DIGITAL SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 71

whoseoutput voltage is binary bits. At the centre of each symbol interval, a decision circuit
decideswhether the out ut is ositive or negative and thus determines whether the output bit
isa+1 or a -1 and represented as zero. On y disadvantage of this detector circuit is that the
decisioncircuit will make an error jfnoise changes the sign of the output voltage.
Most carrier recovery loop have an 180
0
Phase ambiguity, i.e. when the 100 is locke
thephase of the recovered carrier may differ by 180
0
from its correct value and thus causes
aninterchange between logical ones and zeros and thus causes the demodulated bit stream to
be the com lement of what was transmitted. Differential encoding is one of the methods to
eliminate ambiguity, in which adjacent symbols have the same hase if the modulating
voltageis aland are 180
0
out of phase if it is ~ This may be realized by using a binary
phaseshifter that toggles between 0
0
phase shift and 180
0
phase shift each time when the
modulating bit is O. Incoming 1 value has thus no effect.
6.3.3 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
InQPSK , the phase ljI of the carrier is set by the modulator to one of four possible values
of theset (0, nn; it, 3n12) or (nI4, 3n14, Sn14, 7nI4). In the BPSK signal the first term is
n ith the carrier and is called the channell. The second term of BPSK signal is in
phasequadrature with the carrier and is called the Q-channel. Thus a QPSK signal can be
generated, by combining two BPSK waveforms in phase quadrature. Thus the BPSK is a
twostates or bi-phase PSK , on the other hand, the QPSK is a four states or quadri-phase
PSK .
Thus the modulated QPSK carrier is
SeCt) = Ame(t) cos (Wet + ljI) +Ams(t) sin (wst + ljI) (6.7)
ms(t) = Lbkq(t - k~)
k
andak, b
k
are l. The correction of Set) is, then,
Re(t) =E [Set) . S(t + r)]
=( A; ) [R=(<) cos (OF) +R=(<) cos (OF)]
(uncorrelated data are not considered)
=( A
2
' ) [R=(<) + R=( <ll cos (oF)
The corresponding spectral density is then
5,(00) = ( : ' }Sm,(W +we) +Sm,(W +We)] +( :' }Sm,(W- We) +S=(w - We)] (6.10)
where,
me(t) = LakP(t - kTe)
k
(6.8a)
(6.8b)
(6.9)
72 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
As mentioned earlier, QPSK modulators and demodulators are basically dual channel BPSK
modulators and demodulators. The block diagram of a QPSK modulators is as shownin
Figure 6.6, where one channel processes the in phase binary bits and uses the reference
carrier, the other processes the quadrature bits and uses a 90 phase shifted version of the
reference. M
QPSK modulator
Serial Input
Baseband
Generator
Q
I
nl2
Modulated
Output
Adder
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1
FIGURE 6.6 Block diagram of a generalised QPSK modulator.
The decoding operation is the process required to reconstruct the data bit sequence
encoded onto the carrier. Decoding is achieved via the quadrature cross correlation in
Figure 6.7. The decoding voltages generated in each arm for a given symbol interval (0, Ts)
are
T,
I = f [S(t) +net)] pet) cos (av + 1jI) dt
o
(6.11a)
T,
Q = f [Set) +net)] q(t) sin (wet + 1jI) dt
,0
Using the QPSK waveform of equation (6.8a) and assuming that the bit waveform pet)
and q(t) are each T, seconds long and unit power, equations (6.11a) and (6.11b) becomes
I = ATs (ao +Lak rpq(k)cosljle +ATs Lb
k
rpq(k)sinljle + ne (6.12a)
k~O k~O
and
Q =ATs(b
o
+Lb
k
rqp(k)cosljlc +ATs L ak rqp(k)sinljlc + ns
k~O k~O
(6.12b)
(6.11b)
DIGITAL SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 73
-
SK r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
I
I Mixer Mixer I Decoded
: s: ' Q ~o : Quadrature bit
I
Modulated I I
Carrier I sin(met +'P) Ps(t) I
cos(met +'P) Pe(t) I
I Decoded
IQuadrature bit
I
I
I
I
I
I
L I
In
ce
~e
Mixer
I
~O
Mixer
QPSK decoder
FIGURE 6.7 Block diagram of a QPSK decoder.
where
T,
rpq(k) = ~ J p(t)q(t - kTJ dt
t;
o
and no and n,. are independent Gaussian variables with the variance NoT/2. The first term of
equations (6.12a and 6.12b ) represents the present data symbol being decoded. The first
summation represents the in phase channel interference and the second summation represents
quadrature channel interference and the n terms are the noise interference. If the decoder is
preferably coherent (lJIe = 0), the quadrature interference is zero, then only the in phase
channel is to be decoded. If phase error lJIe is not zero, both in phase and quadrature channel
interference are present. The method of decoding of a QPSK modulated signal is as shown
in Figure 6.7. Using one of the channels of this decoder BPSK signal can also be
demodulated. Here, the phase coherent or in phase quadrature carrier reference is first used
to multiply the received carrier waveform separately. The demodulated waveform is then
multiplied by the bit waveform Ps(t) and Pe(t) successively and integrated over each bit time.
Separate symbol of integrations in each quadrature arm are then used to decode each
quadrature bit simultaneously. The decoder will produce the decoding variable for I of
(6.13)
(6.14)
where, p(k) and q(k) are the quadrature sample of the waveforms p(t - kTs) and q(t - kTs)'
If pet) and q(t) are restricted to one symbol time (0, Ts), then equation (6.14) simplifies to
1= ATs(ao cos lJIe +b
o
sin lJIe) +ne (6.15)
6.3.4 Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)
Binary frequency shift keying is also known as frequency shift keying (FSK ) use to alternate
between two different carrier frequencies used to transmit two bits of binary data. Carrier
74 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
frequency II corresponds to bit 1 and carrier frequency 12 corresponds to bit O. The FSK
waveform is represented by
u(t) = E COS WI t for binary bit 1
u(t) =E cos Wzt for binary bit 0
The simplified block diagram of the FSK modulation scheme is represented in
Figure 6.8 which gives the composite output signal as
u(t) = E COS [27r (!c ilJ)t] (6.16)
vco 1
cos( me - f 1m)t
cos( me - f 1m)t
Data In
vco 2
FIGURE 6.8 Block diagram of FSK modulation scheme.
The FSK signal spectrum shows the carrier frequency (Ie) deviating in accordance
with the binary input data. For the binary input 0, the modulator is switching to carrier
frequency II and for binary input 1, the modulator is switching to carrier frequency 12;
therefore,
II =T; +ill and 12 =I; - ill
and which gives the total spectral width ill as,
ill = fi - 12
2
The mrrumum frequency deviation in the FSK modulation scheme is based on the
pulse duration of the input binary bit. For a bit duration of rsec., the corresponding time is
2rsec.
Thus,
(6.17)
1
2r=---
11-12
Substituting equation (6.18) in equation (6.17), we have
ill =1I2r=_1
2 4r
Finally substituting equation (6.19) in equation (6.16) we get
u(t) = [ E cos(27rIc)t cos( ~: ) t]- [ Esin(27rIc)t sin ( ~: ) t]
(6.18)
(6.19)
(6.20)
DIGITAL SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 75
Equation (6.20) represents the output voltage of the frequency shift keying modulation
scheme. The bandwidth of an FSK signal (Figure 6.9) is defined as the maximum occupied
frequency range of the signal spectrum and is determined as
BW = fl- 12
(6.21)
t,
--+lll'tj.-
BW of FSK ---- . ~I
FIGURE 6.9 FSK bandwidth.
where
1
f l=jj+-
r
1
12=fz - - referred to Figure (6.8)
r
1 1 2
BW = II +- - fz +- = jj- fz +-
r r r
= 2111+~=2(1l1+~)
(6.22)
6.3.5 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
MSK is the modified FSK which have the two carrier frequencies at an exact 180
0
phase
difference. This way a minimum signalling difference generates a maximum phase
difference, which is advantageous for the receiver. MSK is also referred to as continuous
phase FSK (CPFSK ). Condensed spectrum and the excellent bit energy to noise density ratio
are the two advantages of MSK .
6.3.6 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
In a QAM system, the digital information is carried in both the phase and amplitude of the
76 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
carrier signal and both varies in accordance with the input digital information. The bled
diagram of a 16 QAM transmitter is as shown in Figure 6.10.
data
II
ary
2 to 4 level Balanced
l
z
converter I modulator I
N4
IN4
I QI I QzlII I Izi
I
Carrier I
sin wet
oscillator I
Linear
14
Jb
/4
summer
90 phase
shifter
QI
COS wet
2 to 4 level
Balanced
converter II
modulator II
Qz
~
output
Input bin
FIGURE 6.10 Block diagram of 16 QAM transmitter.
Input data stream is divided into four channels II> 1
2
. QI> Q2 with a bit rate of ear
1/4th to that of input bit rate. The 2 to 4 channel converters generate a 4 level PAM sigru
Two polarities and two magnitudes are possible at the output of each 2 to 4 level converte
which are 0.821 V and D.22 V. In the balanced modulator PAM signal modulates the
phase and quadrature carriers and produces four outputs. For balanced modulator I tl
outputs are +0.821 cos wet, +0.22 sin Wet, -0.821 sinwet and -0.22 sin wet.
Similarly, the output of balanced modulator II gives +0.821 cosrn.r, +0.22 cos O J
0.821 cos wet and -0.22 cos Wet. These outputs are summed up in the summing amplifier
produce 16 output conditions. The truth Tables 6.1 and 6.2 for 2 to 4 level converter al
that of 16 QAM transmitter are as shown in Table 6.3.
TABLE 6.1 For II Channel
II
I
z
Output (in volts)
0 0 -0.22
0 1 -0.821
1 0 +0.22
1 1 +0.821
TABLE 6.2 For I
z
Channel
QI Qz Output (in volts)
0 0 -0.22
0 1 -0.821
1 0 +0.22
1 1 +0.821
DIGITAL SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 77
TABLE 6.3 Truth Table for 16 QAM
Input Binary data Output of 16 QAM transmitter
QI Q2 II 12
Amplitude Phase
0 0 0 0 0.311 V -135
0 0 0 1 0.850 V -165
0 0 1 0 0.311 V -45
0 0 1 1 0.850 V -15
0 1 0 0 0.850 V 105
0 1 0 1
1.161 V -135
0 1 1 0 0.850 V -75
.0 1 1 1
1.161 V _ 45
1 0 0 0 0.311 V 135
1 0 0 1 0.850 V 175
1 0 1 0 0.850 V 45
1 0 1 1 0.850 V 15
1 1 0 0 0.850 V 105
1 1 0 1
1.161 V 135
1 1 1 0 0.850 V 75
1 1 1 1
1.161 V 45
The constellation and phasor diagrams of 16 QAM transmitted wave are as shown in
Figures 6.11(a) and 6.11(b), respectively, where variation of amplitude and phase, as per
Table 6.3 are plotted in a coordinate system. Figure 6.12 is the timing diagram, which
shows a relation between input binary data II> 1
2
, QI> Q2 channel data and I channel PAM
signal.
I
I
(101) (100) : OlIO) (111)
t---.... -----,------.----,
I I I
I (1000) : (1010):
(001) t------1- - - - - - . , (1011)
I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
__~ ~ l ~ ~ _
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I
(0001). L .. (OOll)
I (0000) I (0010) I
I I I
I I I
. - - - ~- - - - - ~- - - - - - . - - - - .
(0101) (0100) : (OllO) (0111)
I
I
I
FIGURE 6.11 (a) Constellation diagram of 16 QAM modulator.
78 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
FIGURE 6.11 (b) Phasor diagram of 16 QAM modulator.
Input binary data
o o o o o
I) channel data '-_ -'---_ -'-_ --'-_ --'
(ftl4)
12 channel data 1--+--+---+--1
(ftl4)
PAM output of 2 to
4 level converter
Output balanced
modulator
0.82 V
I 0.22 V
I 4DV
/--+---tl--/--+--+---t---+--i--t--+--+---i -0.82 v
I
I
I
I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
~s!z#7! S !*t;rT'$ s! ) J J : : ~
FIGURE 6.12 Bit timing relation in 16 QAM.
DIGITAL SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 79
In a 16 QAM modulation for every change in one bit, out of the 4 input bits there is
at least one change in the output, i.e. either amplitude or phase or both. Thus the required
minimum bandwidth is Itl4, and which is one fourth of that required in by BPSK modulator
and which is half of that required by QPSK modulator.
6.4 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF VOICE SIGNAL
The basic processes in digital transmission of analog information are sampling, quantizing
and encoding. Sampling is the process in which the amplitudes of analog signal is measured
at a regular interval of time and this sampled signal can be transmitted and the method is
called pulse amplitude modulation (PAM). As per sampling theorem the original signal can
be reconstructed without error at the receiver provided the sampling rate is (samples/second)
should be at least twice the maximum frequency (1m) present in the signal. Amplitude
pulses are subject to amplitude distortion and they are also incompatible with conventional
base band digital signals in which pulses take only one of two possible values. Hence, PAM
is not used over satellite links. Instead, the analog signal samples are quantized-resolved
into one of a finite number of possible values, and the quantized values are binarily encoded
and transmitted digitally. So here each analog sample is converted to a digital wo~d that
represents the quantization value closest to the original analog sample. The communication
system where digitally encoded quantized value of an analog signal is transmitted is known
as pulse code modulation (PCM). The error introduced in the quantization process is called
quantization error.
A uniform quantizer operates with L levels spaced ~ volts apart, the input signal is
amplitude limited and lies in between -~(U2) and +~(U2). At which level the incoming
sample falls and its corresponding marking will be, determined by the quantizer. Figure 6.13
shows the levels of encoding for a uniform 3-bit PCM quantizer.
Level 7
-. 4~
3~ -----------------------------------------------------------
Level 6
2~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
LevelS
~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Level 4 Signals with 0 < V $ ~are transmitted as 0.5~, encoded as 100
o -----------------------------------------------------------
Level 3
Signals with -~ $ V $ -2~ are transmitted as -O.5~, encoded as 011
_ . - ~- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Signals with -2~ $ V $ -~ are transmitted as -1.5~, encoded as 010
- - 2~- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Signals with -3~ $ V $ -2~ are transmitted as -2.5~, encoded as 001
- - 3~- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Signals with -4~ $ V $ -3~ are transmitted as -3.5~, encoded as 000
- - 4 ~- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Level 2
Level
Level 0
FIGURE 6.13 Levels of encoding for a uniform 3-bit peM quantizer.