Dream is marked by a mixture of causally weakly
connected aggregate schemas and causally disconnected sequences. Ice Cream
Dream contains five aggregate schemas (three instances of Selling ice cream
from van; one instance of Valuables into bank; one instance of Child makes
friends) and three causally disconnected sequences (three instances of
Harry/alter ego; one instance of Concerned parent talk; one instance of
Parent wakes child). This means that there is no causally linked abstract
skeleton (Figa and Tarau, 2003) and the schemas and elements do not always
have coherence and are not always externally distinctive from earlier
presentations of the schema (Abelson, 1981), which implies that the film will be
less readily processed. The intermittent instantiation of schemas interspersed
with causally unconnected elements means that the viewer does not get the
benefits of schema prompting, preparation or memorisability (Van Lehn, 1989;
Abelson, 1981) or the benefits of clear boundaries between similar schemas,
which could lead to clearer breakpoints and more efficient information
processing (Zacks et al., 2009; Tversky et al., 2002; and Zacks et al., 2001).
The possibility of removing large sections of the film, especially parts related to
dreams and the daydream (which seem to be spectacular parts only, Aristotle
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in Bywater, 1920/1929), argues for a story that lacks wholeness (ibid.), with a
reliance in parts on visual effects instead of integrated story. Added to this lack
of wholeness is the diversion of cognitive resources away from the story content
to unclear usability issues, interrupting the state of enjoying the narrative
experience (Sturm, 2001; Green, 2002; Csikszentimihalyi, 1990).

4.4.1.1 Schema structures in Act One

In The Wrong Trousers (investigation two) the first act consists largely of
repeated aggregate schemas with two key schemas (Faithful pet dog
subverted; Financial crisis) setting up the dramatic impetus to the story,
which will be resolved at the end, when these two crisis schemas are resolved.
These are all presented in a clear and comprehensible manner, in many cases
from the first shot of a sequence with some schemas including statements of
the schemas in play at key moments in the film, for total clarity. By contrast,
the opening schema of Ice Cream Dream, consisting of the first instantiation of
the schema Selling ice cream from van, does not clearly identify the schema in
play till shot seven, has an unclear dramatic impetus which is only revealed
unambiguously in act two and has the opening schema followed by a causally
disconnected sequence where Luna, the main character, sees a boy on a scooter
going past (accompanied by cheerful music) and then a little girl who looks
somewhat like her (accompanied by sinister music). It is noticeable that some
participants seemed to find understanding how these elements fitted together
difficult, in investigation one (above).

4.4.1.2 Schema structures in Act Two

In The Wrong Trousers (investigation two, above) the second act consists of
new aggregate schemas and two major re-interpretative aggregate schemas
which integrate and deepen the viewers understanding of and interest in the
antagonists plan. All of these schemas are strongly and causally linked with
each other. The second act in The Wrong Trousers ends with jeopardy (one of
the characters has been captured), which engages the individual viewers
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emotional concern and interest, with all these elements having high dramatic
impact. In Ice Cream Dream by contrast, the second act starts with a
schematically presented daydream (which prompted mixed responses from
participants in investigation one) and is not causally connected with the
unfolding of the story. This sequence was also judged weak as an episode of
humour by participants in investigation one (humour seems its intent). This
sequence is followed by a causally disconnected sequence where the viewer
finally finds out unambiguously what the motivating problem for the main
character is (though Luna does not seem strongly motivated to resolve the
problem). This problem should have been the driving impetus of the film (e.g.,
Howard, 2004; McKee, 1997/1999), setting up drama, suspense and interest for
the viewer. This sequence is followed by two schematically presented dreams,
the second of which shows victory for the protagonist without indication of any
struggle to achieve this victory such struggle would normally be a key element
in any film. This sequence is followed by a disconnected scene which seems to
serve merely as orientation for the viewer to understand that a new day has
dawned.

4.4.1.3 Schema structures in Act Three

In The Wrong Trousers (investigation two, above), the third act consists
largely of a chase sequence, indicative of intense action and suspense, following
by the resolution of the dramatic tensions implicit in the broken friendship and
financial crisis schemas introduced in act one, with the resolution of the two
crisis aggregate schemas. In Ice Cream Dream by contrast, the third act
comprises the start of a selling ice cream schema (though the main character
does not complete the selling behaviour since she exits the van to make friends),
followed by a sequence with Harry and the alter ego (elements which have
become connected to what has gone before only, in the absence of causal
connections, through repetition, a form of pointing). The act concludes with the
main character making friends easily one participant from investigation one
commented that sometimes making friends can be that easy. The third act is
therefore marked by the absence of struggle, with victory easily won and yet no
193
clear reason why victory should have been achieved (contra Howard, 2004;
McKee, 1997/1999), since Luna seems not to have gained new skills or
overcome significant obstacles at any point in the film.

4.4.2 Design implications

There were nineteen design implications identified in this investigation. The
design implications were divided into within schema design implications (eight
design implications, see section 4.4.2.1, below) and between schema design
implications (eleven design implications, see section 4.4.2.2, below).

4.4.2.1 Within schema design implications

Before the table presenting the design implications is presented (Table 4.8,
below), a prose outline is given to indicate how the design implications could be
used by film makers as a series of design choices at this within schema design
implications level. Design implications are shown in italics, in brackets.

The opening of the film is a crucial moment. Therefore the film makers
should consider how best they can prompt the opening schema, using
prototypical slots or a statement of schema at this point (Strongly prompt the
first schema). This orients the viewer to what is going on, freeing up cognitive
resources to focus on story elements. The film makers can consider linking the
opening music to this first schema, though not all opening sequences lend
themselves to this in some opening sequences theme music may play over
introductory credits, with new music for the first scene. It is important that the
music over the first scene not be contradictory to what is on screen (i.e., in the
first schema), unless the film maker wishes to deliberately suggest an additional
meaning, such as tension music over a family having breakfast together, to
suggest a threat to the family (Consider link of opening music to first
schema/film).

At any point in the film where a schema is being used that might be relatively
194
unfamiliar to viewers (such as selling ice cream), consider whether a more
familiar version (e.g., buying ice cream) could be used, picking the most
interesting and accessible variant of the schema (Use best in class schema).
Important schemas such as the opening schema may require the film maker to
immediately display a key slot, thereby ensuring clarity at this significant point
in the film (Reference key prototypical slots).

The planned film can be surveyed by the film maker before it is filmed (either
by means of the treatment for the film or the script) and disconnected elements
removed by the use of an informational shot. One example of an informational
shots (a visual or sonic element used schematically to manage the flow of
information in a film) is where the viewer first assumes that the time and place
are the same in a head and shoulders shot, for example but the following shot of
the same elements in a wider view to include more of the background reveals
that the action has shifted to a new location and that time has passed (Use
informational shots to remove disconnected elements).

If the film maker wishes to generate humorous effects, slot content can be
exaggerated (Exaggerate slot content for humour) but viewers still test novelty
by their perception of realism in relation to the films story world as it has
unfolded thus far. Film makers do not therefore have total licence in the
presentation of novel slot content (Slot content must be realistically novel).

At the end of the film the last aggregate schema does not need to be shown in
its entirety, one slot (whether associated or prototypical) is sufficient, since at
the end of the film all key information should have been presented, including
the denouement the film maker is now offering a farewell to the film world
(Reduced slots for last schema) so there is no expectation on the part of the
viewer of new content. An associated slot, particularly when presented as a
familiar element from earlier in the film, can be sufficient to suggest the
continuation of the film world beyond the duration of the film and form an
effective farewell to the film world.

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These summarised design implications were tabulated. Table 4.8 (below)
shows the summarised slot design implications at the within schema level.


Design implication

Explanation

Section

Strongly prompt
the first schema

Use best in class
schema (interest,
interest)

Consider link of
opening music to
first schema/ film

Reference key
prototypical slots

Exaggerate slot
content for humour

Slot content must
be realistically
novel

Reduced slots for
last schema

Prompt the first schema in a film with a
prototypical slot

Use the most accessible and interesting
schema from the group of similar
schemas

Opening music suggests a range of
schemas which should apply to the film,
use this explicitly

Using a partial reference to a
prototypical slot is enough

Once the slot content has been identified,
it can be exaggerated for humorous effect

The story world of the film defines what is
realistically normal slot content must
not exceed these boundaries

A film can end of a single slot prompt for
a schema, especially if the schema has
been used before

4.3.4.2

4.3.4.2

4.3.4.2

4.3.4.2

4.3.6.2

4.3.9.2

4.2.11.2

4.4.2.2 Between schema design implications

Within this category, there are ten design implications. These are
summarised below (Table 4.9). Before this summary, a prose outline is given to
indicate how the design implications could be used by film makers as a series of
design choices at the between schema design implications level (as before,
design implications are in italics, in brackets).

A key part of the film design process before the expense of shooting is
incurred is to ensure that everything that will be on screen is causally linked,
which makes for a more dramatic and readily assimilated experience (Ensure all
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elements are causally linked). If elements are repeated, care needs to be taken
to re-use these elements as they were used the first time, so bars of ice cream are
not considered equivalent by viewers to ice creams in cones (Precise match
repeated slot content). Film makers need to ensure that the actions a character
takes fits their motivations for maximum clarity and dramatic impact (Fit
characters actions and motivations) and that the goals of principal characters
are clear at the points where they need to be in the film (Make characters goals
clear). Film makers can benefit from running two schemas in parallel (Parallel
schema reinforcement) and use the principle that things which are near at hand
in the film world should be used for solving the protagonists problem
(Nearness). In the final act, the viewer wishes to see the protagonist strive
strongly to solve his or her problem, rather than the solution just seem to fall
into his or her lap without effort this tends not to mimic life and is also
dramatically unsatisfying (Strongly develop and outwork the protagonists
intense exertion to solve his or her problem). Where the film maker wishes to
point or avoid pointing to a particular element, care should be taken with close
up shots (which is the primary shot used for pointing). Without close ups and
repeated shots of an element, film makers may fail to communicate their intent
to point to that element, especially if the object is itself schematic, such as a red
cash box (Ensure that pointing is intentional and explicit). Repeating elements
can be used to convey other information repeated behaviours of characters and
the verbal utterances of characters that accompany these behaviours can be
understood by viewers as representing an internalised model of behaviour that,
in its very repetition, becomes a sufficient explanation for that behaviour: the
viewer will understand from this repetition that the behaviour is habitual. In the
same way, if a character repeats a behaviour that previously was successful, the
viewer will infer that the behaviour is intrinsically successful across a range of
situations and will expect the outcome to be the same, unless a reason is
provided why this is not so (Verbal/visual repetition priming). Finally, though
it can hardly be a recommendation, if viewers are merely exposed to repeated
elements, then by the processes of repetition and habituation these elements are
incorporated into the model of the film world of the viewer. Normally viewers
will want some kind of explanation of the element at the end of the film or an
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indication that this element is to be left as an unresolved issue (Repeated
elements can be correctly interpreted at end of film).

Table 4.9 Design implications at the between schema level

Design implication

Explanation

Section

Use informational
shots to avoid
disconnections

Ensure elements
are causally linked
to schemas

Precise match
repeated slot
content

Fit characters
actions, goals and
motivations to
aggregate schema

Parallel schema
reinforcement

Strongly develop
and outwork the
protagonists
intense exertion to
solve his or her
problem

Nearness

Verbal/visual
repetition priming

Ensure that
pointing is
intentional and
explicit

Repeated elements
can be correctly
interpreted at end
of film

Informational shots such as of clocks can be
used to fix together different shots and
avoid disconnections

Have relevant elements causally linked with
the schemas in, such that their removal
would disrupt the story

If slot are being re-used, they must be
repeated exactly, unless an intentional
difference is intended

It is usually desirable that a characters
actions, goals and motivations clearly fit an
overarching schema for that character,
otherwise it becomes difficult for viewers to
understand what is going on

Similar or related schemas run in parallel
with each other in time can reinforce each
other

Film is an entertainment medium and
drama adds to this, therefore the
protagonist should have a high intensity to
solve their serious problem, otherwise the
film may lack drama

The solution to the protagonists problem
must be nearby, otherwise it may seem too
convenient and therefore unbelievable

Verbal or visual repetition can prime
viewers to expect a repeat of a previous
outcome

Viewers will interpret any close up,
especially if accompanied with sonic
information, as pointing by the director,
drawing particular attention to the element

Repetition of elements can stand in for
design clarity but it is better to design for
clarity rather than trust in the effort after
meaning (Bartlett, 1932)

4.3.4.2, 4.3.52

4,3,5,2

4.3.6.2

4.3.7.2, 4.3.8.2

4.3.9.2

4.3.9.2

4.3.10.2

4.3.10.2, 4.3.13.2

4.3.11.2

4.3.12.2

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4.4.3 Further research

The current investigation has compared Ice Cream Dream to The Wrong
Trousers (investigation two) in terms of structure, drawing also on viewers talk
(investigation one) concerning Ice Cream Dream. As has been shown above,
Ice Cream Dream is less structured than The Wrong Trousers, with much
weaker causality. Two issues remain to be addressed. Firstly, investigation one
presented findings from a viewers talk investigation on a neutrally rated film,
Ice Cream Dream. What would viewers talk reveal about a highly rated film,
The Wrong Trousers? It may be that the context of the viewers talk about Ice
Cream Dream with the semi-structured interviewing, created a situation where
some viewers may have been prompted to answer every question presented to
them, despite attempts to avoid this danger (see section 2.2.5, above). A
viewers talk investigation of The Wrong Trousers using a naturalistic and non-
interview context would therefore seem suitable, to avoid this problem.
Accordingly, it was decided to undertake an investigation of viewers talk on
The Wrong Trousers, as presented on the Internet Movie Database
(www.imdb.com).
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Chapter 5. Investigation four viewers online talk on
short film The Wrong Trousers

5.1 Introduction


The second investigation comprised a schematic analysis of The Wrong
Trousers (investigation two, Chapter Three, above). Of interest was: what
structures could be discerned, how do these structures map onto schema theory
and what design implications could be identified. An important category that
emerged from this second investigation and which was identified as a key
structuring element in The Wrong Trousers consisted of mid level schemas
called in this research, aggregate schemas. These are made up of nameable
aggregates of actions. Twenty five such schemas were identified (two being
re-interpretative schemas which re-interpret previously presented aggregate
schemas by revealing new content). The structure of each act in the film was
also delineated, with act one setting up the dramatic impetus of the film (the
cash crisis and the subversion of the friendship between Wallace and Gromit
by the penguin), act two revealing the penguins plan and act three comprising
an all out chase with a hard won eventual victory by Wallace and Gromit.
Twenty nine design implications were also identified.

There were two issues arising from the previous investigations. The first
was that a viewers talk investigation of The Wrong Trousers might be
expected to add valuable insights, supplementing the structural analysis
undertaken in investigation two. The second was that a further interview based
investigation would be subject to the concern about plausible reconstructions
from investigation one (section 2.2.5, above), that asking participants to
comment on a section of the film might prompt them to always offer a
response, even if the section contained nothing of salience to them, despite the
care taken to avoid this in investigation one. It was therefore decided to
200
undertake a naturalistic viewers talk investigation of The Wrong Trousers
using online movie reviews. These might be expected to access viewers talk
focused only on issues of high saliency.

5.1.2 Research questions

This investigation sought to answer three questions, as did the viewers talk
investigation of Ice Cream Dream (investigation one, Chapter Two, above).
The first question concerned the conceptual structures that might be reflected in
viewers reports of film content experiences: what are the report structures that
viewers use when they talk about film content? (research question one, section
2.4.6 above). The second question concerned the linkage of these report
structures to schema theory: how do these report structures map onto schema
theory (research question two, section 2.4.6 above). The third question related
to the design of film content: can a set of design implications be developed
from viewers talk findings? (research question three, section 2.4.6) above. A
further question emerged during the analysis, how are causal elements from
The Wrong Trousers identified during investigation two, reflected in the story
summaries offered by users in their user comments?

5.2 Method

5.2.1 Design

The design was a qualitative investigation of online movie reports submitted
to the Internet Movie Database (www.imdb.com), a site where movie viewers
can submit their own movie user comments i.e., a Web 2.0 user generated
content site. Web 2.0 sites have been used as research tools (e.g., Blythe and
Cairns, 2009; Kittur, Lee and Kraut, 2009) and also, in a Masters investigation,
to investigate genre and linguistic structure in online movie reviews
(Charoenchasri, undated) and to quantitatively compare expert and novice
reviews (Plucker, Kaufman, Temple and Qian, 2009). The investigation
reported in this chapter was particularly focused on positive and negative talk,
201
since such talk has ramifications for design and links well with the issues
identified in the previous investigations (investigations one, two and three).
Since movie reviewers posted their comments online for anyone to read, there
are no confidentiality issues and no ethical issues.

5.2.2 Participants

People who posted movie reviews on www.imdb.com will be called
participants as well as users, though they were not formally invited to
participate and were not aware that their public reviews were analysed.
Participants comprised people who had submitted User Comments at
www.imdb.com for members of the public to read. This was an opportunistic
and self selected sample, since the participants had chosen to write and post to
the site. Participants were not contacted for permission for their user
comments to be used in this research project because the user comments were
clearly intended to be public domain information. No demographic
information about people submitting user comments was collected from the
site. There was no indication that professional writers contribute to this site
and the user comments analysed in the course of this research suggest that non-
professional writers are producing the content. The site itself fosters this
impression by calling the movie reviews, User Comments.

5.2.3 Materials

The Internet Movie Database (www.imdb.com) is one of the major online
movie user comment sites (see http://www.imdb.com/help/show_leaf?history
for material is this paragraph). The site started in 1990 when a series of Usenet
bulletin board FAQs was made searchable via a set of Unix shell scripts in
1990, the site moving to commercial ownership by incorporation as a U.K.
limited company in 1996. The site was purchased by Amazon in 1998. The
site includes a detailed and searchable database of movie and movie user
comments submitted by users. To vote or comment on a movie, users have to
register.
202
The process for submitting a user comment is somewhat structured by the
User Comment Guidelines and the Enter Comment data entry page
(http://www.imdb.com/help/ show_leaf?commentsguidelines), that is to say,
users do not have total liberty as to how they enter their user comments. Key
points in the Guidelines include a specified minimum and maximum length of
contribution (10 lines and 1,000 words respectively), a recommended length
(200 to 500 words), a suggestion to focus on the movies content and context
and a list of things that are not allowed, such as single word user comments.
There is a warning that contributions not conforming to the guidelines may not
be posted or may be edited for compliance. A review is shown in its entirety
below (Figure 5.1, where the first column is the user comment, the next column
the word count including the summary, the next column left intentionally blank
and the final column the user reference number). Note that this review is taken
from the collected corpus of data and the summary (cracking good
summary) has been moved to facilitate the word count on the website this
summary precedes the date of the review.

12 out of 12 people found the following comment useful :-,
4 September 2001

Author: Markc65 from Burbank, CA
cracking good story
The best film of the Wallace and Gromit trilogy, and one of
the greatest films, period. Nick Park and the animators at
Aardman are some true talents and gifted storytellers. Nick
Park has made some great clay stop motion cartoons before,
such as Creature Comforts, but with The Wrong Trousers he
really topped himself. The technical aspects of the movie are
amazing. The noirish lighting, the attention to detail, the small
jokes in the background, the camera compositions and the
fluid animation (it doesn't have that herky-jerky look of most
clay animated films) are awe-inspiring by themselves, but
combined with such a witty story and appealing characters the
result is something that truly deserves to be called a classic.
122 35

Figure 5.1 Extract from user comment (user summary relocated)

203
At the Enter Comment page, the key points of the system are as follows.
The system lists the users name (the first part of the email address) or the
whole email at the users choice, as well as offering an optional box indicating
the geographical location of the user, with this information available to readers
of the user comment. Below this is a check box labelled, Contains spoiler.
Users who submit a comment containing a spoiler (a comment that reveals
something crucial in the movie) without clicking this checkbox to alert readers
are blacklisted and all future comments are discarded automatically. The
next box is identified as Summary (which has the appearance of a title in the
final user comment, see in the first column in Figure 5.1, above), where users
enter a summary of the movie. Below this is a drop down menu box listed,
Vote (out of 10). Golden stars are used in the system as the visual record of
scores from one to ten, in individual user comments. User comments with no
stars are assumed in this research to have been processed with this box on its
default setting of select i.e., unchecked by the user submitting the user
comment. The system does not therefore force users to include a vote. The
choice of ratings ranges from 1 (labelled as awful) to 10 (labelled as
excellent). Following this box is the text entry box where users enter their
comments, with a reminder of the minimum and maximum word lengths.

Beyond these structural elements, users are free to structure their comments
as they please and do not have to supply a story summary or user comments.
The ratings for movies are not generated solely by users who also write user
comments: a considerable number of users who vote do not write user
comments.

User comments for The Wrong Trousers and Ice Cream Dream were
examined on 18 June 2007. For The Wrong Trousers there were a total of 69
user comments on the system on this date (65 usable comments, see below,
section 5.2.4). This number of user comments was deemed sufficient for the
corpus to be used for this research and the user comments were accordingly
downloaded. There were five user comments for Ice Cream Dream and this
was deemed insufficient for a research investigation and these user comments
204
were discarded from the investigation.

5.2.4 Data collection

The corpus was sorted on word length, with the longest comment first. This
facilitated the identification of structure in user comments, thereby making the
analysis more manageable. The first user comment was an outlier in terms of
length (739 words long, compared to the next longest record of 389) and also
content (it was written in an academic film studies style) and so was removed
from the analysis. User comment number six was an outlier in terms of
content, since it was written in a conspiracy theorist style and so was also
removed from the analysis. Two user comments (numbers four and thirteen)
were almost or actually identical to other user comments and so were removed
from the analysis. Although removed from the analysis, the above user
comments remain in the corpus, since at the time of access they were included
on the website. All the online user comments were copied from the website
into a word processing document. The user summary was relocated from
above the line of stars, to below the line of stars (i.e., cracking good story in
bold in Figure 5.1, above), to facilitate the inclusion of this summary in the
word count. After cleaning up the corpus, 65 user comments remained

After computing the word count, the user comment was moved in its entirety
into a unique cell in a document table. This strips out graphical elements
included in the website, except for the stars which shows in graphical form the
rating from each user, when these have been supplied. Each user comment was
given a unique user reference number, shown in the right most column (Figure
5.1, above). This corresponded to its place in the listing of word count lengths
(i.e., record one is the longest user comment). These sorted records form the
textual corpus for this investigation of viewers talk for the movie, The Wrong
Trousers. Note that the star ratings were not analysed in this research since not
all users use them and the final ratings for the film (score of 8.3 out of 10) are
calculated from a much larger number of responses, most of which omit user
comments.
205
5.2.5 Data analysis

A natural structure was evident in the movie reviews for The Wrong
Trousers. The reviews have what have been called here titles (what imdb call
summaries) and a portion of the reviews had an identifiable film summary in
the main body of the review. Therefore the categorical analysis was broken
down into a number of tasks based on these structures, making the process
more tractable. Word counts were first computed for each analysed record.
Then the user summaries (which in appearance are represented at
www.imdb.com as titles to the user comments, above the line of golden rating
stars) were analysed. Inspection of the body of the user comments revealed
that some users were offering a story summary in the body of their user
comment. Therefore these story summaries were analysed, with the principle
of theoretical sensitivity (Glaser, 1978) meaning that overt attention was paid
to schematic elements, especially aggregate schemas and the issue of causality
as identified from investigation two. Finally, the non-summary content that
remained was analysed, paying particular attention to positive and negative
talk.


Results from the analysed comments are now reported for word count
(section 5.3.1), analysis of user summaries above the text of the user comment
(section 5.3.2), analysis of story summaries in the user content (including
causality and aggregate schemas, section 5.3.3) and positive talk in the
remaining non-summary content with design implications following (section
5.3.4). In reporting results, only the index number to each comment is used.
Line numbers for each comment were not inserted because each comment was
sufficiently short to make the use of line numbers an encumberance rather than
an aid to clarity.

206
5.3.1 Word Count

Mean word count was 136 words. Range was 15 to 389.

5.3.2 User movie summaries


All 65 user comments had what www.imdb.com call summaries, these
summaries appearing as titles to each comment on the website (to be
distinguished from the story summaries proper that 21 users included in their
comments, see section 5.3.3, below). Because these summaries are more like
titles, they cannot be compared with the findings from investigation one on
summaries.

A cut-off point of three coded user comments was used as a threshold for
inclusion of the analytic results in the design implications section that follows
(5.3.2.2, below). This removed all categories with three or fewer instances
(categories TSPQUA; TSPW; TF;TCON; TQ). In addition, the
general praise category was removed, since it consisted of comments which
were not amenable to generating design implications, since they lacked content
(e.g., a modern classic, user comment 39, category TGP). This generality
of comment was also true of the category for other user summaries (e.g.,
More! More!, user comment 47, category TO), which were also removed.
After these removals 17 user comments remained, in three categories (shown at
the top of table 5.1, below, categories TSCP; TSPCHAR; TSPA), to
potentially contribute to the identification of design implications.

The codes, definitions and frequency of these user summaries were
tabulated. These are shown below (Table 5.1).

207
Table 5.1 Coding categories for user summaries (quotes uncorrected)

Category name and code

Definition (total number of instances of coded
segments in category)

Specific Comparative Praise T-SCP

Specific Praise Characters T-SP-
CHAR

Specific Praise Animation T-SP-A

General Praise T-GP

Specific film Qualified T-SP-QUA

Specific Praise Writing T-SP-W

Factual T-F

Continuity T-CON

Quote T-Q

Other T-O

Specific praise comparing film to other
Aardman films or similar films, e.g., best
Aardman film ever, comment 28 (7)

Specific praise focused on characters e.g.,
Wallace and Gromit at their top!, comment 29
(6)

Specific praise focused on the animation, e.g.,
Forget CGI. Claymation is the best!!!,
comment 16 (4)

General praise e.g., Most Excellent!, comment
33 (31)

Praise qualified, #5
th
Best Movie of all time,
was it not for its painfully short running time,
comment 15 (1)

Praise focused on the writing, e.g., You gotta
love the writing, e.g., comment 69 (1)

A factual comment as a summary, e.g., the
second Wallace and Gromit short film.,
comment 38 (3)

A summary focused on a continuity error,
There is a goof in this short., comment 36 (1)

Quote/misquote used as summary, Its the
wrong trousers Gromit, and theyve gone all
wrong! comment 12 (1)

Talk excluding praise, e.g., Tenants, Trousers &
Trains!, comment 20 (10)


The specific praise category of user summaries focused on comparison (T
SCP) indicates that praise can arise from comparison with similar films (seven
instances), from the characters (six instances) or from the method of production
(four instances). Two design implications arise. The first design implication is
that film makers should understand that their film will be compared both with
other similar films they have created and also with other similar films created
208
by other film makers. This may seem obvious but consideration of sequels to
successful feature films suggests that this design implication has proved
difficult to implement in practice. Part of the reason for this may be the
difficulty in analysing and comparing films according to some pre-specified
criteria or using an agreed method, since no such method currently exists. This
research represents a first step in developing such a method and identifying
potential criteria.

The second design implication arises from unique elements in the film
special characters and production processes such as claymation (a total of ten
instances, six for characters, four for claymation, a short hand for the type of
animation used in The Wrong Trousers). The design implication here is to add
distinctiveness to the film by making the characters unique and considering
using a distinctive method of production carefully: claymation was viewed
positively. It may seem that the number of instances at four for claymation is
small, but this needs to be set against the salience of this item for the four users
who put this item in a headline position in their user summaries, above all other
issues in the film. The issue of animation arises again below (in section
5.3.4.4).

5.3.3 Story summaries in user comments


Twenty one user comments in the corpus contained a story summary of The
Wrong Trousers. Of these, 17 were coded as causal summaries. Two of the
remaining comments were coded as Summaries-Quasi, the other two
comments were coded as Summaries-Other. Causal summaries are dealt with
first, then the remaining two minor categories together.

In story summaries, the story is summarised in text within the user
comments section (not in the Summaries box, already discussed above,
section 5.3.2), that the user has chosen to enter in his or her user comment
209
without being prompted by the system. It is common for movie reviewers in
professional film magazines to summarise the film it may be that the online
users in the Internet Movie Database who offered story summaries were
conforming to this perceived schema, since they were not forced by the
www.imdb.com system to generate story summaries in the main body of their
user comments.

Causal summaries surfaced through the iterative analysis. These summaries
were structured by causal elements in the film elements which are causally
integrated with each other to create the films story. So, from investigation two
of The Wrong Trousers, there is a financial crisis, which leads in turn to
Wallace seeking a lodger to gain rental income to deal with the financial crisis
which in turn means that a robber has come into the household, and so on.
This is how causality works through The Wrong Trousers, integrated around
different aggregate schemas (see investigation two, Chapter Three, above).

Key elements in The Wrong Trousers had been identified from investigation
two as a series of causally linked aggregate schemas (Chapter Three, above).
In the current investigation, participants in their story summaries mentioned six
elements (Birthday; Financial crisis; Lodger; Techno trousers; Robbery;
Chase), two of which are not aggregate schemas but entities (Lodger and
Techno trousers), the remaining four (Birthday, Financial crisis, Robbery
and Chase) were identified as aggregate schemas (see Chapter Three, above).
These four schemas and two elements will now be presented in tabular form,
with the category name and code, the definitions of each code, an instance of
each coded category and an indication of the number of instances (Table 5.2,
below), placed in their chronological occurrence in the film. As with story
summaries in investigation one, users kept to a core description, though with
greater variability in their descriptions in this investigation, probably due to the
fact that users were offering summaries without being asked to do so point by
point as in investigation one (section 2.3.2, above). It may also be that in
writing their story summaries users were not necessarily conforming to a full
schema for summary (a full summary would imply identifying all of the key
210
causal elements and the end of the film). Such a full summary would be
excluded by the modified schema of a summary presented to a potential viewer
of the film who didnt already know the ending. In investigation one, this
modified schema wouldnt have been in play, since the investigator watched
the film with participants and participants were fully aware that he knew the
ending of the film.

Table 5.2 Coding categories for story summaries

Schemas,
elements and
codes

Definition (total number of instances of coded segments)

Birthday B

Financial Crisis
FC

Lodger L

Techno trousers
TT

Robbery R

Chase C

Summary mentions Birthday, e.g., Gromit receives an extraordinary
birthday present, comment 7 (5)

Summary mentions Financial Crisis, e.g., The movie is about Wallace
has a lot of bills and he cant afford to pay all of them off, comment
20 (13)

Summary mentions Lodger, e.g., so he [Wallace] leases/rents out his
spare room and the penguin that rents it out isnt to be trusted!, comment
20 (16)

Summary mentions Techno trousers, e.g., Wallace gets Gromita pair
of robotic trousers, Techno Trousers AKA the wrong trouser., comment
10 (12)

Summary mentions Robbery, e.g., stealing the trousers for a
robbery., comment 15 (10)

Summary mentions Chase, e.g., a hilarious chase on little trains is
the result., comment 2 (6)

Since all the users mentioned the main protagonists, Wallace and Gromit
(whether in the story summary or elsewhere in the user comment) instances of
Wallace and Gromit were not coded. This analysis of the story summaries
reported here reveals the saliency of six elements (four aggregate schemas and
two entities) of high causality in the film. Summaries in user comments were
often couched in emotive terms, as some of the extracts (Table 5.2, above)
reveal implying that people posting user comments were emotionally
engaged with what happened to the characters.

211
Before giving an example of a story summary in a user comment, a causal
summary of these six elements in The Wrong Trousers is given, to illustrate
causality. From these six elements, key causal moments in the film can be
reconstituted. In The Wrong Trousers, the birthday (Birthday) via the techno
trousers (Techno trousers) initiates the financial crisis (Financial crisis),
which brings the penguin into the house (Lodger), to use the techno trousers
(Techno trousers) for a robbery (Robbery), resulting in a final chase
(Chase). This presentation of aggregate schemas and non-aggregate schema
elements results in a recognisable sequence of causally connected events that
can be identified as describing the film, The Wrong Trousers. It will be noted
that this causal summary excludes the end of the film, with the subsequent
resolution of the financial crisis this exclusion may be due to the social
convention in the industrialised nations of not revealing the end of a movie.
An example of a user comment coded as belonging to this Causal Summary
category, with five of the six elements (omitting Chase) is as follows:

Gromit receives an extraordinary birthday present- a pair of ex-
NASA, giant mechanical trousers! But the pair have hit hard times
financially, with large bills to pay and so the only solution,
seemingly, is to hire out a lodger. Enter a small tiny penguin, the
biggest menace of such a creature to hit a screen since Batman, a
seemingly innocent guy who is kind to Wallace and forces poor
Gromit out the way. But his real plans are far more sinister: he
means to pull off a diamond heist from a local museum and use
Wallace and his extraordinary trousers to do it. Gromit discovers
this while snooping around, and sets out to stop it. (comment 7)

Also, in real story summaries certain details may be forgotten or not
mentioned and causality may not be overtly expressed but latent, revealing
itself in the fact that only those salient schemas and elements are reported that
enable the causality of the film to be reconstituted. The presence or absence of
the warning, Spoiler that www.imdb.com advocates inserting if the end is
revealed is unrelated to this phenomenon there were only two instances of the
use of the Spoiler warning in user story summaries. In fact none of these
summaries revealed the end of the movie, either the successful resolution of the
financial crisis or the capture of the lodger. Also, by familiarity with the
212
conventions of childrens films, writers of user comments will know that
readers will infer that the movie has a happy ending, so may not have
mentioned the ending because of this inference, as well as the desire to
conform to the convention of not revealing the ending already mentioned.

Some aggregate schemas identified in investigation two (Chapter Three,
above) are not mentioned in these summaries. It might be expected that a story
summary, with its emphasis on a brief outline of the film, would omit
commonplace material (breakfast, getting ready in the morning) or material
that requires a great deal of additional explanation that may not be central to
the causality outlined in the previous paragraph (for example, when Gromit
leaves home). High saliency events may not be remembered or not reported
because they are not central to the causality of the film this would imply that
causality is more important to remembering or reporting film content than high
saliency on its own (high saliency as might be prompted by visually interesting
or emotionally dramatic elements).

As well as coding on causal elements in story summaries, individual user
comments were also coded on the number of mentions of each causal element,
so see if any patterning was evident. Of the user comments citing six, five and
four causal elements, each user cited the same elements as the others in the
same group. Of the user comments citing one, two or three causal elements,
users varied as to which causal element they did not mention, with Birthday
in particular (five instances) not being mentioned in user comments once these
user comments had four or fewer aggregate schemas or non schema entities.
There was no other tendency to drop certain elements, though a larger sample
might reveal some regularities as to which elements survive as the number of
elements cited in a story summary diminishes. This data is shown below
(Table 5.3). Causality by definition cannot be found in a single element but
single elements are included here to give the reader a visual insight into the
patterning in the data.

213
Table 5.3 User comments citing causal elements in story summaries

Birthday
B

Financial
Crisis
FC

Lodger L

Techno
trousers
TT

Robbery
R

Chase C

4

4

4

4

4

4

1

1

1

1

1

3

3

3

3

3

4

3

1

1

2

3

2

2

2

1

5

13

16

13

11

7

Number
of user
comments

4

1

3

4

4

1

There were four other user comments, in two categories (coded as
Summaries-Quasi, Summaries-Other). The category coded as Summaries-
Quasi (two user comments) consisted of summaries where users presented
causal elements in a non causal manner:

This tale involves a rogue penguin with an evil plan involving
Wallace and Gromit and his inventions (comment 34)

The category Summaries-Other (two user comments) consisted of
summaries where the user addresses the reader directly and mentions causal
elements impressionistically. The following extract demonstrates this:

Imagine A moon of cheese A penguin disguised as a'rooster'
only to steal a diamond Imagine a dog named GROMIT who
reads `the republic by Pluto' and CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
By DOG-STOIEVSKY! (comment 45)

These two categories formed minority groupings and were deemed
insufficient to use to identify any design implications. The design implications
that follow are therefore drawn from the story summaries in the user comments
214
where these story summaries were presented in causally linked form i.e.,
conforming in some measure to the schema of a summary.


The first two design implications relate to causality as it pertains to the fate
of the main characters. Since verbal summaries of films could potentially be a
key component in people recommending a film to their friends, then (if the
written summaries used in this research function in the same way as verbal
summaries) the first implication is that film makers need to think early on the
film creation process about how viewers may report the film to their friends.
This implies creating a limited number of memorable and strongly causally
connected aggregate schemas, with distinctive main characters and
antagonist(s) in the film. The second design implication is to ensure that these
causally linked aggregate schemas are emotionally linked to the outworking
destinies of the characters viewers do not describe filmic events as
dispassionate happenings but rather in terms of what they mean for the
characters, therefore the film should be so structured that each aggregate
schema impacts on the characters. So, for instance, the receiving of the techno
trousers by Gromit is not a neutral or even pleasant event but is presented as
being highly fear inducing, potentially arousing concern for Gromit.

The third design implication is linked to the choice of causal elements
mentioned in the story summaries. As already indicated above, there is no
clear patterning and so no opportunity to identify any underlying processes.
There seems a slight tendency for the selection of elements to focus on
elements two through to five (Financial crisis through to Robbery). It may
be that causal element one (Birthday), mentioned in five of the seventeen
story summaries, represents a weaker causal link than these other elements.
With user comments containing four causal elements or less, the birthday
consistently is not mentioned. It may be that because birthdays are relatively
common and in this case the birthday present of the techno trousers so
uncommon that the birthday (a very short sequence in the film) becomes the
215
first causal element to drop out in this dataset from the story summaries.
Additionally, the birthday is only incidentally important as the context for the
gift of the Techno trousers (mentioned in thirteen comments), a further possible
explanation as to why Gromits birthday ceases to be mentioned once the
number of casual elements mentioned in story summaries dropped to three or
less. In The Wrong Trousers the birthday initiates the financial crisis but a
financial crisis can in fact be initiated in other ways, so one user comment
indicates that Wallacelovescreating bizarre machines but sadly, they are
unable to provide him with much of an income (comment three), which is a
plausible but erroneous explanation for the financial crisis (a number of users
made such erroneous explanations for the existence of the financial crisis). By
contrast, the lodger (mentioned in sixteen of the seventeen story summaries) is
only likely to be brought into the house because of some pressing financial
need, since the other plausible explanation that Wallace is lonely is precluded
by the fact that Gromit Wallaces friend lives with him in the same house.
Therefore lodger is more strongly causally connected than birthday, because
there is only one plausible explanation for lodger, with this explanation
matching what actually happens in the film. The chase sequence was not
mentioned in ten of the story summaries in user comments, but it is not clear
what this means, since this did not seem to happen in a regular manner (see
Table 5.3, above). This might be explained by the key position of the robbery,
with the robbery as the key explanation for most of what has gone before in the
film. It is therefore strongly causal for the bulk of the film. Viewers
schematically know that there is often a getaway chase after a robbery,
therefore this chase is not as strongly causal or distinctive as the robbery. Once
the robbery has been mentioned it may therefore not be necessary to mention
the chase. Alternatively, as previously mentioned, it is difficult for a chase
consisting of a multitude of fast events to be sufficiently different from other
chases, meaning that some users may forgot it (but see below, section 5.3.4.5).

Breakfast fails to appear in any of the story summaries in real life breakfast
is only weakly associated with birthday as the venue for initial birthday
greetings and possibly, as in The Wrong Trousers, with reception of birthday
216
cards and presents. In real life, presents and cards may temporally be given
before or after breakfast, there seems therefore no necessary link between
birthday and breakfast.

5.3.4 Positive talk in material which is not a story summary


Unlike investigation one, where all segments were coded, in this section of
the investigation only positive and negative talk was coded and analysed, so as
to facilitate the focus on material that might have direct and immediate
relevance to issues of good design and viewer enjoyment. Similar to
investigation one, segments coded as positive had to demonstrate overt positive
comment in relation to The Wrong Trousers. Additional criteria relevant to this
investigation included the requirement for specific comment on the film
content (a comment such as, Great film! would be excluded, a comment such
as Great animation! would be included, since it relates to an element of the
film, even though in relation to that element it is still general). Overt
comments on the film makers were excluded, since this investigation is focused
on the in-film content. Negative talk was also considered but insufficient
instances were found to form a viable category.

Once the categories had been identified, inclusion criteria for analysis was
membership of primary categories as defined by size of category (included
were Story with 32 instances; Laughter with 29 instances; Animation with
25 instances, Chase with 11 instances). Items with ten or less instances were
excluded.

5.3.4.2 Positive talk on Story

Since in the extracts no distinction was observable between story and
plot, the two were coded as belonging to the story category. There were 32
coded segments, from 26 users in this category. One segment was coded as
217
visual storytelling but was folded into this category, since visual storytelling
is guided by the script, which encapsulates the story (a well written script
making it difficult for the director to present the material in any other way than
that intended by the script writer). Of these coded segments, three primary
clusters of ten, eight and six segments were identified (other segments were
either unclustered or had only two or three segments for the 26 users and so
were excluded). The first cluster in this category was focused on general praise
for the story, with synonyms such as great story, great plot (ten segments,
ten users). The second cluster was focused on enjoyment (eight segments,
seven users), with synonyms such as entertaining and witty. The final
cluster in this category was focused on engagement (six segments, six users),
with synonyms such as most engaging and interesting. Viewers comments
are linked in the story explicitly to their reported emotional reactions. This
suggests an overarching schema for a good story but further research is
needed to determine what good story might be and how to operationalise it in
design terms (see 6.5, below).

5.3.4.3 Positive talk on laughter

There were 29 coded segments, from 26 users in this category. Of these
coded segments, one primary cluster for laughter of 18 segments (sixteen
users) was identified (all other segments did not result in any group with three
in it, so were excluded). There was therefore only one cluster in this category,
consisting of laughter, with synonyms such as laughed, plenty of laughs
and very funny. These viewers comments refer to an observable aggregate
reaction to the film. Since this research has not explicitly explored humour,
nothing more can be said about this.

5.3.4.4 Animation

There were 25 coded segments, from 24 users in this category. The primary
cluster within this category consisted of general high praise for the animation,
such as fantastic or slightly expanded general high praise flawless in
218
movement (13 segments, 13 users), where the praise is more specified. The
next cluster of comments within the animation category consisted of moderate
praise referencing the work of the film maker in the films content, such as
attention to detail amazing or lot of time and effort (six instances, six users).
The next cluster were comparative to other films, such as far superior or
greatly improved (five instances, five users). The final cluster related to the
animation as it pertained to the characters, such as character animation
wonderful (four instances, four users). This category of viewers talk
therefore includes specific praise, giving an indication of some of the
dimensions of praise worthy animation, such as attention to detail.

5.3.4.5 Positive talk on Chase

There were 11 coded segments, from 10 users in this category. It was not
possible to identify clear clustering, with the segments varying from general
praise (hilarious) to comparative (best chase ever seen) to inferred praise
(THAT scene, user 52). This material is similar to chase in story
summaries, above (section 5.3.3).


The first design implication from this section of remaining material after the
story summaries is drawn from the material on story and laughter, which is
to make the film humorous, if it is a intended to be a humorous film. This may
seem obvious yet this design implication does not always successfully
manifest itself in commercial movies. In fact, this research suggests that
intense novelty in schema slots can make for humour, constrained by realism
within the films storyworld and facilitated by familiar schemas (investigation
two, Chapter Three, above). Further research is needed (see below, section
6.5)

The second design implication from animation is to make the film
engaging by generating interest. This research (investigations one, two and
219
three) suggests that the way to do this is to have familiar schemas with novel
content, in the context of strong emotional prompting. Using less familiar
schemas with common content does not, within the context of the films studied
in this research, seem effective (investigation one, Chapter Two, above).

The third design implication from animation is that if the film maker
chooses a distinctive production method (e.g., claymation) they need to pay
great attention to detail in the production, since a distinctive production method
focuses attentional resources on this method, so it needs to impress viewers if it
is to be successfully integrated into a positive comment about the film. Due to
The Wrong Trousers viewers knowledge of the technique and its
accessibility, since anyone with a video camera or mobile telephone with video
camera can produce simple stop motion animations the technique becomes
part of the publicity for the film, its backstory, with the difference between
professional stop motion and a viewers use of a video camera in the home
offering the opportunity to create a sense of amazement, as expressed by
viewers in this investigation. This design implication suggests that all
production techniques may not therefore be equal.

A fourth design implication, also from animation, is that if the film maker
chooses a distinctive production method the allocation of attentional resources
to this production method may increase the viewers tendency to compare the
current movie with other similar movies, whether produced by the same film
maker or others. Therefore the film maker needs to have metrics or some other
method of reasonable comparison, rather than just opinion or artistic hope, in
considering their film in relation to other similar films (see section 6.5, below).

The final design implication is from chase. The film The Wrong Trousers
shows that it is possible to create a schematic film sequence and yet to make it
stand out for some viewers. This is done by including extreme novelty
(investigation two, Chapter Three, above), making the sequence distinctive
from other similar exemplars seen in other films. So, for instance, the chase in
The Wrong Trousers takes place indoors, on a toy train set, with humorous
220
distortions of time and space, the mechanics of these distortions concealed by
the speed-hide principle (investigation two, Chapter Three, above).

The design implications for positive talk are now summarised. After naming
the design implication, an explanation is given, followed by an indication of
where in this chapter the design implication is mentioned.

Table 5.4 Design implication of positive talk

Design implication

Explanation

Section

Prepare for comparison
by analysing in advance

Make film distinctive
(characters, mode of
production)

Create the film with
strong causality for
good word of mouth

emotional causality for
good word of mouth

Create a humorous film
to be humorous

Make the film
interesting

For schematic fast
action chases, use
extreme novelty

From user summaries, film makers should
analyse their film against other similar films to
ensure that it achieves a quality threshold

From user summaries and non-story summaries,
animation cluster, film makers should analyse
their film against other similar films to ensure
that characters are distinctive, also for mode of
production (if used)

From story summaries, film makers should
analyse their film for strong causality between
aggregate schemas, to ensure memorisability
and good word of mouth

From story summaries and non-story summary
material, film makers should analyse their film
for emotional causality between aggregate
schemas, to ensure memorisability and good
word of mouth

From non-story summary material, story and
laughter clusters, film makers should ensure that
their humorous film is humorous

From non-story summary material, story cluster,
film makers should ensure that their film is
interesting

From non-story summary material, chase
cluster, film makers should use extreme novelty
in their chase sequences to ensure
memorisability

5.3.2

5.3.2; 5.3.4.4

5.3.3

5.3.3; 5.3.4

5.3.4.2; 5.3.4.3

5.3.4.2

5.3.4.5

5.3.4.7 Conclusions and future research

This investigation has indicated that people do seem to have schemas for
221
elements such as story, but that typically in reporting elements in relation to
story, only a top level reference to the schema was given, such as great
story, with no indication of what the slot content (VanLehn, 1989) might be
the very issue that would link this investigation strongly to investigation two
except that enjoyment and engagement are linked (section 5.3.4.2, above) with
laughter probably linked as well (section 5.3.4.2, above). Because of the high
level reporting in the movie reviews it is not possible to examine the building
of the situation model (e.g., Graesser et al., 1994) or how schemas are being
deployed, except that such high levels may comprise parts of Bordwells
evaluative schema (Bordwell, 1985). The material on story summary
(summary proper, section 5.3.3, above) seems strongly structured on causality,
with the key causal elements being internally coherent and externally
distinctive (Abelson, 1981, p. 726), thereby fostering good breakpoints (e.g.,
Zacks et al., 2009; Tversky et al., 2002) structured by causal events (Schwan
and Garsoffky, 2004), with a strong skeleton (Figa and Tarau, 2003).
Investigation one had revealed that participants could summarise the film Ice
Cream Dream but that their talk largely failed to focus on story but focused
rather on trivial on-screen elements and events that were perceived as
problematic. The case study in good structure in The Wrong Trousers
(investigation two, above) suggested that good structure is schematic, offering
an explanation for some of the problems with the Ice Cream Dream content
reported in the first investigation. Investigation two also developed the method
of schematic analysis, identifying the strong structuring by means of aggregate
schemas and re-interpretative schemas in The Wrong Trousers. To balance the
research findings from this highly rated film, the overall neutrally rated Ice
Cream Dream was schematically analysed (investigation three). This analysis
revealed a strong structural contrast to The Wrong Trousers (investigation two),
with Ice Cream Dream being weakly structured with unconnected elements,
this finding supplementing the findings from the first investigation that
revealed the problems that participants had with some of the content of that
film. The fourth investigation of online movie reviews of The Wrong Trousers
(the investigation reported in this chapter) confirmed the power of schematic
analysis in relation to issues of causality (causality being explored in
222
investigations two and three), particularly in relation to summaries.

The main limitation of this investigation is the high level and general
identification of what a good story is or could be, in commercially successful
films. It should prove possible to cross reference the qualitative assessment of
a series of films in online movie reviews with a structural analysis of the same
films, to identify structurally what the slots for good story could be.

This investigation forms the concluding investigation for this research.
Items for future research are therefore covered in the following chapter, along
with items for further research arising from all the research detailed in this
thesis (Chapter Six, following).

223
Chapter 6. Summary and conclusions

6.1 Introduction

The objective of the thesis was to investigate whether schema theory could
have value for developing a research approach to film content and for
developing design implications for film content. In what follows, the thesis is
first summarised (section 6.2, below), as the context for the research
contribution. After that, the thesis contribution in the area of the
methodologies developed in this thesis for film research is discussed (section
6.3). The chapter then discusses the results contribution to film studies and
film design, under the component parts of design implications and insights into
the use of schema theory to study film reports and film content (section 6.4).
Then the higher level contributions of the research and limitations at this level
are discussed, with further research suggested to address these limitations
(section 6.5), followed by a general conclusion (section 6.6).

6.2 Summary of thesis

Chapter One reviewed the issues that informed this research. The first issue
related to research moving into areas such as fun and entertainment, creating
the need for new research insights and design approaches to film based on
rich approaches (e.g., McCarthy and Wright, 2004). Film experiences were
then identified as suitable entertainment experiences to research. The second
issue was the changing context of film, with such drivers as the development of
ubiquitous devices and ubiquitous content, growth in user generated content
such as short films and the convergence of digital entertainment content such
as film delivered wherever and whenever the user wants it, making film more
available in many more formats. These two issues suggested the importance of
finding an integrating framework for researching film experiences. Literature
on philosophical approaches to experiences, cognitive approaches to film (a
minority position in film studies) and narratological approaches (including
Aristotles influential work) were then reviewed, identifying patterns as
224
important organising elements, with schema theory having influence. Schema
theory (e.g., Bartlett, 1932; Bordwell, 1985), with its roots in cognitive
psychology and flexible architecture, offered the opportunity to integrate rich
descriptions of film experiences with psychologically based understandings of
viewers reports of film experiences and film content, an opportunity as yet
unrealised by existing schema based accounts (e.g., Bordwell, 1985). It also
offered the potential to identify design implications for film creators. Despite
this rich potential, there has been little empirical work in applying schema
theory to issues of film research and film design. The research reported in this
thesis addresses this lack by using schema theory to investigate viewers
reports and film structure, for two short films.

Chapter Two (investigation one) presented an investigation of ten viewers
reports on the short film, Ice Cream Dream (a film that viewers rated overall as
neutral for enjoyment). The analysis was driven by the viewers talk data, with
iterative bottom up analysis of viewers talk into categories being interactively
structured by categories based on schema theory. The process revealed that
schema theory can be powerful in understanding viewers talk on film
experiences. The content of the viewers reports suggested that they were
accessing schematic elements of the film, building an ongoing understanding of
the film as it unfolded and that they were using a schema of a summary for
summarising the film (e.g., Graesser et al., 2002; Graesser et al., 1994; Bartlett
1932; Bordwell, 1985). Some sequences of the film were described as
particularly schematic, such as dreams (revealing how the reported experience
can spread beyond the start and end of a sequence in the media, McCarthy and
Wright, 2004). The investigation also revealed the importance of usability
issues, with unclear on-screen elements, for example, reported as disrupting the
experience of the film. This investigation also identified a number of film
design implications. These were focused on the need for clarity to avoid
cognitive disruption, the fact that viewers invested all content with meaning,
the value of choosing prototypical instantiations of schemas with interesting
slot content and the possibility of prompting deeper experiences by presenting
a weaker version of a later stronger experiential prompt (i.e., a piece of film
225
content that prompts experiences). The need for film content designers to be
more reflexive and aware of the viewer and also to be aware of research based
approaches that might contribute to film design was highlighted as a
consequence of these findings. This investigation also indicated the need for a
second investigation to research film structure and consider story and other
film elements not mentioned by viewers in this first investigation. It was
therefore decided to investigate the structure of a highly rated short film, as
opposed to the neutrally rated film used in this first investigation, with the
expectation that this second film would act as a case study in effective film
structure.

Chapter Three (investigation two) detailed a structural analysis of the
Oscar
TM
winning short film The Wrong Trousers. This investigation developed
a new and systematic analytic approach to film analysis focused on schemas,
involving a factual logging of the film content and an identification of schemas
in the film from this logging. The analysis was driven by the films content,
with iterative bottom up analysis of the films content being interactively
structured by categories drawing on schema theory. This process revealed the
power of schema theory in understanding film structure for a highly rated film
and for identifying design implications. Two new categories of schema
emerged from this investigation as important due to their structuring effects on
the film: these were named in this research, aggregate schemas (which may
be more flexible structures than scripts, Abelson, 1981) and re-interpretative
schemas. The Wrong Trousers was typified by common aggregate schemas
with high novelty slot content, with important questions about the fate of
characters set up in the first act and then answered in the last act. The middle
act included major reinterpretations of earlier aggregate schemas. Each schema
was internally coherent and externally distinctive (Abelson, 1981. p. 726),
with clear causal structure and therefore wholeness (e.g., Aristotle in
Bywater, 1920/1929; see also Schwan and Garsoffky, 2004). All the schemas
in the film were strongly causally linked together. Twenty-nine detailed design
implications were identified from this investigation, focused on within and
between schema levels. This structural analysis of a successful film in the
226
context of the development of a method of schematically analysing film
content suggested that a similar analysis of Ice Cream Dream as a third
investigation might reveal why that film was neutrally rated, by identifying
problems with its construction. The viewers talk from investigation one
focused largely on problematic yet, in story terms, trivial issues to do with lack
of clarity about on screen elements, objects and meanings. Since this
investigation was focused on a highly rated film with a strongly interconnected
structure (e.g., Figa and Tarau, 2003) focused on schemas, schematic analysis
of Ice Cream Dream was undertaken, to see if structural issues in that film
reflected some of the problems that participants in investigation one reported.

Chapter Four (investigation three) therefore presented a structural analysis of
the short film Ice Cream Dream. The film structure was analysed using the
method of systematic schematic structural analysis developed in the previous
investigation (Chapter Three), linking with the issues identified in the first
investigation (Chapter Two). The analysis was again driven by the films
content, with iterative bottom up analysis of the films structure being
interactively structured by categories based on schema theory. As before, the
process revealed the power of schema theory in understanding film structure,
this time for a film which was neutrally rated. The analysis revealed structural
problems with the film, which linked to issues identified by participants in
investigation one. The film was typified by poorly integrated aggregate
schemas. The film also contained elements which were not aggregate schemas,
which were not causally linked to the developing film story and which may
have interfering with the building of a situation model (contra Graesser et al.,
2002; Graesser et al., 1994; Bordwell, 1985). Additionally, the aggregate
schemas were somewhat uncommon in their instantiations, yet used non-novel
slot content. This suggested two potential problems for viewers: firstly, a
difficulty in immediately identifying the schema currently in play and then,
secondly, a deficit of enjoyment due to the non-novel slot content. The
investigation identified nineteen detailed design implications, focused on
within and between schema levels. The use of schemas with strong causality,
choice of best instantiation for schemas and the linkage of these schemas to the
227
universal story structure were identified as areas of particular failings in Ice
Cream Dream. The remedy for each of these failings was listed, to illustrate
effective film structure. This investigation suggested that a naturalistic
viewers talk investigation of The Wrong Trousers as a fourth investigation
would supply valuable insights by revealing elements of salience for viewers,
unmediated by possible influence from questions from an investigator.

Chapter Five (investigation four) detailed an analysis of 65 movie reviews of
The Wrong Trousers hosted on an influential internet movie review site, a
source of peoples talk already used, for example, to study word of mouth
phenomenon (Brown, Broderick and Lee, 2007) and rhetorical moves and
genre in 25 newsgroup movie reviews (Charoenchasri, undated). The method
of analysis, as with the first investigation of viewers talk (Chapter Two,
above) was systematic and driven by the data. Iterative bottom up analysis of
viewers talk into categories was interactively structured by categories based
on schema theory, as well as the structuring that was discernable in the movie
reviews themselves. In this new dataset of viewers talk, schema theory was
again powerful in understanding viewers talk on film experiences, with these
viewers commenting positively on story and some of the major elements such
as the chase. This was in contrast to viewers in investigation one who tended
to comment on problematic elements in the film rather than story.
Additionally, viewers talk in this investigation was readily linkable to the
findings from investigation two, with the identification of aggregate schemas
and re-interpretative schemas from investigation two facilitating the logging of
causal elements in story structures in investigation four. Investigation four
revealed that reviewers (viewers) in their user summaries (titles to the reviews)
praised the film on its characters and on the specific mode of animation
(claymation). It also revealed that viewers engaged in a process of comparing
the film with other similar films, which may represent an underlying
comparison of story schemas for good story compared to actual film content
across a range of films. Analysis revealed that story summaries were causally
structured around particularly salient aggregate schemas. Non-summary
material was analysed for positive talk, which coalesced around talk about the
228
films story, laughter (as a personal experience), the animation and the chase in
the film. This investigation suggested nine film design implications, including
that film creators understand the comparison judgment principles that viewers
use. This process of comparison in turn indicates the value of a research based
method of film analysis and design as developed in this research, for assessing
comparable films and creating new ones. The investigation also identified that
claymation creates positive talk, that aggregate schemas should be strongly
causally linked for effective summaries (and, by implication, effective word of
mouth reports to friends) and that aggregate schemas should not be neutral in
their effects on characters but should rather have strongly positive or negative
impacts.

6.3 Methodological Contribution

This thesis has contributed in the area of methodology in three ways. The
first contribution concerns the examination of cognitive phenomenon in
viewers reports of film experiences, by means of prompted recollection in
semi-structured interviews (section 6.3.1, below). The second contribution
concerns the development of a new method of analysing film structure
schematically (6.3.2, below). The third contribution concerns the use of online
movie reviews to gain cognitive insights into viewers reports of film
experiences (6.3.3, below), as opposed to existing studies such as linguistic
phenomenon (Charoenchasri, undated).

6.3.1 Semi-structured interviewing, with recollection prompted by content

Interviewing prompted by content was used in investigation one (Chapter
Two, above). This approach is novel because, as indicated above (Chapter
One, above), there has been little work investigating the psychology of film
experiences at a mid-level of granularity higher than perception or film editing.
If implemented with care to avoid plausible reconstructions, content prompted
interviews offer the possibility of accessing meaningful viewers talk about a
film, temporally close to the initial viewing of the film. A particular advantage
229
is the opportunity to talk to viewers in detail about their experiences of the
film, on a scene by scene or shot by shot basis. This represents a bottom-up
approach to data, with factual coding leading to categories interactively in
consideration with a range of schemas. The method is also portable and not
technically demanding, making it suitable for a range of stakeholders interested
in researching or designing film content. A possible disadvantage with all
after the event methods of investigation is that some doubt must remain as to
the linkage of the reports to the real time experiences during the watching of
the film. This method was productive in its use of schema theory to gain
insights into viewers talk. Viewers talk retains its value in research on film,
since such research is focused on this talk and not on film experiences claimed
by people as such; also, a viewer may talk about films to his or her friends and
may therefore make plausible reconstructions in their account (see
investigation four, Chapter Five, above).

6.3.2 New method of analysing film structure schematically

From investigations two and three (Chapter Three and Five), this thesis has
developed and detailed a new method of systematic schematic analysis. Given
that current approaches to film content are focused largely on descriptive or
politicised approaches, schematic analysis offers the potential to produce
descriptions that are cognitively well founded, with clear film design
implications and a productive research programme. Again, this method is
driven by the data, with a thorough bottom up analysis at the shot level of film
content being iteratively structured into clusters based on schema theory at
higher levels of granularity. The method again indicated the power of schema
theory, this time in the context of understanding film structure. A challenge in
using this method of analysis is the time consuming nature of the logging of the
films content, with the requirement for shot accurate logging for the entire
film. Since aggregate schemas are high level organising schemas if further
schematic analysis of other films confirms the importance of these schemas it
may prove possible to develop a cut-down version of the analytic approach.
This would involve the analyst identifying the aggregate schemas in play
230
throughout the film (which does not require total shot logging), with shot
content logged only at the points of transition between schemas, to ensure the
correct identification of the start and end of the schema in play. Formal
analytic protocols covering a range of types of film (and potentially other
entertainment content) beyond the family films used in this research could then
be developed, resulting in a Schematic Structures Analysis Method (SSAM,
see section 6.5, below). Researchers could use this method as a cognitively
based and agreed approach to film research, which could result in studies of
films of interest both to academics and commercial film makers. Film makers,
including scriptwriters and directors, could use the method to study films
similar to the film they are creating, to provide objective comparative data in
advance of production, rather than using focus groups and re-shooting scenes
after production is completed (as is currently the case). An advantage of
schematic analysis as detailed in this thesis is that it requires little in the way of
specialist skills, apart from the learned ability to log content as it appears on a
shot by shot basis when needed, rather than erroneously anticipating content
which completes the schema before that content has been presented. Such a
method should have potential to develop viable research programmes and to
result in insightful and well founded design implications.

6.3.3 Use of online movie reviews

The final viewers talk investigation (investigation four, Chapter Four) used
online movie reviews as a naturalistic alternative to face to face investigations
where the investigator was present and asking questions by means of
prompting content. Use of online reviews, as identifying material for analysis
of cognitive features focused on schemas (as opposed to other purposes, see
above, section 6.2), is novel. Again, this method is driven by the data, with a
thorough bottom up analysis of viewers talk being iteratively structured into
clusters based on schema theory. The method indicated the power of schema
theory in understanding viewers talk, in the different context to the first
investigation, of online movie reviews. The investigation formed a
comprehensive analysis of a corpora of 65 reviews on one film, The Wrong
231
Trousers. Reviews of other similar films, especially work by the same director,
can deepen and extend these findings (as can research on other types of films),
offering the opportunity for reaching theoretical saturation on issues of saliency
as reported by online reviewers. The method also offers the potential to take
particular questions such as what constitutes an effective story twist in a
film? and investigate large datasets of viewers reports on this issue. This
would lead to cognitively well founded and theoretically saturated explanations
and design implications related to such questions.

6.4 Results contribution

The cognitive analysis of film based on schema theory as detailed in this
thesis has been shown to produce a number of outputs. The first output has
been a well founded and detailed series of design implications which give
insight into the use of schemas. These design implications are now
summarised (see 6.4.1, below). Following that (section 6.4.2, below), insights
into the use of schemas for film from this research are summarised.

6.4.1 Film design implications for a schema based approach

The design implications for a schema based design approach to film content
fall into four categories. The first category relates to the professional design
practice of film makers (section 6.4.1.1, below). Then design implications at
the level of the whole film are considered (section 6.4.1.2), followed by design
implications at the between schemas level (section 6.4.1.3, below). Finally,
design implications at the within schema level (section 6.4.1.4, below) are
considered.

6.4.1.1 Design practice of film content creators

The first set of design implications identified in this thesis can be grouped as
focusing on film makers and their attitudes to their professional film design
practice. These implications represent a challenge to the prevailing film ethos
232
of individual vision and self expression, often focused on one powerful film
director or producer (apart from that, film is necessarily a team effort). There
is no reason why a research based approach should constrain individual vision
and self expression, rather vision and self expression will be better founded by
being based on research based understandings of how viewers respond to films
and how films may be effectively structured. These are summarised below
(Table 6.1).

Table 6.1 Film designer attitudes

Design implication

Comment

Film content designers
to be more reflexive
and aware of users

Film content designers
to be more aware of
contributing research

Prepare for comparison
by analysing in advance

This is the first general attitude that film designers should
manifest, from Chapter Two. It offers the opportunity to integrate
the self expression and individual vision of film makers with an
awareness of viewers responses

This is the second general attitude that film designers should
manifest, from Chapter Two. It offers the opportunity for film
makers to develop a more empirically grounded view of viewers

This is the third general attitude that film designers should
manifest, from Chapter Five. It integrates the above two items,
suggesting the use of a method of analysis that integrates viewers
responses and extant research

6.4.1.2 Design implications whole film

The second set of design implications identified is this thesis can be grouped
as focusing on the whole film i.e., at a high level of granularity. These are
shown below (Table 6.2).

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Table 6.2 Whole film design implications

Design implication

Explanation

Make film distinctive
(characters, mode of
production)

strong causality

emotional impact

Create a humorous film
to be humorous

Make the film
interesting

Film makers will benefit by making their films distinctive as to
characters and modes of production, from Chapter Five. This
implies a clinical consideration of these issues at the start of the
movie making process, saving money early on and starting down
the road to a successful film

Commercial film making involves creative teamwork, often late
on, with viewer screen tests and reshooting and reediting as
needed. Creating the film from the outset with strong causality,
from Chapter Five, with all elements causally linked, from
Chapter Four, will not only provide a readily accessible cognitive
experience but may materially increase the resultant word of
mouth of impact on other people

Chapter Five suggests that causality alone is not enough.
Causality should impinge strongly on the characters in the film,
thereby prompting strong emotions, for example, jeopardy.
Ensuring this may increase processing and enjoyment, resulting in
better word of mouth. A method such as SADM could identify
protocols to improve the likelihood of success.

Chapter Five argues for the value of an empirically based
approach to film content, such as the development of metrics to
accurately measure the humour in a film. A method such as
SADM could identify protocols to improve the likelihood of
success.

Chapter Five argues for the value of an empirically based
approach to film content, such as the development of metrics to
accurately measure elements that foster interest. Item one, above,
is likely to foster interest. A method such as SADM could identify
protocols to improve the likelihood of success.

The first three design implications relate to making the film distinctive at the
design stage, designing the film with strong causality and designing for strong
emotional impact on characters in the film. The last two design implications
may appear trivial. Yet the relative rarity of genuinely humorous and
interesting films suggest that an empirically and theoretically grounded account
of viewers talk about their film experiences and about film structure would
have a beneficial effect on the production of higher quality films. The method
of analysis reported in this thesis would provide a cognitively based framework
to increase the possibility of making more humorous and interesting films.

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6.4.1.3 Design implications between schemas

The third set of design implications identified in this thesis can be grouped
as focused on issues at the between schema level. Schemas can be falsely
resolved during the film, with the ending subverted. Schemas can be used to
reinforce each other, with verbal or visual prompting facilitating later
comprehension. Holding back reinterpretations (including stepwise reveals of
schemas) can add interest, as can using existing elements in new ways,
particularly at key points in the film story. If significant elements are reused,
they should be reused exactly. Schemas slots can be chosen for their visual
interest, with resolutions to questions using temporally and geographically near
elements in the film world, which results in narrative smoothness. These
design implications are now outlined below (Table 6.3).

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Table 6.3 Between schema level detailed design implications

Design implication

Explanation

False resolution of schema,
minor subversion of end

Schema reinforcement
(parallel, embedded or
binding)

Verbal/visual repetition
prompting

Retardation and stepwise
reveal in re-interpretative
schemas

Repetition novelty pivoting

Downstream slot visuality/
nearness for narrative
smoothness

Intensification by signifying
element, precise match
repeated slot content

Fit actions and motivations,
ensure goals clear, have
strong problem solving

From Chapter Three, have a false resolution part way into
the film viewers will schematically know it is false and
this adds interest, the ending can also have a minor
subversion for interest

From Chapter Three and Five, schemas can reinforce
each other, whether same or related, embedding a purely
cognitive schema within an emotional schema or binding
different schemas together increases the impact

From Chapter Three and Five, verbal or visual repetition
can facilitate understanding later instances, including
partial instances at the end of the film

From Chapter Three, holding back or stepwise reveal of
these schemas fosters the interest of the viewer and the
hypothesizing of the viewer

From Chapter Three, familiar elements can be used in a
new way to make pivotal points immediately accessible
and interesting

From Chapter Three, choose the slots in a set-up schema
for their visual power, using familiar and proximal
elements in the resolution, resulting in narrative
smoothness, links also to Chapter Two

From Chapter Three and Five, establish an element as
symbolising a key relationship, then re-use the element
precisely to subvert this relationship

From Chapter Four, ensure that characters actions fit
their motivations and that their goals are clear at the
point where they need to be clear, also ensure that the
protagonists have to strongly exert themselves in the last
act to solve the problem, this adds emotional power

6.4.1.4 Design implications within schemas

The fourth set of film design implications identified in this thesis can be
grouped as focused on issues at the within schema level. Slot content can be
used to introduce additional story material or hint as something to be revealed
later. Slot prototypicality helps comprehension, with strongly negative or
positive instances adding emotional impact, or humour though such content
must be realistic within the films story world. Fast moving elements can be
236
used to hide slot omissions and weakly typed schemas (i.e., not strongly
defined) are suitable for montage sequences. Using best in class schemas
provides comprehension gains, potentially freeing cognitive resources to enjoy
slot content, with the first and last schemas in a film offering particular
opportunities: the first schema should be strongly prompted and match the
music, the last can be partially prompted. Any pointing by the film maker
(where the film maker uses a shot, normally a close up, to force the viewer to
look at an onscreen element) needs to be clear the viewer may interpret any
close up, especially when accompanied by unusual sonic events, as pointing.
These design implications are now summarised below (Table 6.4).

237

Design implication

Explanation

Slot context exposition,
signaling

Slot prototypicality,
polarity, novelty, realism,
counter expectations,
emotional freeing

Speed-hide

Montage slots for weakly
typed schemas

Use best in class schema
(interest)

First and last schemas,
strongly prompt the first
schema, consider link
opening music to first
schema, can use reduced
slots for final schema

Pointing to be
intentional/explicit

Chapter Three suggested that context around a slot could be
used to introduce additional story material unrelated to that
schema, slots can also be used to signal at something to be
revealed later

Chapter Three and Five suggested that using prototypical slots
increases impact by freeing cognitive resources to focus on
emotional aspects and can add clarity, Chapter Two; strongly
positive or negative slot instantiations add emotional impact,
counter expectations and exaggerated slots adds humour, but
must be realistic within the context of the films story world

Chapter Three suggested using fast moving visual elements to
hide slot omissions

Chapter Three suggests that weakly typed schemas are
particularly suitable for montage sequences in the slots,
perhaps because a montage increases interest in content that
may be intrinsically less interesting

At each point in the film, use the best in class i.e., most typical
schema for rapid orientation of the viewer to the schema in play

Chapter Two and Five suggested design implications in
relation to priority schemas (first and last in film). First
schema should be strongly prompted and may profitably be
appropriately linked to the opening music. The final schema
can be prompted by using reduced slots

From Chapter Four, positively if the film maker wishes to point
to something using a close up, for example, this needs to be
clear. Negatively, a close up or a distinctive sound effect may
always be considered pointing ensure that this matches the
design intent

6.4.2 Schema theory and film

This thesis has engaged with film experiences at the level of viewers talk
and extant film content. A major contribution of the thesis has been to identify
two types of structuring schema aggregate schemas and re-interpretive
schemas. The thesis has also made a contribution in linking causality, novelty
and emotional impact to these schemas in particular and other schemas in film
content more generally. This work should be foundational for a schema based
approach to film.
238
6.5 Higher level contributions, limitations and further research

There are a number of higher level research contributions in the thesis.
These also have potential limitations attached, which leads to the identification
of issues for further research.

The first higher level contribution is to film studies generally. This research
has demonstrated that a cognitive approach to film based on schema theory has
value, with the research acting as a form of proof of concept. The principle
limitation in relation to this is that only two films for children were examined.
It may prove that well structured films are primarily films for children. This
limitation results in the first issue for further research, the need for research on
more films. This issue has a two fold thrust: more research on films for
children and more research on live action films (non claymation and non
computer animated films for older audiences) to see whether the tight
structuring of The Wrong Trousers around aggregate schemas is replicated in
such films, or whether looser structuring around aggregate schemas is still in
evidence at all.

The second higher level contribution in this research is the identification of a
series of design implications rooted in schema theory, film content and
viewers reports. The limitation here is that the design implications are very
detailed and may therefore prove unwieldy in actual use. Further research is
therefore needed to develop the design implications described in this thesis and
formalise them for film makers into a manageable and verifiable core (the
further research on a range of films already suggested immediately above will
prove beneficial to this enterprise).

The third higher level contribution has been the development of the use of
schema theory to analyse films, which has implications for film researchers and
film designers. The limitation here is that currently the method is time
intensive. The method could potentially be made considerably more tractable
by working at points in the film where new schemas start and old schemas end
239
(see section 3.3.2, above), though work with larger aggregates of participants
needs to be undertaken to identify when a series of action schemas can be
identified as or as standing for an aggregate schema. Once the method is
made more tractable, a much more focused approach could be developed. The
approach could then potentially be formalised for use by film researchers and
film content designers as a Schematic Analysis Design Method (SADM), with
humour folded in to the metrics for SADM, which would also have relevance
for the first two issues mentioned directly above in this section.

The final limitation is the lack of real time measures of the experiences of
the individual viewer. If the above suggested research is done, it may prove
possible to develop a descriptive modelling language as a first step in modeling
actual film experiences and story. Alternatively, new technical methods may
be developed by other researchers that have applicability and suitability for the
tasks outlined in this thesis and also for the target audience for this research.

6.6 General conclusions

This thesis has developed and presented a schema based approach to film.
The thesis has reported four investigations of film, focused on viewers talk
and schematic structure in two short films. The thesis has laid the foundations
for a schema based approach to film, with new methods of investigating film
content, particularly viewers reports on online movie reviews and schematic
analysis of film content. In addition, a detailed series of design implications
from the research have been delineated in the thesis. Three limitations and a
research programme to address these have been suggested.

This thesis has revealed that schema theory has power in integrating
viewers reports on film content and in finding hidden structure in two short
films, in a cognitive based account. The thesis has also delineated the
foundation for a schema based design approach to film. Further research will
potentially build on the work detailed in this thesis, producing a deeper and
more saturated engagement with the richness of the felt life (McCarthy and
240
Wright, 2004) of film content: whether in viewers talk, structure or in real
time study of immediate measures of the film experience itself.

241
Appendix One: Interview Schedule (Investigation One)

Note that this was a working document and is presented as is. Information
on media usage was gathered but not analysed, since such information was not
relevant to this research.
242
INVESTIGATION ONE: QUESTIONS

UNIQUE REFERENCE NUMBER_______

Consent Form

Name:...............................Date:
...............

Address:.............................................
......
.....................................................
......
.....................................................
......
.....................................................
......

Declaration:
I have been informed about the aims and procedures
involved in the experiment. I understand that I will
be watching a short film and interviewed about my
reactions to it afterwards, as well being interviewed
about my general film viewing and other media use
habits. I understand that I will be recorded on
audio cassette.

I reserve the right to withdraw at any stage in the
proceedings, and information that I provide as part
of the study will be destroyed or my identity removed
unless I agree otherwise.

Signed:...........................................

243
UNIQUE REFERENE NUMBER_______ AFTER THE VIEWING

Their summary of short film

ITC-SOPI (Part A)

PART A
Please indicate HOW MUCH YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE with each of
the following statements by circling just ONE of the numbers using the 5-
point scale below.

(Strongly Disagree) (Disagree) (Neither agree nor disagree) (agree) (strongly
agree)
1 2 3 4 5

AFTER MY EXPERIENCE OF THE DISPLAYED
ENVIRONMENT

1. I felt sad that my experience was over .......................................................1 2
3 4 5
2. I felt disorientated.......................................................................................1 2
3 4 5
3. I had a sense that I had returned from a journey.........................................1 2
3 4 5
4. I would have liked the experience to continue ...........................................1
2 3 4 5
5. I vividly remember some parts of the experience.......................................1 2
3 4 5
6. Id recommend the experience (of this film) to my friends. ......................1 2
3 4 5

How much did you enjoy the film?
What did you like about the film?
What did you dislike about the film?
How much did you like the little girl?
244
How much did you like the father?
How much did you like the other characters, and which ?

ICE CREAM DREAMS
Segmentation and their
comments to each scene and
elements in each scene

SEGMENT ONE

Music
Traffic and cars in side window
Approaching selling site- seen
through window
Father in rear view mirror (name
of actor over)
Father looks round, asks Luna if
she is alright
Luna nods and smiles (name of
actor over), she looks out of the
window
Fathers back- now we see the ice
cream cones (the theme song
starts- team)
Luna- looking slightly unhappy
Father turns with big grin
Luna gives a restrained response
(looking at him)

SEGMENT TWO

Cut to children running in middle
distance
Van draws up along green (title)
Children running towards camera
Children run past to van
Children crowd up to van and ask
Van- the children gather
The children crowd Luna
Luna looks worried
The crowd of children

245
Dad rescues Luna
The children stand back , Dad and
Luna in foreground (Dad sorts the
orders verbally)
Luna follows instructions
Dad uses the ice-cream machine

SEGMENT THREE

The hand of a child, voice saying,
look theres Harry. Luna looks
round
The children greet Harry, who sails
along on his scooter
Luna sits at the wheel of the van,
looking at Harry
Harry looks briefly at Luna
Harry goes past back of van, their
eyes briefly meet and then hes
gone
Harry disappears round the back of
the van
Dad looks round and notices
Luna looks out of the window
Dad offers Luna a chance to
stretch her legs
Luna watches Harry disappear in
the wing mirror

SEGMENT FOUR

The camera comes down from the
wing mirror, there is a flash of
white, sinister music
starts, altar ego Luna at
window looking in at Luna
Luna looks nervous
Altar ego stares
Luna turns round (to father)
Luna shakes her head, no to
fathers question, then she looks
away
Father looks at her concerned

SEGMENT FIVE

The ice cream pulls up outside the
246
house
Mother is frying on wok, daughter
and father come in. Mother asks
Luna whether she
met any children, Luna
says she saw lots. How many ice-
creams sold? 300. You
should put that in the bank.

SEGMENT SIX

Luna gets funny thought and
smiles, the background behind her
changes to the sign for
the bank manager, Luna
fades away
The bank manager sign firms up,
quirky music starts, the camera
raises to his face, with
him raising a quizzical
eyebrow. Edges of the picture are
blurry.
Father grins
Father pushes a tray with slabs of
ice-cream on it over, cut on action
Father completes the pushing of
the tray over to the bank manager
The bank manager reacts
The bank manager takes flowers
off a square object, passes them to
father, then takes
the cloth off, to reveal a
safe
Close up of safe opening
Two shot- banker and father,
kneeling by open safe. Bank
manager loads ice-cream in.
Close up of door closing and
locked. They shake hands. End of
daydream

SEGMENT SEVEN

The family are gathered together,
father is counting the money,
mother doing the books
Close up of Dads hand counting
247
money
Family- father says we need more
days like this.
Daughter looks up worried
Family- mother says, well be fine.
Mother tells Luna to get ready for
bed.
Luna looks up a little unhappy

SEGMENT EIGHT

Daughter in bed, staring, with the
lights out. Peaceful guitar music
Door opens, father comes in
Two shot, father sits on the side of
the bed
Close up (CU) of Luna. Father
asks if shes alright. She nods.
Close up of father- you alright,
what do you want to do tomorrow?
Close up of Luna- can I come with
you tomorrow?
Close up of father- yes, but I can
manage on my own
CU of Luna- but can I come
CU father- dont you want to play
with the other kids?
CU Luna says nothing
CU father- it cant be very exciting
in the van
CU Luna- I like it, you need me to
look after the money
CU father encourages Luna to
make more friends
CU Luna listening- if I had a
scooter would they want to play
with me, father responds
out of frame
CU father- just be yourself
CU Luna taking it in
CU Father smiling, shall I wake
you tomorrow
CU Luna serious, father out of
frame- smile! She does
CU Father smiles
248
CU Lunas reaction
CU Father gets up (cut on action)
CU Luna watches him go
Cut on action- two shot as he
leaves and closes the door
Mid shot as the light across Luna
disappears- full guitar chords. She
puts her head down.

SEGMENT NINE

Transition to dream, cranky music
Harry coming towards Luna
Luna closes van door, swivels
round to watch him pass
Harry scoots off
Luna starts to follow
Altar ego appears, sinister music,
tries to put her off
Luna responds, because hes just
like me
Alta egos parting shot- youll
have nothing to say and hell laugh
at you
Luna turns to go then pauses
Altar ego watches
Luna turns and goes back

SEGMENT TEN

A blurred blue indicates a shift in
the dream, CU of Luna asleep,
music changes
Montage- tickets fluttering, falling
out of the sky onto the ground
A girl picks up one of the pieces of
paper
CU of card- re Lunas ice-cream
delivery at 3:30
VO from newscaster (Martin
Collins)
Dissolve to newscaster reading the
249
news- Lunas ice-cream has been
voted number one.
End of bulletin.
Schoolyard, cheering, bell,
children running into frame
Children running away from the
camera at an angle, towards the
van
Children running up to the van,
seen from inside

SEGEMENT ELEVEN

Fanfare- the children part to focus
on the window of the van from
outside, track-in to low shot of
Luna
Shot from in van, over Lunas
shoulder of children. They burst
into their orders.
Luna repeats fathers instructions.
Over shoulder from Luna, fathers
instructions completed
Luna takes the first order
Over shoulder- first order given-
Luna moves to get it, film speeded
up, twinkly piano music starts.
Lots of grasping hands reach out.
Lots of grasping hands reach out.
Luna dishes out ice-creams
Luna and the clamouring children
Luna gives out the ice-creams
Crazy music

250

SEGMENT TWELVE

Head and shoulders of kids as
nasty boy marches in, slams his fist
on counter, music
stops, he orders
Luna almost over the shoulder
shot- takes his order
Luna fulfils order, twinkly music
CU ice cream cone being filled
Luna mid shot moving to ice-
cream sauce
CU of sauce
Luna considers
Luna selects chilli
Luna smiles
CU Luna putting lot of chilli sauce
on the ice cream
Mid shot of Luna moving towards
the window
CU of boy getting ice-cream, he
turns away and starts to lick
CU Luna chuckles
Boy licks- ugh!
CU Luna laughs, voices over of
rest of children laughing
Nasty boy departs
Luna waist shot- cheers voice over.
Luna chant
Luna over shoulder- children in
shot chanting Luna
Long shot elevated of van and
chanting children, sound goes to
echo indicating end of dream

251

SEGMENT THIRTEEN

Back in Lunas bedroom, her
father opens the curtains and
wakes her up
Luna- fathers voice over- ready in
an hour?
Luna nods

CONTINUED OVERLEAF

Luna and father go towards van
and Luna climbs in
Harry approaches. Theme tune
starts again.
Harry goes past the window
CU Luna watches, smiles, inside
van
Harry heads off, Luna voice over
to father, Dad
Head and shoulders of Luna- asks
if it is OK if she does not go out
with him today
Two shot, father turns around
puzzled
Father- no problem, he gives her
advice, she gets up and climbs out
of the van, handing over the money
box
Van door opens- Luna climbs out

SEGMENT FOURTEEN

Luna moves towards Harry
Flash of white light, sinister music,
altar ego watching
Luna walks past her
Alta ego watches, realises that she
has lost

252

SEGMENT FIFTEEN

Flash of white light- two shot,
Harrys face turned away. Luna
introduces herself, asks if she can
have a go on his scooter
Two shot including Harrys face-
yes. She takes the scooter.
Wistful music starts.
Two shot- Harry asks if she would
like to meet his friends, Luna nods
and goes out of
frame
Luna comes into frame on scooter,
camera picks up Harry ahead of
her, they join the
friends
SEGMENT SIXTEEN

Mid shot- father watches with a
smile, looks round
CU of money box
CU of Luna playing happily,
talking
Mid shot of Dad watching, he
blinks a couple of times then starts
the engine and the witful music
stops

Van pulls out
Van drives past the playing
children (including Luna), plays
the ice cream music and
drives out of frame. The
ice-cream chimes fade.

SEGMENT SEVENTEEN

Titles and theme tune
Acknowledgements

ITC-SOPI General Questions
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Age: .See below............. ___________years Sex:............. Male Female
Occupation:.... Nationality: .
253

Rate your level of computer experience Rate how often you play computer
(tick one): games (tick one):

None............................................................... Never
........................................................
Basic .............................................................. Occasionally (once or twice/month)
........
Intermediate ................................................... Often but less than 50% of
days...............
Expert............................................................. 50% or more of days
................................
Every
day..................................................

Rate your average weekly TV viewing (tick one): Education (tick highest qualification
achieved):

0-8 hours ........................................................ None .....................................
...................
9-16 hours ...................................................... CSE/O-level/GCSEs (or
equivalent)........
17-24 hours .................................................... A-level (or equivalent)
.............................
25-32 hours .................................................... City & Guilds
...........................................
33-40 hours ....................................................
Diploma....................................................
41 hours or more............................................ Degree
......................................................
Professional
qualification.........................

What is the TV size you watch the most? How would you rate your level of
TV/film
(tick one): production knowledge? (tick one):
Small/portable (14 or less) .......................... None
.........................................................
Medium (15-28) ..........................................
Basic.........................................................
Large (more than 28)...................................
Intermediate..............................................
Expert
.......................................................

Film and media usage general questions

1 Thinking back to the last three feature films you watched- what were
they, where did you watch them?
1a
1b
254
1b

2 Did you enjoy each film and why?
2a
2b
2c

3 Do you have an all time favourite film? What is it and why do you
enjoy it

4 Where did you find out about the showing of the film you last saw at
the cinema?

5 How do you normally find out about feature films you go and see?

6 Are you a member of any video/DVD shop or mailing scheme and
which one?

7 When you watch a DVD do you usually, occasionally, seldom or never
access the additional features such as the making of feature?
UOSN

8 When you watch a DVD do you usually, occasionally, seldom or never
have the commentary running over the film as you watch it?
UOSN

9 Do you regularly access a specific TV programme, radio programme
website or other sources to find out about feature films due to be
released?

10 Do you regularly read a film magazine(s) and if so which one(s)
Y / N

11 Do you think you particularly notice posters on bus stops and
hoardings for feature films?
Y / N

12 How often do you watch short films of around ten minutes or less on
TV, video or DVD?

13 How often do you access websites with short films on them- often,
seldom, never? O S N

14 What are the last three short films that you watched that you enjoyed?
14a
14b
14c

15 hy did you enjoy them?
255
16a
16b
16c

Own TV/Video/DVD

17 Do you have your own TV where you live (or shared)?
Y/N

18 Do you have your own video machine where you live (or shared)?
Y/N
19 Do you have your own DVD player where you live (or shared)?
Y/N
20 What are your three favourite TV programmes?
20a
20b
20c

21 Do you have digital TV, digital top-box, cable TV, satellite or
interactive TV where you live (which)?
Y/N

Games (console, PC)

22 Do you have a games console (or shared) and what type is it?
Y/N

23 What games do you play regularly on the console?

24 How long each week would you say you play?

25 Do you own your own PC (or shared)?
Y/N

26 Do you own your own laptop or tablet PC (or shared)?
Y/N

27 Do you play any PC computer games (excluding internet games)
regularly and what titles?
Y/N

28 How long on average per week do you play and how does the
experience compare with watching a feature film?

Internet

29 Do you have a fast connection to the internet where you live?
Y/N

256
30 How many hours per week do you spend using the internet for leisure
purposes excluding internet games?

31 Do you visit any particular websites regularly and which ones?
Y/N

32 Do you listen to any streaming audio over the internet during the week
and which services?
Y/N

33 How long do you listen to streaming audio in an average week?

34 Do you play any internet games regularly and which games are they?
Y/N

35 How do the games compare with the experience of watching feature
films?

Music
36 What are your favourite music performers that you listen to regularly?

37 Do you own a MP3 music player and how many hours per week on
average do you spend listening to it?
Y/N Hours

40 Do you own your own CD player and how many hours do you spend
listening to music on it (integrated, stand-alone or portable)?

41 Do you own a cassette player and how many hours a week do you
spend listening
to cassettes?
Mobile telephone

42 Roughly how many minutes do you spend on your mobile having
conversations in an average week?

43 Roughly how many texts do you send in an average week?

44 Does your mobile telephone have a camera or video in it?
Y/N and which

45 How many pictures would you take with your mobiles camera in an
average week? Videos?

46 Have you downloaded any ringtones for your mobile?
Y/N

47 Have you downloaded any games onto your mobile and if so, which
257
games?
Y/N

48 Do you use any other mobile telephone services regularly and what are
they?

49 Are you thinking of replacing your mobile in the next six months and
if so, have you decided on what type of phone?
T/N

Print media
50 Do you read any particularly newspaper once a week or more often
and which ones?
Y/N

51 Do you read any magazines regularly i.e., weekly or monthlies and
which ones?
Y/N

52 Which titles do you read regularly?

Radio
53 Do you listen to any radio stations regularly and which ones?

54 How many hours do you listen to the radio per week, on average?

Other-General

55 Do you tend to read reviews of new computer based gadgets, new
mobile telephones and the like?
Y/N

56 Do you ever have two or more media on at the same time, i.e., watch a
film with a CD playing at the same time in background or any other
configuration?
Y/N

Do you have any comments on the session?

258

Were there any questions that you were expected to be asked that
werent?

Do you mind telling me your age?

Intensity, parsimony, clarity

259
Appendix Two: Sample Transcript (Investigation One)

This transcription is presented as is and includes a file note at the top about
transcription. A line xxx in the transcript indicates content unclear, an
attempt has been made to match these characters to the sound of individual
words. A question mark before a word indicates a lack of certainty but that the
word on the tape sounds like what follows in the text. Notes in square brackets
are the authors notes, as an aide memoir about issues to consider (made as
transcription was taking place).
260
Principles for sense transcription.

Sense of what is said to be preserved. Normal transcription notation is used.
When a series of unfinished phrases etcetera is used which convey meaning,
this meaning is substituted and put into brackets. Fillers such as OK etc,
especially when used by the researcher and when they do not add to the sense,
are omitted. Hesitancies such as er, urm and researcher agreements are
omitted. Repeated words or phrases, such as I dont know, I dont know why
are always omitted (unless they convey a particular meaning).
Segment names as introduced by researcher not included. like, sort of,
unless add shade of meaning.

Participant H

R S1 So, if you had to summarise that short film, go through the sequence of
what happened, what would your summary be?

PH S2 Its about a little girl and her family have an ice-cream business, and
shes a bit scared of meeting other children and when shes in the ice-cream
van she sees the other children and wants to go out but is a bit scared to go out.
And then her parents have a chat to her about, dont be scared about meeting
other children, she has a dream, and it has a scenario which makes her meet the
children and they like her and then makes her feel OK about meeting other
children and then the next day she goes out and makes friends with the children
and her Dad looks and [stops]

R S3 Anything else you want to add to that?

PH S4 No.

Questions.

R S5 So what were going to do now is go through the film scene by scene
and Im just going to ask you to try and think back to what youre experiences
were the first time. You may, well inevitably you will have experiences this
time thats fine, if you can just tell me which is which, so that if you have any
experiences this time or feel something or experience something different this
time, you can say this is the second time round. So really, just to try and reflect
on your experiences the first time.

[segment one played]

R 1.1 Do you remember what your thoughts, feelings and experiences were?

PH 1.2 Yeah, when it first opened with the music, and the Dad talking to the
little girl, I just remember thinking, oh, its going to be like a little kids
programme, that they could watch at 3:30, and it just seemed a bit cheesy, the
way he said, are you OK and looked over and smiled.

261
R 1.3 Anything else.

PH 1.4 No.

[segment two]

R 2.1 (In) segment two, do you remember any thoughts and

PH 2.2 Yes, I just remember about when he tells the children to not crowd,
not to get the ones at the front squashed, I remember thinking about that in
relation to football crowds and squashes.

R 2.3 Is there reason why you made that connection?

PH 2.4 I dont know why I made that connection, its just, I dont know, in
terms of like, watch out, youll squash the ones at front, I always think about in
terms of football, but I dont why.

R 2.5 Any other thoughts, feelings or experiences you had the first time.

PH 2.6 No I think that was it on that scene perhaps.

[segment three played]

R 3.7 What were your thoughts, feelings and experiences there, on that one.

PH 3.8 Just that she looks interested in the boy going past. Didnt really think
much more about it, ?hadnt seen the rest of the story line at the time.

R 3.9 When you say, interested, what do you mean?

PH 3.10 Well, because she tracked him with her eyes and she was just
watching him, just seemed, I didnt know at the time that, because she wanted
to meet him or it was just happened to be, because, as if somebody was
walking past, youd just naturally look at them.

R 3.11 So you didnt from that feel that she was interested in getting to know
him or going out with him?

PH 3.12 Not necessarily, no, or.

R 3.13 Just the physical act, as she was watching.

PH 3.14 Yeah.

R 3.15 Any other thoughts or feelings or experiences, on that one?

PH 3.15 No.

262
[segment four]

R 4.1 What were your thoughts, feelings and experiences there?

PH 4.2 With the music and seeing herself outside and it sounded quite sort of
as if she was scared music, gave that impression, made you feel a bit sorry for
her and wonder why she didnt want to go, if something had happened or,
made me wonder what was wrong with her.

R 4.3 So do you remember that first time through, thinking to yourself, you
felt a bit sorry for her, as the music was scared, and you wondered perhaps
whether [something] had happened in the past, and you also wondered if
something [was] wrong with her, that you were going to find out about, is that
right?

PH 4.4 Yeah.

R 4.5 Did you so the two things as being connected or were they just two
unconnected possibilities?

PH 4.6 Two unconnected possibilities.

R 4.7 Anything else?

PH 4.8 No.

[segment five played]

R 5.1 What were your thoughts, feelings and experiences that time?

PH 5.2 I was actually thinking about her family, in that her mother was white
and thinking, whether it was really her mother and sort of the whole mixed race
thing, xxx the skin tone, and I possibly thought, wondered whether itd come
onto any thing to do with racism. Didnt like the silly little sound effects at the
end, thought it was silly.


PH 5.4 No.

[segment six played]

R 6.1 Any thoughts, feelings or experiences that time?

PH 6.2 No, I just thought it was a bit, funny-bizarre

R 6.3 When you say funny, do you mean, funny as in bizarre or funny
humorous?

263
PH 6.4 Yes, funny, in bizarre, yeah, not humorous funny. Yeah, and, I dont
know whether, I suppose its the girl that was thinking it

R 6.5 Did you remember thinking that at the first time through?

R 6.6 I think so, yeah and thinking, maybe think the way children think
differently to adults and dont really fully understand the concepts of certain
things like money.

R 6.7 Any other thoughts, feelings or experiences you had, from that section?

PH 6.8 No.

R 6.9 Did you enjoy that section of did you just think, this is a bit bizarre?

PH 6.10 No, I didnt like it.

[segment seven played]

R 7.1 What were your thoughts, feelings and experiences the first time you
saw that?

PH 7.2 I cant remember thinking anything particular into that one, just
remembering that there were lots of coins and ?then counting them, I dont
think I had any feelings in particular to it. [individual differences in depth of
processing and complexity of individual responses, also again, what is
discussed is the experiences that are at conscious level, not material which is
more informational]

R 7.3 So the only thing really was just the amount of coins?

PH 7.4 Mmhm.

[segment eight played]

R 8.1 What were your thoughts, feeling and experiences, this time on that?

PH 8.2 That it was nice that he went to speak to her about things, and then it
sort of confirmed, and that she had problems meeting other children, yes, I
suppose she just preferred to spend time with her Dad, because she didnt want
to go to out with children, sort of avoiding the issue. Just feeling just sad and
sorry for her.


PH 8.4 I suppose wondering what was going to happen, if the problem was
going to be sorted out.

264
R 8.5 Do you think anything from that scene, obviously a girls bedroom,
reminded you of anything your own childhood, the first time round?

PH 8.6 Yeah, I think it did, I just remember, I used to be quite shy when I was
little as well, so I sort of empathised a bit with her.

R 8.7 Would you say that that was something you were consciously aware of
the first time you watched it?

PH 8.8 Yeah.

R 8.9 Any other thoughts, feelings or experiences?

PH 8.10 No, I dont think so.

R 8.11 Did you immediately identify the mobile as being a mobile?

PH 8.12 Wasnt really conscious of xxx xxx, no.

[segment nine played]

PH 9.1 Remember thinking, whether she perhaps was a bit delusional and
actually saw people or whether it was just, sort of, things going on in her mind,
i.e., her not actually really seeing herself, just the thoughts going through her
head and the visualisations, thats ?for ?the ?audience.

R 9.2 So that is what you remember thinking the first time round?

PH 9.3 Yeah, yeah, yeah.

R 9.4 Anything else, from that segment?

PH 9.5 Again, about her, what she ?observes, theres a boy on a scooter and
the time, that, either that she wanted to play on the scooter or meet him.

R 9.6 So you remember thinking the first time through that, and wondering,
oh I wonder whether, she wants to play on the scooter or [with] the little boy.

PH 9.7 Yeah, yes, yeah.

R 9.8 Anything else from that segment?

PH 9.9 Nope.

[segment ten played]

R 10.1 What were your thoughts, feelings and experiences the first time
round, on that one?

265
PH 10.2 I remember back to the chat she had with the father, when she asked
about the scooter and he said, he said something like, you dont need the
scooter to have friends, but then in that scene she sort of substitutes [the]
materialism of the scooter for the ice cream to have friends, so it is sort of
using material goods to gain friends.

R 10.3 And you remember thinking that the first time through?

PH 10.4 Yeah.


PH 10.6 Erm, perhaps an issue before, just when it was showing the TV clip
of Luna and the ice cream, just that she, instead of meeting friends, she was
trying to substitute that with maybe being successful in a business or something
like that.

R 10.7 Would you say that that was a fully formed thought or just an
impression?

PH 10.8 That was before, yeah before the end of the scene, before Id seen all
the children going to the ice-cream, I just thought that, different, from when I
thought, that this later bit, when the children run up to the ice-cream, then, the
first thing I said about them abusing material goods to form friends, then that
changed to that.

R 10.9 So, obviously, thats before it-

PH 10.10 Yeah.

R 10.11 -so, first of all, when that TV scene was on, you were thinking, oh I
wonder if shes substituted business success for making friends and then, on
this scene, this part of the scene here, you thought, ah well perhaps its
materialism xxx selling ice-cream, is that right?

PH 10.12 Mmhm.

R 10.13 Anything else on that segment?

PH 10.14 No.

[segment eleven played]

R 11.15 What were your thoughts, feelings and experiences that time, the first
time?

PH 11.16 Yeah, I wondered what was going to happen, whether something
was going to go wrong, ?it ?would ?make the xxx anxious about meeting
children or whether theyd all like her because they gave, them ice-cream. And
266
I thought it was a bit strange that theyre all asking for the same thing, orange
refreshers.

R 11.17 Why do you think you felt that your were wondering that something
else was going to go wrong that would make it more difficult for her to make
friends?

PH 11.18 It was just the two possibilities really, just, well, equally I thought, I
wondered if it would turn out good, but also had the alternative, in my mind.
[cognitive aspects, one side suggesting other side or alternative]

R 11.19 So just a question there of two options, there werent any other
factors making you think that?

PH 11.20 Perhaps because they looked quite crowded and the way theyre
reaching is quite, could be quite scary, sort of impression so perhaps that linked
to things going wrong, because it seemed a bit scary or ?invasiveable, perhaps
it was that.

R 11.21 Do you think you had that feeling then, or is that perhaps you looking
back and sort of trying to make sense of the experience then?

PH 11.22 Mmm, yeah, perhaps looking back, trying to make sense of it
actually.

R 11.23 Would you say that you noticed the invasive hands the first time or
would you say you perhaps particularly noticed them the second time?

PH 11.23 I think I would have noticed them but I wouldnt have pieced my
thoughts together, I wouldnt have analysed my thoughts like that. [issue of
having an impression which is not fully articulated to oneself, also, what does
this mean in terms of the experiences that people have? Second viewing is not
just this but also metacognitive]

R 11.24 Any other thoughts on that section?

PH No.

[segment twelve played]

R 12.1 Any thoughts, feelings or experiences the first time round on that?

PH 12.2 Um, well its all that kid, just thought he didnt seem particularly
nice, probably to do with the tone of his voice and he probably had a frown or
something [post-hoc re-construction], I just thought it was really funny when
she put the chilli on instead of the sauce but then wondered whether it was
going to go well or badly because the other children might have been friends
with him and then, if shed done that they all might have disliked her, and xxx
did that on purpose. I dont I think really thought that they would cheer like
267
that, how it actually turned out in her dream? I think I probably focused on the
bad scenario, if any. [individual aspect, can understand fascination for using
film in this way]

R 12.3 When you say, if any, do you think, are you then saying, expressing
really that you werent quite sure that you had that thought the first time?

PH 12.4 Yes, but if I have any sort of thoughts they would be the negative
ones.

R 12.5 Would you say that you had that thought particularly this time through,
about the negative outcome, or would you say that it was just an impression
you had the first time?

PH 12.6 It was just an impression I had the first time, yes.

R 12.7 Anything else on that section?

PH 12.8 No.

R 12.9 So when you say, really funny about the chilli, you mean funny
humorous, ?as ?opposed ?to bizarre?

PH 12.10 Yes, funny humorous, yes sorry.

R 12.11 And no question marks about that scene?

PH 12.13 No, it was amusing.

R Segment thirteen.

PH 12.14 Although actually, sorry, I did wonder why they had chilli sauce on
the ice-cream van.

R 12.15 Would you say that you wondered that the first time or the second
time?

PH 12.16 Yes, yes, definitely [i.e., first time].

PH 12.17 But then I thought, it didnt matter because it was just a dream
therefore it wouldnt be realistic anyway.

R 12.18 Did you think that the first time?

PH 12.19 Yes, yes.

[segment thirteen played]

268
R 13.1 What were your thoughts feelings and experiences first time round on
that bit?

PH 13.2 Particularly on the bit where she asked if she could go out, I thought
it sounded like, she asked, Dad, do you mind if I didnt go out today, so I
remember just being a bit confused in my head about that and just really
focusing on that and not really the rest of it. But I suppose that she had gone
out with, that was nice that, that the dream had made her want to go but I was
just really focused on what I thought she said, didnt..

R 13.3 So you were puzzled and pretty much wondering what was going on?

PH 13.4 Yeah.

R 13.5 And that was youre only focus?

PH 13.6 Mainly, yeah, just, but and then again like, I was pleased that she
wanted to go out and that she smiled at the guy on the scooter, ?OK, so she had
her interest in that.

R 13.7 So when you were initially puzzled, then presumably as she actually
made to get out, you must have thought to yourself, oh shes, she must have
said something, oh did you think, I must have misheard that?

PH 13.8 Yes, she was talking to ?her ?Dad, of course you can get out, but, so
Im thinking perhaps she said no, though and then when she was getting out,
she was climbing past the drivers seat, I thought, I didnt think there was a
door there, didnt realise there was a door there so I thought she was just going
to sit down and pretend to drive or something, and then I saw her getting out
and thought well she must have said, can I go out.[repairing internal dialogue,
mental model building]

R 13.9 So, just to summarise, once we reflect on our experiences, it is easy
then to give an explanation after the event, so I think what youre saying is, you
misheard her and you thought she said, do you mind if I dont go out, i.e., with
you and so you were puzzled, that creates a situation where youre puzzled, and
youre focusing on that and then she got up, her Dad got up as well, and then
you as it were swapped positions and at that stage you were still puzzled so you
were thinking, why is she going to pretend to drive, like kids do, and then when
the door opened, you realised shes getting out and then, was that the stage
when you-

[PH goes emphatically mmhmm i.e., yes throughout section above]

PH 13.10 -I just thought-

R 13.11 -began to feel pleased that she was, wanting to go out smile and
?smile ?at ?someone?

269
PH 13.12 No, I think, when she went towards, when she was opening the door
I thought, oh she must have definitely said, that she wanted to go out, and that
being in my mind, and then thinking, oh, well its nice that shes gone out, but
that was still in my at the same time, so I was still a bit sort of puzzled, but
[stops]

R 13.13 So you were pleased that she smiled at the boy earlier, you said you
were pleased she wanted to go but talking about it now Im getting the sense
that Im not quite sure where that came in because it seems for most of this
scene you werent quite sure that she was going out.

PH 13.14 Well, when she smiled at the boy, that was before anything was said
anyway.

R 13.15 So you were pleased she smiled at the boy-

PH 13.16 Then I just suppose, that really right at the end bit, where shes
actually out, so the two things were in my mind together, so confusion and
pleased xxx, but at the same time, the confusion hadnt totally gone.

R 13.17 Right. So are you saying you were confused and you perhaps
thought that she was going to out or are you saying you were confused and then
at the end of the scene, you were pleased that she wanted to go out?

PH 13.18 I was saying that I was confused and then my confusion faded
because she must have said she was going out and that was good.

R 13.19 OK. Anything else on that scene?

PH 13.20 No.

[segment fourteen]

R 14.1 What were your thoughts, feelings and experience, this scene?

PH 14.2 Mmm, I think I probably wondered if she was just going to get back
in the van at that point and thats all, really.

R 14.3 Did have any particular reaction when she didnt, were coming onto
that, I suppose.

PH 14.4 No, it was good when she didnt.

[segment fifteen]

R 15.1 Right, what were your thoughts, feelings and experiences in that
segment?

270
PH 15.2 I wondered whether that was, would really happen, whether, shed
just went up to this boy that shed presumably never spoken to before, I dont
know, I dont think shes at school with him [constructivism, filling in blanks
outside story world, Bordwell book) and whether another child would just, like
you play with, lets presume its an expensive good toy, whether theyd just
hand it over so readily? Or else say, no and just go off and I just wondered
whether that was very realistic?

R 15.3 Did you feel that it was unrealistic or did it just raise a question in your
mind?

PH 15.4 Probably raised a question.

R 15.5 Anything else on that segment?

PH 15.6 So it was actually good that he did, did say yes. Oh and then when
she was riding the scooter, she seemed to sort of just get on it and be OK, but I
wondered in real-life whether youd do that or youd be a bit nervous about it
all, because if youve never been on a scooter before, how to actually work it, I
remember thinking that. It was nice that he asked if she wanted to meet his
friends. [maybe when people doubt reality, they are not processing as deeply
as when constructivism, which would fit if reality test was a surface test related
to surface features of element, scene, movie as opposed to constructing
meanings, backstory etcetera. Also ongoing new material requires attention, in
design terms maybe reality test is easier to spot and codify and therefore guard
against, as our conceptions of reality perhaps less divergent that constructivist
processes]

R 15.7 Would you say that you were aware of that the first time through or?

PH 15.8 Yeah.


PH 15.10 I, ?let ?me think, maybe I thought it did seem a bit, the situation
was a bit fake and it wouldnt really happen, it was just a bit too happy and
nice.


PH 15.12 Theres a bit where the Dads smiling, I remember that, that it was
just paused on that bit, where I remember the Dad smiling and thinking, oh its
nice being happy and nice seeing parents happy, that their children are happy.

R 15.13 Well come onto that now, segment sixteen.

[segment sixteen played]

R 16.1 Any other thoughts on that segment?
271

PH 16.2 Just, still again about him looking happy. You know, when he
looked over at the red [money] box, that sort of puzzled me a bit, why was he
looking at that, why had they shown that for so long, why was that significant
and then it just went off that, [issue of director not making clear connection of
money box to little girl- though she may have thought she had by having little
girl do money- or that money box in this scene by itself symbolised the fact
that now the Dad had sole responsibility for that task] and he drove past them
and I wasnt sure what the point of that bit was. And again, probably thinking,
xxx xxx xxx, xxx xxx, a bit unrealistic, how she was doing that hand thing,
dont know what its called, where you play with your hands with the other
children.

R 16.3 Why did you think that was unrealistic?

PH 16.4 Again, it was following on from that last scene, that, would it really
happen, so much, xxx wouldnt xxx sort of, the children be a bit cautious of
each other or a bit inquisitive and like, ?who ?are ?you and rather than just
getting in there and playing initially and, well, Im saying now, this is ?cold
?contact but I probably didnt think that at the time as such.

R 16.5 So really, just to reflect back, you thought that it was unrealistic that
they were immediately playing the hand clapping game, you just thought they
might just be talking to get to know each other first?

PH 16.6 Yeah, yeah.


PH 16.8 No.

[segment seventeen played]

R 17.1 Any thoughts, feelings or experiences on that one?

PH 17.2 Not really, I just remember thinking that I dont usually watch the
end bits, with all the credits, I usually just turn them off at that point, and
wondered, I suppose, I just wondered if you were going to turn it off then, and
then it got down to the characters, the mum, mom it said, was called [Mary],
[Mary] something and my name is [Mary] so I remember being conscious of
that, and that led me on to think, I dont actually remember the names in the
films, I dont specifically remember character names or, um, her name actually
being mentioned, because I think that maybe I would have picked up on it
[issue here of common names, Luna is not common and maybe cannot be
processed as quickly therefore is discarded- actually the name is used some
three times, also more chance in feature to get names. Maybe also people vary
in how well they process names in films and indeed whether they need to, to
enjoy the film], I dont know whether it was, just, I remember thinking that.

272
R 17.3 So you thought that the first time-

PH 17.4 -Yeah.-

R 17.5 -about your same name and you also saying that you dont normally
pick up on names within the film of characters, as opposed to names like-

PH 17.6 I didnt pick up on any names in there, I wouldnt, if you asked me
any names I wouldnt have remembered them.

R 17.8 So you couldnt tell me the name of the girl?

PH 17.9 No.

Questions.

- Wild wild west (house)

R Did you enjoy Wild wild west and why?

PH Yeah, I did actually, I thought it was funny, hadnt seen a funny film in,
for quite a while and often dont really appreciate funny films.

R So usually you dont normally appreciate funny films?

PH What people usually consider funny or maybe find funny, I, well its not
really my cup of tea.

R So you have a fairly narrow range of what you consider funny films, is that
what youre saying?

PH Perhaps, yeah.

R And you felt that Wild Wild West fitted that to a degree?

PH Yeah.

-- The Village (home)

R Did you enjoy The Village?

PH No.

-

R Were there any particular reasons why you didnt enjoy the village?

273
PH I just didnt like the story line, basically. It was supposed to be, I think it
sort of gave the impression that it should be a scary movie, and sort of, I put
that on the xxx, oh yeah, I quite fancy watching a scary movi.e.,, It wasnt.

-- King Arthur

R Did you enjoy King Arthur?

PH No.

-

R What about King Arthur?

PH Well Id heard, everybody had said that it was really rubbish and that I
shouldnt watch it, but I really wanted to watch it anyway and thought, well, it
might be better, because my expectations are low, so it can only be better, but,
yeah, it, it never really got going, I mean, the characters in it were terrible, I
seem to remember that Queen Guinevere and the king, they were just totally
bizarre, and then wondering why I bothered watching it, at the end of it.
[incorporating manipulating, structuring around own psychological mood].

274
Appendix Three: Shot Description Document
(Investigation Two)

These are presented as is and comprise the first ten pages of the SDD.
275

Shot
Start
Shot
Finish
Shot
Num.
Textual description

0.00 0.27 1 Theme music. In the living room, wallpapered
wall with three rockets on it. "A FILM BY NICK
PARK" over. Camera moves left onto framed
picture photograph of Wallace and Gromit on the
wall. "WALLACE AND GROMIT" passing
over the bottom of the frame. The camera
continues left onto a strange shadow cast onto the
wall [the top of the technotrousers] Theme tune
finishes. "IN" appears over. Tension/mystery
music, as camera pulls back to reveal shadow of
the technotrousers, camera going to canted angle.
Shock music as "THE WRONG TROUSERS"
appears in jagged 50's B horror movie style, the
lettering expanding to fill the screen. As the final
chord of the music fades away, the screen fades
to black.
0.27 0.38 2 Fade in. Morning. Dining room table. MCU of
Gromit pouring a cup of tea, the toaster by his
side. Gentle 'morning' brass music plays in the
background. Gromit puts a slice of bread into the
toaster, presses down the lever and pushes the
toaster out of frame then wiggles all his fingers,
in a 'getting ready' gesture with a clicking
knuckles D19sound, looking to the left of the
screen, then leaving the table, going left out of
frame.
0.38 0.42 3 CU on calendar. "Gromit's birthday [sic]" written
on it, lines of crossed out dates with the actual
day circled. There is the sound of Gromit's feet
drawing near, the shadow of his head cast on the
wall, the shadow of the head turning slightly. His
left hand appears holding a pen and crosses
through the circled day * Issue of standing
0.42 0.45 4 Cut to mid waist shot of Gromit looking at
calendar. He looks to the right of the screen.
Then looks slightly anxious, checking his ticking
wristwatch *novelty, then looks upward.
276
0.45 0.50 5 Cut to MCU Wallace asleep and snoring gently,
in his semi-darkened bedroom, a large black steel
box with a row of six large red buttons, a bronze
sign "SERVICE" above and a black ticking alarm
clock sat on top showing 9:00 o'clock. Brass
music starts, slightly lively.
0.50 0.54 6 Cut back to Gromit, looking sadly at the calendar
on the wall, off screen left a single 'flap' sound.
Gromit looks round, his left ear cocked
[characteristic Gromit quirk] . Then he moves
out of frame, going down on all fours.
0.54 0.57 7 CU pile of letters on hallway floor on top of
doormat. Scuttling sound (off) as Gromit
approaches, CU off his paws gathering up the
letters, taking them out of frame.
0.57 1.02 8 MCU Gromit's back, door out of focus behind
him. He sorts through a number of brown official
envelopes, finding a large green envelope marked
"Gromit". Gromit then goes down on all fours
and pads off out of frame.
1.02 1.08 9 Medium shot, from lounge into hallway, train
track coming into the room then going out to the
right of screen. Gromit pads in on all fours, his
ears slightly raised, stepping over the track,
holding the letters in a his mouth, raising his leg
to miss the train entering behind him whistling
twice. Gromit waits while the train goes in front
of him, then off screen. Then Gromit pads round
a chair and disappears off screen.
1.08 1.25 10 MCU Chair and cup. The sound of Gromit
padding (off) his head appears in frame, he
climbs back into his seat. Then he opens the
green envelope, taking out a card. The backing
music stops. He opens it without revealing the
front of the card to camera and the card plays an
electronic version of, For He's A Jolly Good
Fellow. Gromit closes it quickly. Then opens it
again. An, 'is it from Wallace' look. Then
Gromit puts it down dejectedly on the table- the
front of the card says "TO A DEAR DOG". As
the electronic tune finishes, a buzzer sounds.
Gromit's ear cocks characteristically, he looks
startled.
1.25 1.28 11 CU board of lights, the red light signed
"Breakfast" flashing in time with the buzzer.
277
1.28 1.34 12 Medium shot, Wallace awake in bed, pressing a
red button repeatedly. Wallace, "Oh!" [i.e., .....],
"It's my turn for breakfast, this morning Gromit".
1.34 .01.37 13 Medium shot of handle and wall, Gromit partially
in frame, he leans back (waist shot), Wallace (off)
"I'd like a three minute egg...da...!", as Gromit
pulls the lever.
1.37 1.39 14 Long shot, Wallace in bed. "whoa!", as the
bed tilts up and the trapdoor opens. "Oh, oh
steady on...", then Wallace slides down through
the trapdoor, "Wo-owwww!", out of sight.
1.39 1.41 15 Long shot, dining room ceiling, open trapdoor,
trousers hanging by braces, Wallace slides into
them, shouting, "Gromittt...", then he falls out of
frame.
1.41 1.50 16 Mid shot, Wallace's place at table. Wallace,
"...ttt!". As he lands, "Ow!". Wallace holds out
his arms one at a time and his sleeves are put on
by mechanical arms. A mechanical unit draws up
noisily behind him, Wallace raises his hands, the
machine puts on his tank top and shirt collar with
red tie on, his head disappearing momentarily
before reappearing with a pop, the machine
pulling back out of frame. Wallace, satisfied,
"Ho-ha!".
1.50 1.52 17 Medium shot, Gromit reading newspaper, the
headline reading, "MOON CHEESE SHARES
SOAR", a red button by his left paw. He thumps
down on it. Wallace (off), "ha".
1.52 1.53 18 CU of spring loaded spoon machine flicking a
dollop of jam into the air with a doing.
1.53 1.54 19 Medium shot Wallace looking expectantly, the
loaded toaster in front of him. He raises his
eyebrows, the toast pops up, gets the jam on and
lands off screen with a plonk.
1.55 1.56 20 CU plate. Toast lands [second time] jam side up.
Wallace chuckles (off), his face out of shot. He
lifts up the toast.
278
1.56 2.03 21 Mid shot. Wallace takes a bite of toast, squinting
intently, "Well, that went as well as could be
expected, didn't it, hum!".
2.03 2.04 22 Gromit, reading the newspaper, responds with a
wide eyed look.
2.04 2.16 23 Wallace, "...though I might have to make a small
adjustment to the drop, a touch painful on re-
entry". He gestures, rubbing his back, then puts
the rest of the toast into his mouth, then wiggles
his fingers with a crackling sound, "Mmm,
cracking toast, Gromit!", offering a wink and a
thumbs up.
2.16 2.19 24 Gromit looks up from the paper to him, then back
to the paper.
2.19 2.24 25 Wallace swallows the toast with a gulp, then asks
too casually, "Any post, was there perchance?"
2.24 2.27 26 Gromit looks up, then passes over the letter, his
hand going out of frame.
2.27 2.44 27 Two shot, Gromit is passing the brown envelopes
over. Wallace opens them and reads, unfolding a
long bill as he does, "Oh dear, a bit steep, oh my
goodness, well I'll be, ho ho, they're all bills. Oh
dear oh dear me", scratching his head.
2.44 2.45 28 Gromit puts his card out, the electronic music
plays. Wallace, "We shall have to economise,
Gromit...", the musical card runs out, "...I'll have
to let that room out", gesturing with his thumb.
He gets up, moving frame left, "Oh dear!", the
music from the card slowing down and stopping.
2.45 2.54 29 MCU The music from the card runs out.
Wallace, humming, takes down a picture of a
pink pig down from over the mantel piece,
revealing a safe. He carefully turns the dial and
then opens it with a 'poing', taking out a pink
piggy bank which rattles with a few coins. He
closes the safe door with a thud, replacing the
picture of a pig, then moves off right, out of
frame, humming to himself.
279
2.54 3.10 30 Waist shot. Wallace sitting back at the table,
opens the piggy bank with a plop and shakes out
three coins, "Just look at that, I'm down to my last
few coppers. And those presents weren't cheap
either". Then he covers his mouth, as if he's
blurted something out that he shouldn't have.
3.10 3.12 31 Gromit looks up expectantly.
3.12 3.17 32 Wallace, "Well, Gromit, let's see what's on the
nine o'five, shall we, hmm?". The train whistles.
Wallace, "Here she comes"
3.17 3.19 33 Gromit looks round. Wallace (off), "...now".
3.19 3.23 34 Long shot, dinging room. Wallace watches the
train approaching, going past him, whistling
again. As it does, he reaches down, "I wonder...",
to pick up a little pink package from the open
flatbed at the end of the train.
3.23 3.24 35 CU. Wallace's hand picks the parcel off the train.
"...what this can...?".
3.24 3.27 36 "...be?". Mid shot Wallace at table. He holds up
the parcel, "Happy birthday, chuck", grinning
genially.
3.27 3.48 37 Mid shot Gromit receiving the present, he opens
it with a flourish. He takes out a dog collar and
lead, frowning at them. Wallace chuckles
contentedly off screen, Wallace, "I knew you'd
like it!". Gromit looks worried, to camera [i.e., at
the viewer"]. Wallace (off), "Here, let me help
you". He comes into frame behind Gromit and
tightens the collar painfully on Gromit, who looks
like he's chocking. Wallace, "You look like
someone owns you now", whilst patting Gromit's
head, to Gromit's displeasure. Wallace moves out
of frame (off), "And that's only the first part...",
Gromit looks to camera again, then looks left and
moves off. Wallace (further off), "Come and
look in here". Gromit gets down from the table
and leaves frame right.
280
3.51 3.51 38 Mid shot bottom of the sitting room [?] door into
the hallway. Gromit pads into view from the
hallway on all fours, stops with little back leaning
skid, ears startled. Sinister music starts.
3.51 3.54 39 BCU. A present paper wrapped foot comes
round the corner of the door, stepping down
heavily with a thud and a hydraulic hiss, then
stepping forward, the sinister music swelling.
3.54 3.55 40 Head and shoulders of Gromit, backing away out
of frame alarmed [at something out of frame].
3.55 3.59 41 BCU, trouser fee coming forward.
3.59 4.02 42 Gromit backs up against the wall, the camera
goes canted, Gromit's ears go up trembling in
alarm, music intensifies and moves to become
alarm music.
4.02 4.05 43 Midshot, the packaged legs move forward, the
music swelling in alarm texture.
4.05 4.08 44 Gromit head and shoulders shot, ears upright and
trembling, terrified, he sinks down out of frame,
music swelling up to shriek.
4.08 4.12 45 Shriek music. Long shot- the trousers and
Gromit, who is sitting on the floor, terrified,
trying to back off. Music stops, the trousers stop
just short of Gromit. In the silence, the birthday
present label swings into view at the front of the
trousers. Gromit looks at it.
4.12 4.14 46 BCU of the label, "To Gromit, Love Wallace
X"".
4.14 4.15 47 Mid shot, Gromit drops the label, looking
upwards uncertainly.
4.15 4.21 48 The top of the trousers, Wallace's head behind,
Gromit's facing away from camera in front.
Wallace, "I think you'll find this present a
valuable addition to our modern lifestyle". He
pulls the ribbon wrapping the trousers, the paper
falls off.
4.21 4.24 49 Headshot, Gromit's eyes follow the paper as it
drops. Wallace (off), "They're technotrousers.
Gromit blinks, dazed.
4.24 4.28 50 Long shot, Wallace, the trousers, Gromit sitting,
facing away from the camera. Wallace, "Ex-
NASA. Fantastic for walkies". The Wallace and
Gromit theme tune starts.
281
4.28 4.29 51 Gromit looks disbelieving. Wallace (off), "All
you do is..." Music.
4.29 4.31 52 BCU Wallace's hand tying the leash onto the
trousers, "...attach the lead on here...".
4.31 4.33 53 Head and shoulders of Gromit watching.
Wallace's hand comes into ?frame and he attaches
the leash to Gromit's collar.
4.33 4.39 54 CU of control panel, Wallace's hand pressing
buttons, "...then programme in. Walkies, ten
minutes, twenty minutes, whups! [sic] The
trousers turn on, vibrating electronically.
4.39 4.46 55 Then the trousers take a deliberate step out of the
living room door. The music becomes the theme
tune. The trousers disappear out of the door,
Wallace, "Aha, ha", and Gromit is pulled
violently after the trousers, with two unhappy
doggy yelps, out of the room and out of view.
Wallace, "Have a nice walkies, Gromit".
4.46 4.48 56 Mid shot of park sign saying, "DOGS MUST BE
KEPT ON LEASH", theme tune over.
4.48 4.51 57 Mid shot, top of playground slide. Gromit
climbs, into frame. At the top of the slide he
pauses and looks to his left, angrily.
4.51 4.56 58 Long shot, the trousers are walking along, pulling
a toy dog on a wheeled frame.
4.56 4.4.59 59 Long shot, Gromit at the top of the slide, sliding
down out of frame.
282
4.56 5.10 60 Meanwhile, in the dining room, the theme tune
still playing. Wallace is checking his bills, using
a calculator and abacus, the theme tune in the
background. "Ah, it's no use prevaricating about
the bush..."
5.10 5.16 61 Long shot, the trousers return, pulling Gromit,
now sat on the wheeled trolley. Gromit's eyes
look up.
5.16 5.19 62 CU from outside, Wallace is putting a sign in the
window that says, "ROOM TO LET. Apply
within"
5.19 5.22 63 Mid shot, Gromit still looking at sign, is pulled
off the trolley with a yelp, to disappear into the
house the moment the theme music stops, the
trolley clanking back to the ground after Gromit
has been pulled off.
5.22 5.29 64 Long shot, living room. Gromit is knitting,
annoyed. Wallace (off) sips his tea very loudly,
"Ah, nice walkies, hmm?"
5.29 5.32 65 Wallace, mid shot. Sitting holding the cup of tea,
a vacant happy look on his face, "How were the
techno trousers?"
5.32 5.35 66 Gromit keeps knitting, looks upwards, then
shakes his head, as if to say, "I don't believe it!".
Another loud sip from Wallace (off). The
doorbell rings, off. Gromit's ear cocks, he looks
round, then back at Wallace.
5.35 5.40 67 Wallace, "Oh. There's someone at the door,
Gromit". He gets up, putting his cup on the arm
of the chair and walks out of frame, "I wonder
who that could be?".
5.40 5.52 68 Living room. Body shot of Gromit knitting.
Wallace comes into frame as he goes out of the
living room door, and off frame. There is the
sound of him opening the door. Gromit cocks his
ear, listening. Wallace (off), "Oh, it's about the
room, then, well, that's grand." Sinister music
starts, the camera moves in slightly on Gromit.
Wallace (off), "Er, would you like to come this
way and inspect".
283
5.52 5.56 69 Looking at Gromit in the sitting room, from
hallway, Wallace's chest passing out of focus
down the hall, momentarily obscuring Gromit.
Gromit's eyes follow Wallace him then look back
at the same height to see the visitor, before
dropping his eyes down. Wallace (off), "I'm
asking twenty a week." A sinister foot slapping
is heard.
5.56 5.59 70 Cut to mid shot Gromit in lounge, looking out to
hall. A penguin is moving towards the stairs
holding a suitcase. Wallace, "That would include
your breakfast." The penguin turns suddenly and
stares expressionlessly at Gromit who is startled.
5.59 6.02 71 Head and shoulders of Gromit, shaking his head
in doubletake- a penguin! Wallace, (off, far
away), "I suppose you like"
6.02 6.07 72 The penguin is staring at Gromit. Wallace (off)
"... kippers, do you? Ah ha. Partial to a nice
black pudding, myself".
6.07 6.13 73 Midshot Gromit on chair looking after penguin.
Wallace (off), "With bacon of course". Gromit,
subdued, starts knitting slowly again. Wallace
(off), "I'm sure..."
6.13 6.18 74 Mid shot landing, Wallace walks past close to
camera, "that we can come to an amicable
agreement". Penguin follows. Wallace (off), "As
I say, its a", the penguin looks to his right,
"...bit...". Pleasant classical string quartet flute
music comes through the open door.
6.18 6.21 75 Penguins POV, CU open door, sign on saying,
"GROMITS ROOM", Wallace, "...dingy at
present, but it's sur...". ?Clear music from here.
284
6.21 6.29 76 Long shot dilapidated bare bedroom, Wallace in
doorway gesturing, [sound quality change]
"...prising what a lick of paint of will do, isn't
it?", as the penguin pads into the doorway. The
pleasant flute music can still be heard, a quiet
wind whistling sound is brought up. A painting
falls clunckily to the floor, leaving a clean square
on the wall where it hung. The penguin quickly
disappears back the way he came. Wallace
follows, anxious, "Ooh, but I don't..."
6.29 6.31 77 CU of door with dartboard, inside Gromit's room.
Wallace comes in anxious, "...think, oh, mm,
er..."
6.31 6.35 78 Wide shot of Gromit's room, penguin sitting on
bed, he opens his case and starts unpacking,
Wallace, "er er, wasn't quite what we had in
mind, er, ooh ooh..."
6.35 6.38 79 Wallace, at doorway, "Wouldn't you like to
see...", he points in the direction of the other
room, then gives up, "...Oh dear".
6.38 6.42 80 The penguin bounces squeakily on the bed.
Wallace, "Look, ah ha ha..."
6.42 6.50 81 Head and shoulders, Wallace, "er, there's
something I've got to tell you...", there is a boing
sound off, "...Wallace looks outs of the door then
back, "...it's um no pets. Er, does that suit you?"
6.50 6.54 82 Long shot, penguin sitting on the bed, he changes
the dial on the radio from pleasant classical flute
to a Wurlitzer organ playing, Tie a Yellow
Ribbon loudly, then lies back on the bed, fins
behind head, relaxing, bouncing gently on the
bed.
6.54 6.58 83 Wallace in doorway, speaking to self, "Seems
pleasant enough". He leaves the room, starting to
close the door.
6.58 7.06 84 Later, in the dilapidated room. Long shot of
ladder, Wallace working at top of it, only his legs
visible. Wallace, "Cheer up Gromit...", he hangs
a strip of blue wallpaper with bones on it, "...it's
surprising what a lick of paint will do, isn't it!",
the camera rises to show him working, brush
tucked behind his ear, banging at the paper with
his fist. Then he turns and looks encouraging,
smiling fatuously over his shoulder.
285
7.06 7.17 85 Long shot. Gromit is in the techno trousers,
clipping the left hand part of some trouser braces
to the inside waist of the techno trousers, whilst
studying the "TECHNO TROUSERS
MANUAL". Wallace (off) is singing tunelessly
to himself. Gromit presses a button and the right
leg of the techno trousers shoots up at right
angles with a loud electronic sound, bumping
with a boing sound the ladder resting on the back
of the trousers that allowed Gromit to get into the
trousers. Gromit presses another button and the
manual is sucked onto the foot of the techno
trousers. Another button press and the manual
drops to the floor. Another button press and the
trousers slide forward fast on the remaining foot,
out of frame left.
7.17 7.24 86 Long shot, Wallace on the ladder, there is a bump
sound off, with a loud suction noise. Wallace,
"Ohh!". Then he chuckles quietly. Gromit
comes into frame walking up the wall, with loud
suction noises in the trousers, holding a paint
roller on a long roller. He looks at Wallace then
goes on up out of frame.
7.24 7.27 87 Mid shot, Wallace looking round at Gromit, then
he starts to descend the ladder, "Oh, so that's
where my braces went...", as he descends out of
frame.
7.27 7.36 88 Long shot, Gromit upside down on the ceiling,
the techno trousers stamp to a halt, Wallace
singing tunelessly to himself, growing a little
more vigorous and Gromit starts painting. The
quiet wind whistling sound is brought up again.
7.36 7.43 89 Mid shot, Wallace backing out of door,
"Wonderful things, these techno trousers!". He
almost reverses into the penguin on the landing
[who has been placed there by the animators, so
viewers do not get the visual warning that they
might have if they had seen the penguin moving
into position, a reveal]. Wallace, "Oh! Oh, I'm
sorry", Wallace moves off out of sight down the
hall, leaving the penguin looking into the room.
The penguin starts to pad forward.
7.43 7.45 90 Cut on action. Full body shot of the penguin
walking forward, sinister music playing, the
sound of Gromit's brush swishing, the penguin
looking slowly upwards.

286
Appendix Four: Shot Description Document
(Investigation Three)

This is presented as is.
287

Start End Shot ICE CREAM DREAM

SEGMENT ONE
00:00 00:09 1 Opening credits
09:00 00:11 2 Music, traffic and cars in side window
Traffic and cars in side window
00:11 00:14 3 Approaching selling site- seen through
window
00:14 00:18 4 Father in rear view mirror (name of actor
over)
00:18 00:21 5 Rear shot of father, he looks around smiling,
and asks Luna, "You alright, sweetheart?"
00:21 00:25 6 Luna nods and smiles a subdued smile (name
of actor over), then she looks out of the
window
00:26 00:29 7 Fathers back- now we see the ice cream
cones in boxes (the theme song starts, "You
and me would make a perfect")
00:29 00:32 8 Luna looks slightly unhappy out of the
window (theme, "...team. If we could")
00:32 00:34 9 Father turns with big grin (theme, "d just
be together then")
00:34 00:36 10 Luna gives a restrained response, looking at
him (theme, "this would be")

SEGMENT TWO

00:36 00:39 11 Cut to children running to where the van will
stop, fast tracking shot as if from the van
(theme, e my dream")
00:39 00:43 12 Long shot of the van drawing up at the side
of the park, houses behind, van not yet
stopped. (theme, "This would be my
dream"), title ICE CREAM DREAM appears
00:44 00:46 13 Children running towards the stopping point
of the van (theme, "dream")
00:46 00:47 14 Children run up to the van, from screen right
00:47 00:49 15 The children crowd up to van and ask, POV
of van (but not Luna in window)
00:49 00:51 16 Long shot of the van- the children gather
00:51 00:52 17 Back of Luna's head to camera, shot over her
shoulder, the children crowd Luna, shouting
orders all together.
00:52 00:53 18 Medium shot of Luna looking worried in van
window, back of children's heads to camera
288
shoulder, the children crowd Luna, shouting
orders all together.
00:54 01:02 20 As Dad rescues Luna, "Hang on, hang on,
one at a time, one at a time, watch yourself,
can everyone stand back a bit so that the
one's at the front don't get squashed.
shoulder, the children stand back, Father and
Luna in foreground. Child "Two clowns",
Father "Two clowns"
01:04 01:11 22 Back of Luna's head and shoulders,
following instructions. Father (off) "Luna,
two clowns. Whose next, do you want a
ninety-nine?" Child, "Yeah, a ninety-nine",
father "two ninety-nines, yeah?". Child,
"Yeah".
01:11 01:15 23 Dad uses the ice-cream machine. A child
shouts (off), "Look"

SEGMENT THREE

01:15 01:18 24 CU Luna, head turning, other child hand
pointing, ofther child (off), "There's Harry!".
All the children chorous, Hi Harry!"
01:18 01:21 25 Long shot, "rry!", Harry is sailing along
on his scooter. Opening happy 'Calypso'
music starts again.
01:21 01:25 26 Luna moves to sit at the wheel of the van,
looking at Harry through the window, the
back of her head to camera.
01:25 01:26 27 Head and shoulders of Harry looking
01:26 01:28 28 Midshot of Luna in van, looking out of the
side window (filmed from outside the van),
Harry goes past, their eyes briefly meet and
then hes gone, Luna's head swivels round to
watch.
01:28 01:30 29 Long shot of Harry away past the end of the
van
01:30 01:31 30 Dad looks round and notices the
disappearing Harry, then watches Luna
looking after Harry, happy Calypso music
still playing
01:31 01:33 31 Luna is still looking out of the window. The
music fades away.
289
01:33 01:35 32 Head and shoulders, Father offers Luna a
chance to stretch her legs. Father, "You can
go out and stretch your legs if you want"
01:35 01:37 33 Luna watches Harry, looking up to the
mirror to watch him

SEGMENT FOUR

01:37 01:39 34 CU of the wing mirror, Harry disappearing
from it. The camera comes down from the
wing mirror, there is a flash of white and a
whooshing sound
01:39 01:41 35 The whoosing sounds become sinister music,
head and shoulders of altar ego Luna at
window looking in at Luna
01:41 01:43 36 CU Luna looking up in profile, nervous
01:43 01:45 37 Altar ego stares back at her
01:45 01:48 38 Luna turns round to look at her father
01:48 01:50 39 Head and shoulders of Luna looking back
over the seat at her Dad, she shakes her head,
no to fathers question, then she looks away
01:50 01:52 40 Head and shoulders, father looks at her
concerned

SEGMENT FIVE

01:52 02:03 41 Long shot, the ice cream van pulls up outside
the house
02:03 02:18 42 Mother is frying on wok, daughter and father
come in. Mother, "Hiya", Luna, "Hello",
mother, "did you have a nice time today?",
she wipes her hands then asks Luna, "Did
you meet lots of children", the father kisses
the mother. Luna, "We saw lots of
children". Mother to father, "How many ice-
creams did you sell?", "Oh, about 300, it was
a good day". Mother to Luna, "three
hundred ice-creams!", she brushes down
Luna's nose playfully with a finger, "We
should put that in the bank".

SEGMENT SIX

02:18 02:21 43 CU Luna looking up at mother. She gets a
funny thought and smiles, the background
behind her changes [dissolve to]
290
02:21 02:24 44 Metal sign on desk for 'Bank Manager',
quirky music starts, the camera raises to his
face, with him raising a quizzical eyebrow.
Edges of the picture are blurry.
02:24 02:25 45 CU of father looking back at bank manager,
he grins, then looks down.
02:25 02:26 46 CU of cake tray with bars of of ice cream on
it, hands of bank manager in shot, father's
hands pushes a tray with slabs of ice-cream
on it over to the bank manager, cut on action
02:26 02:27 47 Mid shot looking down, father completes the
pushing of the tray over to the bank
manager, who smiles down at it.
02:27 02:28 48 CU the bank managers face, smiling down at
the ice cream, then up at the father
02:28 02:30 49 Full body two shot, the bank manager takes
flowers off a square object covered in a lace
tablecloth, passes them to father, the piled up
bars of ice-cream in the foreground, then
takes the cloth off with flourish to reveal a
safe, moving his hand to open it
02:30 02:31 50 Close up of his hand opening the sate, a blue
light within giving it an ethereal dream like
quality.
02:31 02:37 51 Two shot, banker and father, kneeling by the
open safe. The Bank Manager loads ice-
cream in [frames cut out of the shot which
speed up the time and possibly heighten the
comic effect]
02:37 02:43 52 Close up of ice cream in safe, door closing
and being locked by the bank manager's
hands, which then shake the father's hands.
[End of daydream]

SEGMENT SEVEN

02:43 02:46 53 Mid shot looking down, the family are
gathered together in the evening, the father
and mother are counting the money, the
mother has an account book in front of her
02:47 02:49 54 Close up of Dads hand counting money
02:49 02:50 55 Family, normal angle, mid shot, "We need a
lot more days like these to meet the loan
repayments".
02:50 02:52 56 CU Luna, she looks up worried, then down
again
291
02:52 02:57 57 Family- mother says, "Well be fine."
Mother tells Luna, "Get yourself ready for
bed, sweetheart".
02:57 02:59 58 CU Luna, she looks up a little unhappy.
Relaxing guitar music starts.

SEGMENT EIGHT

02:59 03:11 59 Luna head and shoulders in bed, staring up,
with the lights out, a mobile turning slowly
in the foreground out of focus. Peaceful
guitar music continues. The door opens and
her father comes in off screen.
03:11 03:14 60 Two shot, father sits down on the side of the
bed
03:14 03:16 61 Close up of Luna. Father (off) asks, "You
alright, sweetheart?". Luna nods
03:16 03:18 62 Father, "What do you want to do tomorrow?"
03:18 03:20 63 Cu of Luna, "Can I come out with you
again?
03:20 03:24 64 CU father, "Yeah, of course you can but I
can manage on me own"
03:24 03:27 65 CU of Luna, "But can I come?". Father
(off), "Don't you want to play with"
03:27 03:29 66 CU father, "your friends from school,
instead of coming out with me?"
03:29 03:31 67 CU Luna says nothing. Father (off), "It can't
be very"
03:31 03:34 68 CU father, "...exciting in the van". Luna
(off), "I like it".
03:34 03:38 69 CU Luna, "it, you need me to look after
the money"
03:38 03:43 70 CU father, "Luna, you should try to make
more friends, the kids on my rounds are just
like you, they won't bite"
03:43 03:55 71 CU Luna listening. Father (off), "You've got
to be brave." His hand chuckles her chin.
Luna, "Do you think if I had a scooter, they'd
want to play with me?" Father responds
(off), "It's got nothing to do with a scooter"
03:55 03:57 72 CU father, "Just be yourself"
03:57 03:58 73 CU Luna takes it in, looking out of frame to
father
03:58 04:03 74 CU Father smiles at her, "Shall I wake you
up in the morning?"
04:03 04:09 75 CU Luna serious, father out of frame- smile!
She does
292
04:09 04:11 76 CU Father smiles
04:11 04:12 77 CU Lunas fading smile
04:12 04:14 78 CU Father gets up (cut on leaning forward as
he gets up action)
04:14 04:15 79 CU Luna watches him go
04:15 04:18 80 Cut on action- two shot as he leaves and
closes the door, cut on door closing
04:18 04:29 81 Mid shot as the light across Luna disappears-
full guitar chords. She puts her head down
to go to sleep. Guitar music ends, crazy
dream music starts. [dissolve to]

SEGMENT NINE

04:29 04:35 82 Transition to dream, cranky music, pastel
discolorations on shots. Long shot of Harry
scootering down the pavement towards the
camera
04:35 04:36 83 Long shot, Luna closes van door, swivels
round to watch Harry pass in front of her
[cut on action]
04:36 04:37 84 CU Harry's head blurring past behind Luna's
face as she turns to watch him go
04:37 04:38 85 Long shot of Harry disappearing down the
pavement
04:38 04:40 86 Luna is walking along thoughtfully. The
music fades, to be replaced by a whooshing,
fade to white
04:40 04:45 87 Fade in from white. Altar ego (head and
shoulders) appears, sinister music, says,
"You can't talk to him, why would he want
to play with you?"
04:46 04:48 88 Two shot, over shoulder of alter ego,
"Because he's just like me." Luna turns to go
on her way.
04:48 04:52 89 CU Alta ego, "Don't blame me when you've
got nothing to say and he laughs at you"
04:52 04:55 90 Waist, Luna goes past the alter ego, pauses.
04:55 04:57 91 Head and shoulders, alter ego watches Luna
passing
04:57 05:08 92 Luna turns slowly and returns, going out of
frame. Sinister music ends. [dissolve to]

SEGMENT TEN

293
05:01 05:10 93 Montage. A blurred blue indicates a shift in
the dream. CU of Luna asleep, the music
changes to quirky music, children in
playground, tickets fluttering, falling out of
the sky onto the tarmac of the school
playground
05:10 05:11 94 CU hands picking up one of the pieces of
paper from the tarmac, camera follows up
onto the girl's head and shoulders, group of
children's voices (off), "Lu"
05:11 05:13 95 CU of piece of paper, LUNA'S ICE-
CREAMS HERE AT :) PM. Children's
voices (off), "na". Voice over of man's
voice, "And finally, Luna's ice-cream"
05:13 05:31 96 [Dissolve to] Martin Collins on television
reading the news, picture of Luna holding up
huge ice-cream on backsdcreen, "has been
voted best in the country today by the
world's best ice cream testers. A
spokesperson said, "It was it's unique flavour
and creamy texture that made the ice cream
so special". That's all for tonight, join us for
our next bulletin at the same time tomorrow
night. Concluding news bulleting music.
05:31 05:35 97 Schoolyard, cheering, bell, long shot of
children running into frame, one shouts, "Ice
Cream!"
05:35 05:36 98 Long shot of children running away from the
camera at an angle, towards the van,
cheering
05:36 05:39 99 Children running up to the van, seen from
inside, they crowd around the open window

SEGEMENT ELEVEN

05:39 05:46 100 A trumpet fanfare - the back of the children
(low angle) they part to focus on the window
of the van from outside, truck-in to low shot
of Luna, looking proudly, oout of window,
she looks around, smileing. The children
(off) chorous, "Luna!"
05:46 05:49 101 Shot from in van, over Lunas shoulder of
children. The childen burst into their orders
all together. Luna, "Children, hang"
05:49 05:52 102 Waist shot, Luna, "on. One at a time.
Can you all stand back a bit so"
05:52 05:54 103 Luna, "the ones at the front don't get
squashed"
294
05:54 05:56 104 Overshoulder, Luna "Now, you first, what do
you want?"
05:56 06:00 105 Over shoulder. Child asks, "Can I have an
orange refresher, please?", Luna moves to
get it, film speeded up, twinkly piano music
starts. Lots of grasping hands reach out.
Camera pans left to follow her (back shot)
reaching to get the ice cream.
06:00 06:01 106 Waist shot, front, Luna giving out the ice-
creams.Lots of grasping hands reach out.
06:01 06:02 107 Back, Luna reaching for ice-cream
06:02 06:03 108 Waist shot, front, Luna giving out the ice-
creams.
06:03 06:08 109 The heads of the children corwn aournd the
van window, facing the camera. Head and
shoulders of nasty kid pushing though, he
slams his fist on the counter. Head and
shoulders of kids as nasty boy marches in,
slams his fist on counter, music stops. Boy,
"I want a 99!"

SEGMENT TWELVE

06:08 06:09 110 Jump cut back to include Luna, frame left,
Luna almost over the shoulder shot. Luna,
"Would you like sauce with that?", boy,
"Yeah, give me loads!"
06:09 06:11 111 Head and shoulders of Luna as she fulfills
his order, slower twinkly music starts
06:11 06:12 112 CU ice cream cone being filled
06:12 06:12 113 Luna mid shot moving to ice-cream sauce
06:12 06:14 114 CU of sauce, Luna's hand on 'Rasberry', her
hand lifts it up
06:14 06:14 115 Head and shoulders of Luna, considering
06:14 06:16 116 CU Luna's hand puts the rasberry sauce
down and picks up the chilli sauce
06:16 06:17 117 CU head and shoulders of Luna, she smiles
06:17 06:22 118 CU Luna's hand puts a lot of chilli sauce on
the ice cream, the shot ending CU on the
plastic bottle
06:22 06:23 119 Mid shot of Luna moving towards the
window and out of frame
06:23 06:25 120 CU of the back of the boy's head as he gets
his ice-cream. He turns to camera and gets
ready to lick
06:25 06:26 121 CU Luna chuckles, the music does a "na na
nah nah na" 'laughing at you' sound
295
06:26 06:28 122 CU, the boy licks- ugh!
06:28 06:29 123 CU Luna laughs, the rest of the children
(off) laugh
06:29 06:31 124 Nasty boy's head and shoulders to back off
camera as he departs, the children closing
behind him
06:31 06:33 125 Luna, smiling, waist shot, cheers over,
"Luna, Lu"
06:33 06:34 126 Luna over shoulder- children in shot
chanting, "na, Luna"
06:34 06:38 127 Long shot, elevated of van pushing back,
chanting children, "Luna, Luna, Luna",
sound goes to echo indicating end of dream

SEGMENT THIRTEEN

06:38 06:39 128 Last 'Luna' echoing over shot. In Luna's
bedroom, her father flings open the curtains
vigourously [cut on action
06:39 06:41 129 Head and shoulders of Luna asleep holding a
cuddly toy
06:41 06:42 130 Father (waist) at window, turns round
smiling, "Wake up, sweetheart"
06:42 06:47 131 Father's voice over, "Ready in an hour?",
Luna nods
06:47 06:59 132 Long shot, Luna and father go towards van,
camera pans round to follow. Father unlocks
the van door
06:59 07:02 133 Long shot, Harry approaching on his scooter.
Theme music starts again.
07:02 07:03 134 Cut to long shot, Harry goes past the van
window, seen from inside
07:03 07:07 135 CU Luna watching Harry, she smiles as she
looks after him, from inside the van
07:07 07:09 136 Long shot, Harry heads off, back to camera.
Luna, voice over to father, "Dad"
07:09 07:13 137 Head and shoulders of Luna, "would it be
OK if I didn't go out today?"
07:13 07:33 138 Two shot, father in foreground turns around
puzzled, "No problem seetheart. Where are
you going?, Luna "Out to play", Father,
"Yeah, OK sure. He gets up out of the
driver's seat, "Make sure you stay on the
street, and tell you're Mum where you're
going, OK? He chuckles her chin
caressingly. Luna moves to get out, holding
the red money box, which she passes to him,
296
Luna, "There you go", as she heads towards
the door
07:33 07:38 139 The van door opens with a creak, the camera
dropping to ground level

SEGMENT FOURTEEN

07:38 07:41 140 Two shot, waist, Luna moves towards Harry,
who is static with his back to camera,
concentrating on his scooter
07:41 07:44 141 Flash of white light, whooshing sound,
sinister music, head and shoulders of altar
ego watching
07:44 07:49 142 Luna walks past the alter ego rapidly, giving
her one brief look
07:49 07:53 143 Alta ego watches, realises that she has lost.
Luna (off), "Hello", flash of white light

SEGMENT FIFETEEN

07:53 07:55 144 Two shot, waist shot favouring Harry. Luna,
"o", Harry, "Hello"
07:55 07:59 145 Two shot favouring Luna, "Would it be OK
to have a go on your scooter?".
07:59 08:03 146 Harry, "Yeah, OK". Wistful music starts.
He gives her the socoter and they both turn
to go
08:03 08:07 147 Two shot, waist. Both to camera. Harry,
Would you like to come and meet my
friends?. They head towards the edge of the
frame, left
08:07 08:14 148 Waist shot, Luna comes into frame on
scooter, choldren talking off, camera picks
up Harry ahead of her, they join the friends
who are talking and playing pat-a-cake

SEGMENT SIXTEEN

08:14 08:17 149 Mid shot- father watches with a smile, looks
297
round
08:17 08:20 150 CU of money box
08:20 08:23 151 Head and shoulders of Luna playing happily,
backs of heads of two children, talking
08:23 08:26 152 Mid shot of Dad watching from inside the
van, he blinks a couple of times then starts
the engine and the wistful music fades
rapidly
08:26 08:32 153 Long shot, van pulls out, moving towards
camera
08:32 08:48 154 Extreme long shot, van drives past the group
of playing children (including Luna), the
van's ice cream music starts and the van
drives out of frame, the ice-cream van's
chimes fading into the distance. Fade to
closing titles.

SEGMENT SEVENTEEN
08:48 09:31 155 Closing titles, fading music. Start calypso
music, no singing, Acknowledgements

298
Appendix Five: Sample movie reviews (Investigation
Four)

These are presented as is and comprise the first ten pages of the reviews.
299
Data gathered 18 June 2007

18 out of 18 people found the following comment useful :-
Wonderful Gromit steals the show and the penguin is superbly
sinister!, 28 September 2002
Author: bob the moo from Birmingham, UK
In order to help make ends meet Wallace decides to rent out their spare
room. However the new lodger takes Gromit's room and puts him out in the
dog house. Meanwhile Wallace continues work on a pair of remote
controlled trousers. But is the new lodger as innocent a chicken as he
appears? Wallace finds himself part of a major jewel robbery can Gromit
return in time to save him?

The second of the adventures of Wallace & Gromit sees the animation
greatly improve and the comedy oh so very sharp and funny. The basic plot
is a little silly but very well crafted considering this is a short film I wish
many `proper' films had plots this clever and imaginative. It is also
absolutely a wonder to watch even when I wasn't laughing I was easily
charmed by the wit and imagination of the whole thing.

The animation is superb, Wallace is as good as ever and Gromit is much
more fully developed and is easily the star. The penguin however threatens to
steal the show as well as the jewel. How can a plastercine penguin with a
glove on it's head that likes listening to organ music be threatening? Well it
can here he snaps his head round and stares with such menace that it's
frightening! They all work well together but Gromit takes the film by a nose.

With all those brain dead kids cartoons around on TV this should be
treasured. Adults will love it as there is plenty of detail for them to enjoy and
kids will totally fall for the rich comedy and well animated characters. A
wonderful little gem.
Was the above comment useful to you?
yes no

Fantastic, entertaining work of art, with no Hollywood smut, 23 May 2001

Author: Ken-272 from Utah, USA
This is a clever picture that gets better the more times you watch it. The
attention to detail is amazing. It makes you wonder over and over again -
How did they do that?

I have this on DVD and enjoy taking time to check some segments out frame
300
by frame to catch all the background details like book titles on the shelf and
news paper headlines. It's enjoyable for youth and adults alike.
yes no

A true mile stone of animation, 11 March 2001

Author: letmein-1 from London, England
Nick Park's hysterical plasticine duo Wallace and Gromit are back in this,
their second outing, pitting themselves against the plotting penguine whose
devious nature is taking advantage of Wallace's niavity. However, the ever
suspicious Gromit is seeing through the Penguine's frosty exterior and sets
out to uncover his secret scheming shadowy plan. The Wrong Trousers is the
best so far from Peter Lord and Nick Park, putting even the outstanding
Chicken Run and Close Shave in it's shadow. The characterisation is simply
electrical. The ever suffering but mute Gromit and the clumsy well meaning
Wallace muddle their way to stopping a truely outstanding criminal genius
penguine (whose pesona is portrayed with such subtlety and effect that the
cute bird becomes the very essence of evil). Park and Lord's pace and
cinematography in this animation medium are truely world leading,
climaxing in the mad mayhem of a train-set chase through their house. The
plot is simple yet full of nuances and details (check out the headline's on
Wallace's newspaper and the wall paper in Gromit's bedroom)raising this
above even the best that that big studios can produce. A film almost without
fault which pays homage to the greatest and most farciscal works of the great
Ealing comedy era (there is something sinister happening but, it isn't that
sinister really). Watch this film and let the quality and clarity of the humour
seep into your soul. A true mile-stone of animation which deserved it's oscar
like no other animation ever will.
yes no

cracking good story, 4 September 2001

Author: Markc65 from Burbank, CA
The best film of the Wallace and Gromit trilogy, and one of the greatest
films, period. Nick Park and the animators at Aardman are some true talents
and gifted storytellers. Nick Park has made some great clay stop motion
cartoons before, such as Creature Comforts, but with The Wrong Trousers he
really topped himself. The technical aspects of the movie are amazing. The
noirish lighting, the attention to detail, the small jokes in the background, the
camera compositions and the fluid animation (it doesn't have that herky-jerky
301
look of most clay animated films) are awe-inspiring by themselves, but
combined with such a witty story and appealing characters the result is
something that truly deserves to be called a classic.
yes no

"The Wrong Trousers" is filmmaking history that may never be
paralleled, 9 September 2001

Author: Glacier571-3 from San Francisco
Wallace & Gromit: The Wrong Trousers (1993): Calling this delightful and
hilarious Oscar-winning masterpiece (brought to us by Nick Park, co-director
of "Chicken Run," one of my all-time favorite films) the best claymation
short ever is a lot like saying that someone just bought the best vehicle from
a used car lot, so I'll go ahead and call this the best animated short ever,
which it definitely is. No questions asked. It's brilliantly shot, paced,
scripted, directed...to paraphrase Mary Poppins, it's practically perfect in
every way. You can't help but fall in love with every single character on the
screen, from our always-lovable cheese-loving inventor and his loyal canine
companion to even the devious jewel-thieving penguin Feathers McGraw
(the subject of the bestselling "Have You Seen This Chicken?" T-shirts).
They are so well-rounded that Feathers nearly steals the show; it's impossible
to keep a straight face at the sight of a penguin nervously wiping sweat from
his brow, disguising himself as a chicken and firing a revolver, all while
wearing the same stolid expression in his little peppercorn-black eyes. The
wild train ride near the conclusion is a breathtaking segment that will never
be topped by any other animation studio in this millennium or the next. I
cannot recommend this work of genius enough. If you find anything
whatsoever to dislike about it, I suggest seeking professional help
immediately. Otherwise, pop this into your video or DVD player, put your
feet up and watch this piece of animated history unfold before your very
eyes. 10/10
yes no

Very funny, 22 January 2004

Author: rbverhoef (rbverhoef@hotmail.com) from The Hague, Netherlands
Together with 'Wallace & Gromit: A Close Shave' and 'Wallace & Gromit: A
Grand Day Out' this is one of the funniest things I have seen. The clay
animation looks great, the stories are very ingenious and the jokes are great.
If you get a chance to see this, please do so. You will have a great time.
302

I guess this one is the best from the three, although 'A Close Shave' comes
close. You must see all three of them anyway, so it doesn't really matter.
yes no

Claymation Spectacular, 5 December 2002

Author: Joo Loff from Lisbon, Portugal
A prodigy of animation, "The Wrong Trousers" won the Oscar for best
animated short. Nick Park is at fine shape here, as he displays not only the
skill of his craft but also a narrative coherence and care that nearly
overpasses the artistic talent. It's the advantage of stop-motion animation:
each shot is carefully studied and considered, and the story moves forward
having Gromit the dog as the main character, and he succeeds all the way in
convincing us of his "acting skills", even though he doesn't say one word or
make one sound. The film has a great plot: Wallace and Gromit are forced to
let a room, and a grim penguin applies for it. Soon, the intruder takes over
the house and replaces Gromit as Wallace's best friend. But there is more
than meets the eye, and the rest of the story is too good to be spoiled.
Constructing suspense to the very end, with hair-raising sequences until the
last spectacular showdown and applying all the formulae that make a god
movie, this is animation on the top of its game, and a great opportunity to see
just how much you can raise the bar on claymation short features. Talent has
never been so evident.
yes no

The short that proves one shouldn't let one's spare room to unfamiliar
penguins without excellent references!, 18 December 2001

Author: Robert Reynolds (minniemato@hotmail.com) from Tucson AZ
This marvelous short won the Academy Award and is the best of the series,
though all so far have been delightful! The praise heaped on Wallace and
Gromit has been vast and well-deserved, so my additions are gilding the lily,
but I'll still say something. The Wrong Trousers is funny, sad, insightful and
just plain mad, frequently all at once. If there's any justice, they will remain
in print in perpetuity. Most recommended.
yes no

303
Superb Entertainment, 28 March 2005

Author: Theo Robertson from Isle Of Bute , Scotland
This is a touching story . When Gromit found himself second to Wallace's
affection I thought my heart would break . Poor Gromit , poor poor Gromit
as he packs his bags and leaves the house my heart was breaking and the
tears were flowing down my cheeks .

Did I mention that Gromit is a plasticine dog in an animated movie ? No ?
Believe me I'm not some bleeding heart animal loving do gooder - I'm a very
prolific IMDb reviewer perhaps the most cynical one on this site and I was
totally moved and entertained by this animated film . If I enjoyed it how can
anyone else not enjoy it ?

THE WRONG TROUSERS is the second and best of the Wallace & Gromit
shorts . As with Nick Parks other work the animation where animals have
idiosyncratic humanized personalities is superb but its the script co- written
by Park and former DOCTOR WHO scriptwriter Bob Baker that is so
enjoyable . The plotting and character interaction makes it touching and
exciting and even this childless cynic enjoyed every single moment of it

If you're a parent and are wondering how to keep the kids quiet for over an
hour maybe you should show them an episode from the new DOCTOR
WHO series followed by THE WRONG TROUSERS . If that doesn't work
as family entertainment nothing will
yes no

Tenants, Trousers & Trains!, 1 February 2007

Author: ccthemovieman-1 from Lockport, NY, United States
This was the second in a series of three short BBC programmes featuring a
man and his dog. With a full-length feature film that came out a dozen years
later (just recently in 2005). Wallace & Gromit is now far better-known. But,
to those of us who "discovered" W&G back in the mid-to-late '90s, they were
a fun pair we enjoyed in these three 30-minute shows.

"The Wrong Trousers" is best at the end with a very funny chase scene inside
a toy train set. Earlier, Wallace, the inventor, is trying to invent a pair of
remote-controlled trousers. He's a bit short on money so he rents out a room
in house. The lodger prefer Gromit's room. Gromit is Wallace's pet dog. The
dog is literally put out in the dog house, and is not happy about this.

In a crazy series of events, the tenant - an evil penguin - gets Wallace
304
inadvertently involved in a jewel heist and Gromit has to come to the rescue.
It's very silly but the unique animated cinematography helps make this a
winner.
yes no

highly enjoyable, 22 October 2005

Author: rebeljenn from Bath, England
'Wallace and Gromit: The Wrong Trousers' is a highly enjoyable claymation
tale about an inventor man and his dog companion, who happens to be
smarter than the man himself. This tale involves a rogue penguin with an evil
plan involving Wallace and Gromit and his inventions.

This is a warming tale about friendship and realistic characters, and children
are sure to enjoy the imagination behind the story and the claymation and
humour. Adults are also sure to love the same on a higher level. It's rare in a
film to find a tale enjoyable to both children and adults, but 'The Wrong
Trousers' succeeds in this.

This is a charming little short film, and it should be watched and enjoyed by
all. Highly recommended.
yes no

Forget CGI. Claymation is the best!!!, 6 May 2005

Author: comegetsum69 from United Kingdom
*** This comment may contain spoilers ***
Wallace and Gromit are great! Fact! And eccentric inventor, that looks like
Prince Charles if he were bald, and a very clever dog whose eyebrows
express his feeling more than words, makes for very enjoyable bank holiday
viewing. The first 'film' (I put it like this because they are only about 30mins
long) saw the duo fly to the moon. The third saw a cyborg dog. But this one,
the second, surly wins it. A penguin disguised as a chicken, giant robotic
trousers, a diamond robbery, and the greatest chase sequence ever, make this
the best claymation film ever. Lets star at the beginning. Its Gromits
birthday. He gets given a giant pair of mechanical trousers that Wallace
makes to help take Gromit for his "walkies". Bills are too expensive so they
have to rent out the spare room. A small penguin takes the room, however in
the process kicking Gromit out the house, and stealing the trousers for a
305
robbery. The only one who can stop him is Gromit. I wont give too much
away, but its worth watching the first 20, very enjoyable, minutes just for the
train chase at the end. I have these on DVD and i will never tire of that
sequence. Its just brilliant!!
yes no

'It's the wrong trousers Gromit, and they've gone all wrong!', 11 June 2004

Author: TheOtherFool from The Netherlands
This is my first experience with the clay animated Wallace and Gromit
series, and for sure it's not going to be my last, as this must be the hardest I
laughed at a movie for years!

Wallace and Gromits quiet lifes come to an end when Wallace, who
seriously needs the money, rents Gromits room to a penguin. Gromit
immediately thinks something's going on when this penguin leaves his light
and music on all night, but sneaks out of the house himself. Wallace however
finds the little penguin a great treat, as he brings him the newspaper and his
slippers.

Gromit thinks he's of no use anymore and leaves the house, right after his
birthday on which he got a pair of mechanical trousers, which are playing a
large role in this 30 minute comedy. You see, anyone with the remote can do
with the trousers what they want, and the evil penguin is making a use of
that.

So one day he lets Wallace slip into these trousers, makes him tired so he
will fall asleep in the trousers. That way he can rob a diamond from a
museum, and he succeeds. But Gromit was onto the little guy and when both
come back to the house he's waiting for them to stop the penguin. A hilarious
chase on little trains is the result.

So much for the story, let's start with the praise.

The animation is fantastic. The story is entertaining, compelling and even has
some scary moments. The side gags are endless(ly funny). My favorite:
while shadowing the penguin Gromit is watching him behind his newspaper.
In the newspaper there's a story about: 'Dog reading paper'. I love that. And
what about the scene when Gromit slips from the bed into the chair, and
there isn't any toast ready. You know what's coming next, and Gromit as
well... it's just fantastic!

But the end scene on the trains is the best part IMO. I don't know if anything
can ever match that... it must've been the funniest thing I ever witnessed.

306
I would have written more, but I can't wait to watch 'Cracking Contraptions'
next, so I'll just leave you with this: if you don't see in the fun in this, you're
a lost cause. 10/10!!!
yes no

The "Citizen Kane" of animated shorts?, 8 April 2002

Author: RobT-2 from Tulsa, Oklahoma
I'm not the only one who thinks "Citizen Kane" is a great film because Orson
Welles and his collaborators thoroughly exploited the potential of the sound
film in telling their story, combining fine acting, intricate plotting and
editing, and well-composed visuals and sounds in ways that just NAIL the
viewer. Very few films have ever juggled so many filmmaking resources so
well, but one of the few to do so, in my opinion, is the English clay-animated
short "The Wrong Trousers".

As in "Kane", Nick Park and his crew of animators expertly combine a
variety of methods in telling their story. The "acting," or rather the character
animation, is wonderful, more so for the dog Gromit than for the goofy-
looking human Wallace; Gromit's subtle expressions conveying everything
we need to know about what he's thinking. Even more subtle is the penguin
lodger, with a deliberately bland face but expressive gestures and body
language. The plot is ingenious, with hardly an ounce of fat, and perfectly
paced, starting slowly and gaining momentum almost imperceptibly until the
climax.

The visual storytelling is excellent, especially since so much has to be
conveyed without dialogue, and the clarity of the climactic sequence at the
end marks a high point for film editing. The staging includes dramatic
lighting and other bits of visual texture with which few animators bother.
Finally, the music is one of "Trousers"'s most overlooked features--the
sequence in which Gromit leaves in the rain while the penguin watches from
the window offers a neat demonstration of music's effectiveness as a
storytelling tool.

I don't really think "The Wrong Trousers" is really BETTER than "Citizen
Kane", in an artistic sense. Of course, Orson Welles didn't try to make
"Kane" as a 30-minute animated film with only three characters (two of
whom are silent), either. As with "Kane", however, I get more out of "The
Wrong Trousers" every time I watch it.
yes no

307
Probably my favorite Wallace And Gromit Short., 22 August 2002

Author: LebowskiT1000 from Escondido, California, USA
Nick Park and his crew really out-did themselves with this film! I thought
this installment was even better than "A Grand Day Out", the story is more
interesting and even funnier. The little penguin guy is hilarious! And the
entire scene with the toy train is superb!

If you liked "A Grand Day Out" then you should definitely check this film
out as well. If you like claymation, then you should also definitely check this
film out. This film is great, and I hope you like it too. Thanks for reading,

-Chris
yes no

The perfect family movie - something for everyone, 28 December 2005

Author: Mr Ben from London, England
Anyone who watches movies with any regularity will know how hard it is to
find a decent family movi.e.,, Indeed, the very phrase puts the fear of God in
me when I see it in the listings as it will to anyone who has witnessed the
crime against cinema that is "McCinsey's Island". One man who seems to be
able to consistently produce quality family entertainment is vastly under-
rated Brit director Nick Park and his unique clay animation. His vision and
his wicked sense of humour has me in stitches every time and this is
probably his finest hour, featuring his two most prolific and successful
characters.

For those who don't know, Wallace (perfectly voiced by Peter Sallis) is a
plucky inventor living somewhere in northern England. He loves cheese and
creating bizarre machines but sadly, they are unable to provide him with
much of an income. So Wallace is forced to let his spare room, much to the
consternation of his long-suffering companion, a dog called Gromit. The
room is soon spotted by a mysterious penguin, who moves in and proceeds to
make Gromit's life Hell, almost as much as Wallace's latest invention - a pair
of Techno-Trousers. But their guest has other things on his mind and soon,
our heroes find themselves at the mercy of the wrong trousers!

The only possible problem you could have with any Wallace & Gromit film
is that the humour is very British in tone (not a problem for me, I might add)
but the simple truth is that this short film is sublime family entertainment,
keeping both parents and kids amused with almost frightening ease. Even
after multiple viewings, thanks to the BBC's uninspired Christmas schedule,
308
this film never gets tired due to the visual gags going on in the background.
It is also better than the recent feature-length movie, "The Curse Of The
Were-Rabbit", as it has better pace and is more in keeping with the tone of
the series which I felt wasn't the case with the movi.e.,, A marvellous picture
and one that everyone will enjoy.
yes no

a modern classic, 26 December 2005

Author: Lee Eisenberg (lme@lclark.edu) from Portland, Oregon, USA
In my opinion, Wallace & Gromit are to modern animation what Bugs
Bunny was to classic cartoons: they truly set the standards. Following
"Creature Comforts", Nick Park made "The Wrong Trousers". W&G take in
a penguin as a boarder, and the little guy soon becomes Wallace's favorite.
Gromit decides to leave, but then it turns out that this is no ordinary penguin.

I think that my favorite scene was Wallace "walking" around in the trousers;
they must have had fun filming that scene. Watching these cartoons, one can
see that "Chicken Run" was coming eventually. All in all, this is a cartoon
that you can't afford to miss. Perfect.

309
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A cognitive schematic analysis of film

Gregory George Hale

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